QIS COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

(AUTONOMOUS)
Permanent Affiliation: JNTU-Kakinada | UGC-Recognized
Vengamukkapalem(V), Ongole, Prakasam dist., Andhra Pradesh-523272

BUILDING MATERIAL, PLANNING AND DRAWING

UNIT-I
STONES,BRICKS AND TILES
Building material is any material used for construction purpose such as materials for house
building. Wood, cement, aggregates, metals, bricks, concrete, clay are the most common type
of building material used in construction. The choice of these are based on their cost
effectiveness for building projects. Many naturally occurring substances, such as clay, sand,
wood and rocks, even twigs and leaves have been used to construct buildings. Apart from
naturally occurring materials, many man-made products are in use, some more and some less
synthetic. The manufacture of building materials is an established industry in many countries
and the use of these materials is typically segmented into specific specialty trades, such as
carpentry, plumbing, roofing and insulation work. This reference deals with habitats and
structures including homes.
Types of Building Materials Used in Construction
1. Natural Construction Materials
Construction materials can be generally categorized into two sources, natural and synthetic.
Natural materials are those that are unprocessed or minimally processed by industry, such as
lumber or glass. Synthetic materials are made in industrial settings after much human
manipulations, such as plastics and petroleum based paints. Both have their uses. Mud, stone,
and fibrous plants are the most basic materials, aside from tents made of flexible materials such
as cloth or skins

2. Fabric
The tent used to be the home of choice among nomadic groups the world over. Two well known
types include the conical teepee and the circular yurt. It has been revived as a major
construction technique with the development of tensile architecture and synthetic fabrics.
Modern buildings can be made of flexible material such as fabric membranes, and supported
by a system of steel cables or internal (air pressure.)

3. Mud and clay

The amount of each material used leads to different styles of buildings. The deciding factor is
usually connected with the quality of the soil being used. Larger amounts of clay usually mean
using the cob/adobe style, while low clay soil is usually associated with sod building. The
other main ingredients include more or less sand/gravel and straw/grasses.

4. Rock

Rock structures have existed for as long as history can recall. It is the longest lasting building
material available, and is usually readily available. There are many types of rock through out
the world all with differing attributes that make them better or worse for particular uses. Rock
is a very dense material so it gives a lot of protection too, its main draw-back as a material is
its weight and awkwardness. Its energy density is also considered a big draw-back, as stone is
hard to keep warm without using large amounts of heating resources. Dry-stone walls have
been built for as long as humans have put one stone on top of another.

5. Thatch
Thatch is one of the oldest of materials known; grass is a good insulator and easily harvested.
Many African tribes have lived in homes made completely of grasses year round. In Europe,
thatch roofs on homes were once prevalent but the material fell out of favour as
industrialization and improved transport increased the availability of other materials

6. Brush
Brush structures are built entirely from plant parts and are generally found in tropical and
subtropical areas, such as rainforests, where very large leaves can be used in the building.
Native Americans often built brush structures for resting and living in, too. These are built
mostly with branches, twigs and leaves, and bark, similar to a beaver's lodge. These were
variously named wickiups, lean-tos, and so forth.
7. Ice
Ice was used by the Inuit for igloos, but has also been used for ice hotels as a tourist attraction
in northern areas that might not otherwise see many winter tourists.
8. Wood
Wood is a product of trees, and sometimes other fibrous plants, used for construction purposes
when cut or pressed into lumber and timber, such as boards, planks and similar materials. It is
a generic building material and is used in building just about any type of structure in most
climates. Wood can be very flexible under loads, keeping strength while bending, and is
incredibly strong when compressed vertically.

9. Brick and Block

A brick is a block made of kiln-fired material, usually clay or shale, but also may be of lower
quality mud, etc. Clay bricks are formed in a moulding (the soft mud method), or in commercial
manufacture more frequently by extruding clay through a die and then wire-cutting them to the
proper size (the stiff mud process). Bricks were widely used as a construction material in the
1700, 1800 and 1900s.
10. Concrete
Concrete is a composite building material made from the combination of aggregate (composite)
and a binder such as cement. The most common form of concrete is Portland cement concrete,
which consists of mineral aggregate (generally gravel and sand), portland cement and water.
After mixing, the cement hydrates and eventually hardens into a stone-like material

11. Metal
Metal is used as structural framework for larger buildings such as skyscrapers, or as an external
surface covering. There are many types of metals used for building. Steel is a metal alloy whose
major component is iron, and is the usual choice for metal structural construction.

