Advanced Soil Mechanics

Geol. 5201

Yadeta Ch. (PhD)

[email protected]

1
 Course objectives
 To facilitate learning about soil and its importance in
engineering activities

Course outline
Chapter 1. Introduction, Weight volume relations and
Index properties and classification of soils
Chapter 2. Stress distribution in soils

Chapter 3. Permeability and seepage of water in soil (RA)

Chapter 4. Shear strength characteristic of soil

Chapter 5. Compressibility and Consolidation

Chapter 6. Clay mineralogy and Tropical soils

Chapter 7. Soil (Ground) improvement 2

 Evaluation
The following approximate point system will be followed:
1. Final Examination 50%
2. Lab report and presentation 25%
3. Assignment, attendance and participation 25%
Total 100%

References
(1) Das, Braja, M. (2006). Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th
Edition, PWS Publishers.
(2) Arora, K.R., 1997, “Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering”,
Standard Publishers Distributers, Delhi, India.
(3) Any other soil mechanics books
3
 CHAPTER ONE:
Introduction
Important definition, Weight volume relations,
Index properties and classification of soils
 Important definitions
Soil Mechanics
 Soil mechanics is branch of science that deals with the study of the
physical properties of soil and the behavior of soil masses subjected
to various types of forces when it is used either as a construction
material or as a foundation material
 In other words, soil mechanics is the study of both solid and fluid
mechanical characteristics of soils

Solid mechanics issues Fluid mechanics issues

 How much soil will deform when it  How does water flow through
is loaded? soil? (how fast?)
 When loads are applied, on what
rate does soil deform?  How can fluid flow through soil
 How much load can we apply to cause it to fail?
soil before it fails?
 How does soil “fail”?
 Scope of soil mechanics
 In brief, all branches of civil engineering require an understanding of
soil and how it behaves

Structural Engineering (Foundation) Palace of Fine Arts in Mexico City

 Almost all civil engineering structures

eventually come into contact with soil via
their foundation
Uniform settlement
 Knowledge of soil mechanics is essential to
assure that the structures are properly
Pisa tower
supported. This can prevent (i) structural
damage and failure, (ii) loss of life

Differential settlement

Shear failure
 Scope of soil mechanics
Transportation Engineering
 Road beds are often built of soil, and the
roadways themselves can often pass
through mountains, cuts, fill, etc.
 Understanding soil mechanics can preclude
problems with pavement potholing and
cracking, as well embankment and slope Flexible pavement
failures that can wipe out entire roadways

Rigid pavement
 Scope of soil mechanics
Hydraulic Engineering
 The design of earthen flow retention structures such as dam, levees,
dikes, storage ponds, etc. require a knowledge of how water is
transported through soil
 It also requires that to know how water flowing through soil can cause
failure by mechanisms such as boiling, piping, erosion….
 Scope of soil mechanics
Excavation/ slope cut
 Excavations require the knowledge of slope stability analysis; deep
excavations may need temporary supports—‘timbering’ or ‘bracing’, the
design of which requires knowledge of soil mechanics
 Origin of soil
Soil?
 Soil is defined as the un-cemented aggregate (or granular material) of
mineral grains and decayed organic matter along with liquid and gas that
occupy empty spaces between the solid particles

 It includes entire thickness of the earth’s crust (from ground surface to

bed rock), which is accessible and feasible for practical utilization of
foundation support or construction material.
 Origin of soil
We must study the properties of soil, such as its:
 Origin
 Strength
 Grain Size Distribution
 Ability to drain water  Mechanical behaviour of the soil
when they are sheared or compressed
Formation (origin) of soil
 Soil is formed by disintegration and decomposition (weathering) of
rocks through the action of physical (or mechanical) and chemical
agents which break them into smaller and smaller particles.

 Weathering is the process of

breaking down rocks by
physical and chemical process
into smaller particles
 Weathering
 Physical weathering  Chemical weathering
• Involves reduction of size without • Cause both reduction in size and
any change in the original chemical alteration of the original
composition of the parent rock parent rock
• The main agents responsible for • The main agents are hydration,
this process are exfoliation, carbonation and oxidation
erosion, freezing and thawing
• The products are generally fine
• The products are mainly coarse grain soils with altered mineral
grain soils grains
 Soil forming factors
 Parent rock

 Climate

 Topography

 Organism

 Time
 Soil type
 Residual soil  Transported soil

• Alluvial
• Aeolian
• Glacial
• Lacustrine
• Marine
 Soil type
 Based on grain size or engineering property: Coarse grained and fine grained
 Coarse grain (granular) soil = > 0.075mm
• Cohesion less soil
• The particle has large size and don’t have any intermolecular
attractive force
• Low specific surface area and it has only mass force
• Large voids and high permeability
• It is further subdivided into Gravel (>2 mm) and Sand (between 0.075
and 2 mm)
 Fine grained
• Cohesive soil
• High specific surface area and it has also surface (intermolecular)
force
• Very small voids and low permeability
• It is further subdivided into Silt (> 0.002 mm) and Clay (< 0.002 mm)
 Soil as 3 Phase Material
 Soils generally contain soil grains, water and air, which are known as the three
phases. The relative proportions of these three phases play an important role in
the engineering behavior of the soils
Air
Water