12. Glass
Clear windows have been used since the invention of glass to cover small openings in a
building. They provided humans with the ability to both let light into rooms while at the same
time keeping inclement weather outside. Glass is generally made from mixtures of sand and
silicates, and is very brittle. Modern glass "curtain walls" can be used to cover the entire facade
of a building. Glass can also be used to span over a wide roof structure in a "space frame".
13. Ceramics
Ceramics are such things as tiles, fixtures, etc. Ceramics are mostly used as fixtures or
coverings in buildings. Ceramic floors, walls, counter-tops, even ceilings. Many countries use
ceramic roofing tiles to cover many buildings. Ceramics used to be just a specialized form of
clay-pottery firing in kilns, but it has evolved into more technical areas.
14. Plastic
Plastic pipes penetrating a concrete floor in a Canadian highrise apartment building The term
plastics covers a range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic condensation or polymerization
products that can be molded or extruded into objects or films or fibers. Their name is derived
from the fact that in their semi-liquid state they are malleable, or have the property of plasticity.
Plastics vary immensely in heat tolerance, hardness, and resiliency. Combined with this
adaptability, the general uniformity of composition and lightness of plastics ensures their use
in almost all industrial applications today
15. Foam
Foamed plastic sheet to be used as backing for firestop mortar at CIBC bank in Toronto. More
recently synthetic polystyrene or polyurethane foam has been used on a limited scale. It is light
weight, easily shaped and an excellent insulator. It is usually used as part of a structural
insulated panel where the foam is sandwiched between wood or cement.
16. Cement composites
Cement bonded composites are an important class of construction material. These products are
made of hydrated cement paste that binds wood or alike particles or fibers to make precast
building components. Various fibrous materials including paper and fiberglass have been used
as binders. Wood and natural fibres are composed of various soluble organic compounds like
carbohydrates, glycosides and phenolics.
PROPERTIES OF BUILDING STONES
STONES
Stone is a natural constructional material. It is obtained from rocks occurring in nature. A
building stone is a piece of rock quarried and worked in to a required size and shape for a
particular purpose. There are different types of rocks and stones are classified into a number of
ways.
The stones which are cost-effective and locally available are in the topmost preference for
construction. But following are some criteria to select a good building stone.
• Strength: the strength of the stone must be able to resist the applying load or
overcoming load.
• Durability: stone must stay in all in all climatic conditions and resist all the the the
natural destructive effects. It lasts for a long time.
• Cost-effective: if stones are locally available, it reduces the transportation cost. Also,
the dressing and polishing cost of stone should not be high.
• Appearance: Thee appearance of stone must be aesthetic and could so that a
requirement of polish and interesting not needed. Which decreases the cost of operation.
• Hardness and toughness: it should be enough strong and hard to withstand all the
stresses applied due to seismic forces, wind loads, and a load of the superstructure.
• Self-weight and specific gravity: the self-weight of stone should be less enough two
not increase any load in superstructure or dead load.
• Property of absorption and porosity: stones should not be porous and not allow
rainwater or any type of acidic water to pass through it. It is impermeable to any type
of liquid. Also, the stone must not show any absorption characteristics for liquid.
Properties of good building stone
• Texture : A good building stones must compose fine crystalline structure which should
be free from cavities, cracks or patches of soft or loose material. Stones with such
texture are so strong and durable.
• Toughness Index : If the value of toughness index comes below 13 in impact test, then
the stone is not tough. If the value comes in between 13 & 19 then stone is said to be
moderately tough and if it exceeds 19 then stone is said to be highly tough.
• Hardness : As worked out in a hardness test, the coefficient of hardness should be
greater than 17 for a stone to be used in a road work. If it is between 14 & 17 then it is
said to be medium hardness and if it is less than 14 ,it is said to be of poor quality.
• Crushing strength : For a good building stone, the crushing strength should be greater
than 100 N/mm3.
• Durability : A good building stone should be durable and for making stones durable,
their natural bed should be carefully noted.
• Appearance : Those stones which are used for face work should be decent in
appearance. They should be able to protect their color for a long time.
 • Percentage wear : If the wear is more than 3 in attrition test, the stone is not acceptable.
For a good building stone the wear should be equal to or less than 3%.
• Specific gravity : Good building stones must have specific gravity greater than 2.7
• Water Absorption : We know that all the stones are more or less porous in nature but
for a good building stones, percentage of water absorption by weight after 24 hours
should not exceeds 0.60 .