Solid

Dry Partially saturated Fully saturated

Air
Air Water
Water
Solid Solid Solid

Phase Mineral Phase Mineral Phase

Mineral
diagram Skeleton diagram Skeleton diagram
Skeleton
 Weight – volume relationship

Mineral Skeleton

Void ratio Porosity Degree of saturation

It ranges from 0% to 100% It ranges from 0% to 100%

 Weight – volume relationship
Water content

The natural water content for most soils would be well below 100%, but organic
soils and some marine clays can have water contents greater than 100%.
 Weight – volume relationship

Bulk (total) unit weight ( ): ᵞ

ᵞ
Dry unit weight ( d):

ᵞ
Saturated unit weight ( sat):

ᵞ
Submerged unit weight ( sub): is the effective unit weight of soil when
submerged in water
 Weight – volume relationship
Specific gravity of the solids of a soil Gs: the ratio of its mass in air to the
mass of an equal volume of water at reference temperature

Using Pycnometer or density bottle

(W2 – W1)
G =
(W2 – W1) – (W3 – W4)
 Weight – volume relationship

ᵞ= ᵞ
(w + 1)
ᵞ= ᵞ
(G + Se) G
w
(e + 1) w (e + 1)
e
ᵞ
Se
n =
ᵞ G w =
w 1+e
d=
G
(e + 1)

ᵞ ᵞ
(G + e)

ᵞ= d
ᵞ Sat =
(1 + e) w

ᵞ
(w + 1)

ᵞ
(G - 1)
w

ᵞ ᵞ
=
sub
= (w + 1) (e + 1)
d
Weight – volume relationship
Weight – volume relationship
 Example
In the natural state, a moist soil has a volume of 0.0093 m3 and weighs 177.6 N.
The oven dry weight of the soil is 153.6 N. If G = 2.71, calculate the:
a) Dry unit weight
b) Void ratio
c) Porosity
d) Degree of saturation
e) Moist unit weight
f) Moisture content
 Classification of soil for engineering purpose

Engineering properties of soils include: compressibility, shear strength and

permeability.

• Classifying soils into groups with similar behavior, in terms of simple

indices, can provide geotechnical engineers a general guidance about
engineering properties of the soils through the accumulated experience

• Tests carried out in order to classify a soil are classification tests. The
results obtained on the basis of these tests are called index properties of
soil
 Index properties
 Are properties of soils extensively used for identification, description,
and classification of soils and as a basis for preliminary assessment of
their engineering properties
Engineering properties of soils include: compressibility, shear strength and
permeability.
Soil name Gravel & sand Silt Clay

Effect of water on Relatively Important Very important

engineering property unimportant

Effect of grain size Important Relatively Relatively

distribution on unimportant unimportant
engineering behavior

Consistency limits
Index Properties
Particle size distribution
 Particle size distribution
Particle size analysis

Sieving method Sedimentation method

1) Sieving method
 For particle sizes > 0.075mm
 It is performed by shaking the soil sample through a
set of sieves having progressively smaller openings
 Particle size distribution
2) Sedimentation analysis  For particle sizes < 0.075mm

 When a soil specimen is dispersed in water, the

particles settle at different velocities, depending on their
shape, size, and weight, and the viscosity of the water

 Variation in density of
soil suspension
 Hydrometer analysis
• The density of the suspension is measured
with a hydrometer at determined time
intervals Calibrated
• The coarsest diameter of particles tube (stem)
in suspension at a given time

Effective
He height (He) Bulb

29
 The readings are then recorded in table
t (s) Hydrometer Temp. He V D
reading (R’h)
30 sec
1 min
 D = from Stoke’s equation

Correction for hydrometer reading (R’h)

a) Meniscus correction (Cm)
b) Temperature correction (Ct)
• The reading should be • Hydrometers are usually calibrated at a
taken at the lower level of temperature of 27°C. If the temperature
the meniscus at the time of conducting the test is
different, a correction will be required
• However, since the soil to be applied to the hydrometer reading
suspension is opaque, the
reading is taken at the • The temperature correction can be
upper meniscus. Therefore, obtained from chart supplied by
correction required manufacturer

Rh = R’h + Cm Rh = R’h + Ct
 Correction for hydrometer reading (R’h)
c) Dispersion agent correction (Cd)
• The addition of the deflocculating agent increases the density of the suspension
and thus necessitates a correction (Cd) which is always negative
• This is obtained by immersing the hydrometer, alternately in clean distilled water and
a solution of the deflocculating agent in water (with the same concentration as is to be
used in the test), and noting the difference in the reading.