CLASSIFICATION OF STONES
The origin and conditions of rock formation predetermine their
chemical and mineralogical composition, crystalline structure and
texture.
The three major classification are:
(1) Geological or genetic classification Classification Of Rocks
(2) Physical classification
(3) Chemical classification

Igneous rocks :
Cooling and hardening of molten magma result in the formation of
igneous rocks. Depending on the rate of cooling the sizes of crystals are
formed.
Granite, syenites, diorites and gabbros have large crystals, while basalts,
rhyolites and andesites have small crystals.
Igneous rocks are generally very hard.

(2) Sedimentary rocks

• Transportation agents like wind, water and ice may move the loose
weathered rock material and deposit them in the form of layers called
sediments.
• Such sediments when subjected to heavy pressure undergo compaction and
cementation, resulting in the Sedimentary rocks.
• Limestone, dolomite, shale, sandstone, etc., are sedimentary rocks.
(3) Metamorphic rocks :
• Sedimentary rocks and to some extent igneous rocks when subjected to changes brought
about by the combination of heat, pressure and plastic flow ( called metamorphism)
undergo changes in the structure, Texture and mineral composition, and this results in
the formation of metamorphic rocks.
Gneiss, schist, slate, marble, etc. are metamorphic rocks.
Stratified rocks :
Stratified structure is formed due to the splitting of parallel layers of
sedimentary rocks.
They exhibit distinct layers which can be separated. The plane of separation is called as a
cleavage plane.
Examples : Limestone, slate, and sandstone
Unstratified rocks :
• They are granular or crystalline structure and become solid and
cooling.
• They do not show any sign of strata.
Examples : igneous rocks like granite, basalt, etc.
Siliceous rocks:
• In these silica is the main constituent. The presence of the silica in the
free state is called sand, and in the combined state is silicate.
• Rocks containing silica in the free state are harder, and those found in
the combined form are likely to be disintegrated.
• Examples of the silicate rocks are sandstone, quartzite, etc.
Calcareous rocks:
• Calcium carbonate or lime is the main constituents in these rocks.
• They are readily acted upon by dilute H C L
• Examples are limestone, marble, etc.

QUARRYINFG OF STONES:
Stones are extracted from natural rocks in different sizes. The various methods which are
involved in the extraction of stones from rock beds are collectively termed as “Quarrying of
Stones”.
• Open part of the natural rock from which useful material is obtained is known as quarry.
• For this purpose particular rock is inspected (checked) for particular work and then quarrying
operations are to be started.
• Methods of quarrying:
• It is depending upon the rock and purpose for which it is to be used.
Commonly two methods are used for quarrying.
(1) Quarrying by digging
(2) Quarrying by blasting
(1) Quarrying by digging:
This is done by three methods.
(a) By driving steel wedges into fissures:
Fissures, cracks, planes of cleavages are all weak points in the rock and by taking the advantage
of these weak points, steel wedges are driven in these natural fissures or cracks, so that rock
splits easily.
(b) By drilling artificial line of holes:
Some times line of holes (in rows) is drilled with the help of chisel and hammer. Thus, the
solidity of rock mark is divided into small portions and artificial fissures are made. Steel
wedges are driven in these artificially made fissures. Then all the wedges are hammered
simultaneously and consequently the rock cracks along the face of holes.
(c) By swelling hard wooden pegs:
Some times hard wooden pegs are driven in either natural or artificially made fissures and are
kept soaked with water. And in this way rock is splitted.
(d) Quarrying by blasting:
When the rock is very hard and unfissured then quarrying is done by blasting. Blasting is the
process of loosening the hard and closely packed material with the help of explosive materials.
Various explosives which are used for blasting purposes are:
 Gun powder or black powder
 Dynamite
 Cordite Detonator
 Fuses
But mostly two explosives are used which are gun powder and dynamite. Where gun powder
is the mixture of potassium nitrate, charcoal and sulphur and dynamite is the mixture of
nitroglycerine
There are four main operations are involved in blasting.
 Boring hole in the rock
 Charging with the explosives
 Tamping
  Firing

DRESSING OF STONES:
• Dressing of stones is a process in which their surfaces are prepared to a form, fit to be used
for any constructional purpose. Dressing is according to the type of work and demand.
• Purpose of Dressing:
• To give them good looking.
• To provide horizontal and vertical joints in the masonry.
• To make them fit, to be used for particular construction.
 Generally to give them neat/good appearance.

Methods of Dressing
Rough dressing Fair dressing OR
• Dressing at quarry site:
Dressing at construction site
Scabbling Hammering Self faced, quarry faced Chisel Tooled Fluted Pointed
(1) ROUGH DRESSING OR DRESSING AT QUARRY SITE:
• There are three main methods of rough dressing, which are a sunder:
• (i) Scabbling:
In scabbling only irregular angels are taken off with a scabbling hammer and therefore
that dressing is called scabbling.
(ii) Hammer Dressing:
• In hammer dressing stones are roughly dressed at a site with the help of quarry
hammer and therefore work is called hammer dressing.
(iii) Self faced, quarry faced (OR) Rock faced Dressing:
• In this type of dressing, stone are only splitted into either as face stones or as corner
stones and nothing special is done.
(2) FAIR DRESSING OR DRESSING AT BUILDING SITE:
main method of Fair dressing, which are under:
 Chiseled Dressing:
• About one inch width on all the four sides of the exposed surfaces of the stones is
chiseled to give them a better appearance. This work is done with the help of chisel
made of cast iron

BRICKS
• A brick is a building material used to make walls, pavements and other elements in
masonry construction. Traditionally, the term brick referred to a unit composed of clay,
but it is now used to denote any rectangular units laid in mortar.
The bricks are obtained by moulding clay in rectangular blocks of uniform size and
then by drying and burning these blocks.
• • The artificial material of construction in the form of clay bricks of uniform size of
shape are known as bricks.
• Size of brick
• 1) Traditional brick:- 23cm X11.4 cm X 7.6 cm
• 2)Modular Brick :- 19 cm X 9 cm X 9 cm

Composition of Good Brick Earth

Following are the constituents of good brick earth:

Alumina
Silica
Lime
Oxides of iron
Magnesia
• 1. Alumina
It is the chief constituent of every kind of clay. A good brick earth should contain about 20 to
30 per cent of alumina.
This constituent imparts plasticity to earth so that it can be moulded.
2. Silica
 • • A good brick earth should contain about 50 to 60 per cent of silica. Presence of this
constituent prevents cracking, shrinking and warping of raw bricks. It thus imparts
uniform shape to the bricks.
• • Excess of silica destroys the cohesion between particles and bricks become brittle
3. Lime
• • It should be present in a finely powdered state and not in lump.
• • Lime prevents shrinkage of raw bricks. Sand alone is infusible. But it slightly fuses at
kiln temperature in presence of lime.
• • Excess of lime causes the brick to melt and hence, its shape is lost. Lumps of lime are
converted into quick lime after burning and this quicklime slakes and expands in
presence of moisture.
4. Oxide of Iron
• • About 5 to 5 per cent is desirable in good brick earth. It helps lime to fuse sand. It also
imparts red color to bricks.
• Excess of oxide of iron makes the bricks dark blue or blackish
5. Magnesia
A small quantity of magnesia in brick earth imparts yellow tint color to bricks and decreases
shrinkage. But excess of magnesia leads to the decay of bricks.

Harmful Ingredients in Brick Earth

1. Lime
It causes unsoundness in brick if present in excess amounts.
2. Iron pyrites
If iron pyrites are present in brick earth, bricks are crystallized and disintegrated during
burning.
3. Alkalies
These are mainly in the form of soda and potash
4. Pebbles
• The presence of pebbles or grits of any kind is undesirable in brick earth because it will
not allow the clay to be mixed uniformly and thoroughly which will result in weak and
porous bricks.
5. Organic Matter
 • Presence of organic matter in brick earth assists in burning. But if such matter is not
completely burnt, bricks become porous.

Manufacturing process

• Brick manufacturing is the process of making bricks. A brick consists of clay, silica,
alumina, iron oxide, manganese, etc. Bricks are produced by mixing the clayey soil
with the water, and then it is shaped in the desired shape. After moulding, the bricks it
is dried, and then it is burnt at some specified temperature. Manufacturing of bricks is
done in many steps, which will be explained further.
Flow Chart of Manufacturing of Bricks
• The flow chart for brick manufacturing consists of the steps involved in the process of
making bricks. These brick manufacturing processes may include the preparation of
clay material, moulding of clay, drying of bricks and burning of bricks, etc. The clay
preparation involves many steps like unsoiling, digging, weathering, etc.

•
There are four different operations are involved in the process of manufacturing of
bricks:
• Preparation of clay
• Moulding
• Drying
• Burning
The preparation of clay involves following operations :
Unsoiling of clay We need pure clay for the preparation of bricks. The top layer of soil
may contains impurities, so the clay in top layer of soil about 200mm depth is thrown away.
This is called unsoiling.
• Digging Clay dug out from ground is spread on level ground about 60cm to 120cm
heaps..
• Cleaning Stones, pebbles, vegetable matter etc removed and converted into powder
form.
• Weathering The cleaned clay is exposed to atmosphere for softening. The period of
weathering may be 3 to 4 weeks or a full rainy season.
• Blending:- Clay is made loose and any ingradient to be added to it is spread out at top
and turning it up and down in vertical direction.
Tempering:- Clay is brought to a proper degree of hardness, then water is added to clay
and whole mass is pressed under the feet of men or cattle for large scale,tempering is
usually done in pug mill

MOULDING
The clay which is prepared as above is then sent for the next operation of moulding.
Hand Moulding:
In hand moulding, the bricks are moulded by hand i.e., manually.
-It is adopted where manpower is cheap and is readily available for the manufacturing
process of bricks on a small scale.
-The moulds are rectangular boxes which are open at top and bottom. They maybe of
wood or steel
• Machine moulding: This method proves to be economical when
bricks in huge quantity are to be manufactured at the same spot. It is also helpful for
moulding hard and string clay. These machines are
• broadly classified in two categories
(a) Plastic clay machines
(b) Dry clay machines
• Machine moulding: This method proves to be economical when
bricks in huge quantity are to be manufactured at the same spot. It is also helpful for
moulding hard and string clay. These machines are
• broadly classified in two categories
(a) Plastic clay machines
(b) Dry clay machines
• Drying: The damp bricks, if burnt, are likely to be cracked and distorted. Hence
moulded bricks are dried before they are taken for the next operation of burning.
Bricks are laid along and across the stock in alternate layers. The drying of brick
is by the followingmeans
(i) Artificial drying – drying by tunnels usually 1200C about 1 to 3 days
(ii) Circulation of air- Stacks are arranged in such a way that sufficient air space is
left between them free circulation of air.
(iii)Drying yard- special yards should be prepared slightly higher level prevent the
accumulation of rain water
(iv)Period for drying – usually about 3 to 10 days to bricks to become dry
(v) Screens – screens are necessary, may be provided to avoid direct exposure to wind
or sun.

Burning

This is very important operation in the manufacturing of impart hardness, strength and
makes them dense and durable.
Burning of bricks is done either in clamps or in kilns.
•CIamps are temporary structures and they are adopted to manufacture bricks on small
scale.
•KiIns are permanent structures and they are adopted to manufacturebricks on a large scale.
The kiln used for burning bricks may be Underground, e.g. Bull’s tr Over ground, e.g.
Hoffman's kiln.
•These may be rectangular, circular or oval in shape.
•When the process of burning bricks is continuous, the kiln is known as continuous kiln,
e.g. Bull's trench and Hoffman's kilns.
On the other hand if the process of burning bricks is discontinuous, the Kiln is known as
intermittent kiln.
 Burning:

• This is a very important operation in the manufacture of bricks. It imparts hardness and
strength to the bricks and makes them dense and durable. Bricks are heated up to 700
to 1000° C.
• At this temperature alumina and silica in the clay fuse together resulting in a compound
that is strong and stable.
• The bricks may be burnt in any one of the following:
• a) Clamps
b) Intermittent kilns
c) Continuous kilns.
Clamps are temporary structures, and they are used to burn bricks on small scale, but
kilns are permanent structures and are used to manufacture bricks on a large scale basis.
The burning of bricks undergoes the following three main stages:

• Dehydration (400 to 650°C):

• The dehydration or smoking stage is the process of removal of water content that
remained in the bricks after drying.

Oxidation period (650 to 900°C):

 • In this period, the removal of carbon, the oxidization of ferrous iron to ferric, and the
removal of sulfur are done.
• Vitrification (900-1100°):
• Clay products are vitrified to the point of viscosity to achieve maximum hardness and
toughness.
• Kilns may be underground, eg. Bull’s trench kilns, or overground eg. Hoffman’s kiln.
the shape of the kilns may be rectangular, circular, or oval-shaped.
• If burning is continuous, it is a continuous kiln. e.g. Bull trench and Hoffman’s kilns.
• On the other hand, if the process of burning is discontinuous, it is an intermittent kiln.
Clamp burning:
• The operations involved in clamp burning is as follows:
• 1. The floor is prepared with an upward slope of about 15′. Its shape in the plan is
trapezoidal.
• 2. The brick wall in mud is constructed on the short end and a layer of fuel (700mm to
800mm thick) is laid on the prepared floor. The fuel consists of grass, cow dung, litter,
husks of rice or ground nuts, etc.
• 3. A layer of 4 to 5 courses of raw bricks, is then laid over the layer of fuel.
• 4. The second layer of fuel is then placed over it, another layer of raw bricks is laid over
the layer of fuel. In this way, fuel and bricks are laid in alternate layers. The thickness
of fuel decreases as the height of the clamp increases.
• 5. The total height of the clamp is 3m to 4m. When nearly one-third height is reached,
the lower a portion of the clamp is ignited.
• 6. When the clamp is completely constructed, it is plastered with mud on the sides and
top and filled with earth to prevent the escape of heat.
• 7. The clamp is allowed to burn for a period of one to two months and then allowed to
cool for the same period.
• 8. The burnt bricks are then taken out from the clamp.
 •
• Advantages of clamp burning:
1. It is economical.
2. This system is well understood by the uneducated brick burners.
3. The clamp bricks are tougher than kiln bricks due to gradual burning and cooling.

Disadvantages of clamp burning:

1. It is a very slow method.
2. Regulation of fire is not possible.
3. Outturn of bricks is not quite uniform.
4. Large portion of bricks is distorted and cracked due to their settlement when the fuel at the
bottom is burnt to ashes.
KILNS
• A kiln is a large oven that is used to burn bricks.
• i) Intermittent kilns: These kilns are intermittent in operation which means that they are
loaded, fired, cooled, and unloaded
• They are classified in two ways:
• a) Intermittent Up-draught kiln

b) Intermittent down-draught kilns

 a) Intermittent Up-draught kilns:

• These kilns are in the form of rectangular structures with thick outside walls.
• The wide doors are provided at each end for loading and unloading of kilns.
• The flues are channels or passages which are provided to carry flames or hot gases
through the body of kiln. A temporary roof may be installed of any light material. Such
roof gives protection to the raw bricks from rain while they are being placed in position.
This roof is to be removed when the kiln is fired.
• Fig. shows the plan of a typical intermittent up-draught kiln.

(ii) Intermittent Down-Draught Kilns:

• These kilns are rectangular or circular in shape. They are provided with permanent
walls and closed tight roof. The floor of the kiln has openings which are connected to a common
chimney stack through flues. The working of this kiln is more or less similar to the up-draught
kiln.
• But it is so arranged in this kiln that hot gases are carried through vertical flues up to
the level of roof and they are then released. These hot gases move downward by the chimney
draught and in doing so, they burn the bricks

Continuous kilns:
 • These kilns are continuous in operations. This means that loading, firing, cooling and
unloading are carried out simultaneously in these kilns. There are three types of
continuous kilns.
• a) Bull’s trench kiln
• b) Hoffman’s kiln
• c) Tunnel kiln
a) Bull’s trench kiln

This kiln may be of rectangular, circular or oval shape in the plan as shown in fig 2.5. It is
constructed in a trench excavated in ground either fully under ground partially projecting above
ground openings is provided in the outer walls to act as flue holes.
Dampers are in the form of iron plates and they are used to divide the kilns in suitable sections
and most widely used kiln in India

• Section 1 – loading
• Section 2 – empty
• Section 3 – unloading
• Section 4 – cooling
 • Section 5 – Burning
• Section 6 – Heating
b) Haffman’s kiln:

This kiln is constructed over ground and hence, it is sometimes known as flame kiln. Its shape
is circular to plan and it is divided into a number of compartments or chambers. A permanent
roof is provided; the kiln can even function during rainy season.

• Chamber 1 - loading
• Chamber 2 to 5 – drying and pre-heating
• Chambers 6 and 7 - burning
• Chambers 8 to 11 - cooling
• Chamber 12 – unloading
• The initial cost in stalling this kiln is high, the following advantages
(i) Good quality of bricks are produced
(ii) It is possible to regulate heat inside the chambers through fuel holes
(iii) Supply of bricks is continuous and regular
(iv) There is considerable saving in fuel due to pre heating of raw bricks by flue gases
c) Tunnel kiln: This type of kiln is in the form of tunnel, which may be straight, circular or
oval in the plan. Raw bricks are placed in trolleys which are then moved from one end too the
other end of tunnel
TILES
A tile is a natural or manufactured piece of hardwearing material that could generally be used
for covering, protection and/or decorating finished or unfinished surfaces like roofs, floors,
walls, ceilings, slabs, etc.“
Characteristics of a Good Tile:
(i) It should be free from any cracks, flaws or bends.
(ii) It should be regular in shape and size.
(iii) It should be sound, hard and durable.
(iv) It should be well burnt.
(v) It should give a clear ringing sound when struck with hand or with one another or with light
hammer.
(vi) It should fit in properly, when placed in position.
(vii) It should give an even and compact structure when seen on its broken surface.
(viii) It should possess uniform colour.

Manufacture of Common Tiles

Following four distinct operations are involved in the general process of manufacturing
the common tiles:
(i) Preparation of clay
(ii) Moulding
(iii) Drying
(iv) Burning.
(i) Preparation of Clay:
• The selected clay is taken and it is made free from any impurity such as grit, pebbles,
etc. Such clay is then pressed and converted into fine powder in pug mills.
• For tiles of superior quality, a large quantity of pure water is added to the powdered
clay and it is well mixed in a tank. The mixture is then allowed to stand quietly. The
coarse heavy particles settle at the bottom of tank. The fine particles are taken into other
tanks and the water is then allowed to dry off. The fine clay left after such process is
used for the manufacture of tiles.
 • To make the tiles hard and impervious, a mixture of ground glass and pottery-ware may
be added in required quantity to the clay of tiles.
(ii)MOULDING
• The clay is placed in moulds which represent the pattern or shape in which the tile is to
be formed. The moulding may be done either with the help of wooden moulds or
mechanical means or potter’s wheel.
• The wooden moulds should be prepared from well-seasoned timber. The clay is pressed
into such moulds and tiles are ready for drying when clay is taken out of moulds. The
care should be taken to preserve the shape of tiles during the removal of moulds. The
tiles which do not have a uniform section throughout their length are moulded with the
help of wooden moulds.
• The moulding with the help of mechanical means includes the provision of machines
and the clay is pressed into such machines to get tiles of desired section and shape. This
method of moulding is adopted for tiles having a uniform section throughout their
length. The cutting of tiles in desired length is carried out with the help of a fine wire.
• (iii) Drying:
• The tiles, as they come out of moulds, are placed flat one above the other in suitable
number. The different heaps are thus formed. After about 2 days, the irregularity of tiles
due to warping is corrected with a flat wooden mallet. The tiles are then lifted as they
have by now become hand-hard. The edges and under surfaces are cleaned. They are
stacked on edge under a shade to dry for about two days or so. The drying under a shade
prevents warping and cracking of tiles due to rain and sun.
• (iv) Burning:
• The tiles are then burnt in kilns. A typical kiln, known as the Sialkote kiln, for
accommodating about 30000 to 40000 tiles . It is circular in shape and is protected by
a shed. A layer of bricks is laid flat on the rows of long narrow flues. The burning is
effected by firing wood placed in these flues. The bricks are arranged in such a way
that open spaces are left in between them.
Types of Common Tiles:
Depending upon the use to which the tiles are put, the following are their different types:
(i) Drain tiles
(ii) Floor or paving tiles
(iii) Roof tiles.
• (i) Drain Tiles:
These tiles are prepared in such a way that they retain porous texture after burning. Hence,
when such tiles are laid in the water-logged areas, they allow subsoil water to pass through
their skeleton. These drains may be circular, semi-circular or segmental. They are also used to
convey irrigation water. Such drain tiles are rarely adopted in modern times.
(ii) Floor or Paving Tiles:
• The floor or paving tiles may be square or hexagonal in shape. These are flat tiles and
their thickness varies from 12 mm to 50 mm. The size of square tiles varies from 150
mm to 300 mm. The floor tiles should be hard and compact so that they can resist wear
and tear in a better way. The floor tiles of thin section can be adopted for ceiling also.
• To prepare coloured floor tiles, the colouring substance is added in the clay at the time
of its preparation. The floor tiles of comparatively less strength can be adopted for
fixing on walls.
(iii) Roof Tiles:
• These tiles are used to serve as covering for pitched roof. The various types of roof tiles
are available in the market.
Their important varieties are as follows:
(a) Allahabad Tiles:
• These tiles are made from selected clay. The moulding of clay is done under pressure
in machines. The burning of these tiles is done in such a way that they attain more
strength. These tiles are provided with projections so that they interlock with each other,
when placed in position. The tiles of special shapes are made for hip, ridge and valley
portions of the roof. These tiles are extensively used in North-Western India.

(b) Corrugated Tiles:

 • These tiles have corrugations and when they are placed in position, a side lap of one or
two corrugations is formed. The placing of such tiles on a roof gives an appearance of
corrugated galvanized iron sheets. These tiles are handsome in appearance, but they can
easily be blown away by a violent wind.

(c) Flat Tiles:

• These are ordinary floor tiles. To fix them on battens, two or more holes are provided
on their surface. The suitable laps are provided at sides and edges.
(d) Flemish Tiles:
• These tiles have got the shape of letter ‘s’ with dimensions as 350 mm X 225 mm x 12
mm and they are prepared with the help of a mould. These tiles do not form a good
covering as the plain tiles and they are used only for sheds.
(e) Guna Tiles:
• These are hollow tapered burnt clay tiles. They are conical in shape with a base of 100
mm diameter at the broader end and 75 mm at the narrower end. The thickness of the
annular ring is 6 mm. These tiles can be manufactured on the potter’s wheel and on
account of their conical shape, they can be inserted one into another so as to form a ring
of guna tiles. The ring may be made of suitable shape such as circular, elliptical,
parabolic, etc.

• f) Manglore Tiles:
These tiles are of flat pattern and they are provided with suitable projections so that they
interlock with each other, when placed in position. These tiles are red in colour and made of
double channeled Basel Mission Manglore pattern.
These tiles are manufactured on large scale in South India especially at Manglore, Cochin and
Calicut.
(g) Pan Tiles:
• These tiles are short and heavy. They are less curved in section than pot tiles. Such tiles
are moulded flat first and then they are given the required curvature by moulding in
suitable forms.
(h) Pot Tiles:
• These are ordinary half round country tiles and they are also known as the locking tiles.
They are prepared on potter’s wheel and shape is given to such tiles by a potter with his
wet hands.