Rh = R’h - Cd

R = R’h + Cm + Ct - Cd

% finer (N) from corrected hydrometer reading (R)

R = Corrected hydrometer reading

a = correction factor required when
the specific gravity of soil not
equal to 2.65
Gs = Specific gravity
Ms = oven dried mass in g of soil sample
in volume V of 1000 ml
 For combined sieve and sedimentation analysis
 If W is the total dry weight of the soil originally taken, the over-all percentage, N, of
particles, finer than D, is given by:

Where Wf = weight of fine soil fraction (< 0.075 mm) out of the total weight of a soil
sample, W, taken for the combined sieve and sedimentation analysis
Particle size distribution curve

 A particle size distribution

curve can be used to
determine the following
parameters for a given soil

D10 (effective size)

 Atterberg or consistency limits
 The water content at which the consistency changes from one state to other are
called consistency or Atterberg limits
 Liquid limit
 Is the water content at which the soil changes from a liquid state to plastic
state

Casagrande method

 a water content at which a standard groove cute in remolded soil sample

by a grooving tool will close over a distance of 13 mm at 25 blow of
liquid limit cup falling 10 mm on a harder rubber base
 Liquid limit
Casagrande method
 Plastic limit
 Is the water content at which the soil changes from plastic state to
semisolid state

 Casagrande defined a plastic limit as a water content at which thread of

soil just start to crumbles when it roll out to a diameter of 3 mm

 A minimum of two testes conducted and the average recorded

 Plasticity index (PI)
 Is the difference between liquid limit and plastic limit of soil
PI = LL - PL
 It indicates the degree of plasticity of the soil. The greater is the difference
between liquid and plastic limit, the greater is the plasticity of soil
 Liquidity index (LI)
 The relative consistency of soil in natural state
Wc = natural water content
 Concsistency index (CI)

Wc natural water content

• It shows the consistency (firmness) of a soil

• Consistency index = 0 at liquid limit ………It is extremely soft

 Activity

• It represents the degree of plasticity

related to the clay content or it is the
measure of water holding capacity

• The greater the activity, the more

important the influence of the clay
on soil properties.
 Classification of soil for engineering purpose
• Classifying soils into groups with similar behavior, in terms of simple
indices, can provide geotechnical engineers a general guidance about
engineering properties of the soils through the accumulated experience
• Tests carried out in order to classify a soil are classification tests. The
results obtained on the basis of these tests are called index properties of
soil
Index Properties

Particle size distribution Consistency limits

Two commonly used engineering soil classification systems:

• American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO) System

• Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials (AASHTO) System
• Soils are classified into 8 major groups A-1 to A-7 and A-8 (organic)
American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials (AASHTO) System

The soil with the lowest number, A-1, is the most suitable as highway material or
sub grade. In general , the lower the number of soil, the more suitable is the soil.
(E.g. A-3 better than A-4)
 American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials (AASHTO) System
Once an AASHTO Group Classification has been found, a so called "group
index" (GI) can be computed to further classify soils within a given group:
 For soils in AASHTO group above A−4, A-5, A-6 and A-7:
GI = (F−35) [0.2 + 0.005(LL−40)] + 0.01(F−15)(PI−10)
 For soils in A - 2 - 6 and A – 2 - 7:
GI = 0.01(F−15)(PI−10)
• In both formulas, F is the percent of the soil sample passing the #200 sieve

 If the equation yields a negative number for GI, it is taken as 0

 The group index number calculated from the equation is rounded off to the
nearest whole number
 The group index number for soil groups A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5, and A-3
will always be 0

The lower the value of GI the more suitable is the soil for highway (sub grade)
 The Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
It is most popular and widely used system in all type of engineering
problems
 The Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
Step 1: Determine if the soil is coarse-grained or fine-grained
 If F200 (% finer than # 200 sieve) < 50
%.........Coarse grained

 If F200 > 50 % ………Fine grained

Coarse grained

G (P#4 > 50%) S (P#4 ≤ 50%)

More than 50% of coarse 50% or more of coarse
fraction retained on # 4 fraction passes # 4 sieve
sieve
 The Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
Step 2: Determination of suffix (second letter)
 It depends on uniformity coefficient (Cu), coefficient of curvature (Cc), % of fine
and types of fine

G(P#4 > 50%) S(P#4 ≤ 50%)

If M or C is required, it is determined from

plasticity chart:
Above A-line: C
Below A-line: M
 The Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
Fine grained Divided in to:
High plastic (H): LL > 50%
 Low plastic (L): LL < 50%
The classification symbol is determined from the region of the plasticity chart in
which the point lies

CL= Low plastic clay

CH= high plastic clay

ML= Low plastic silt

MH= High plastic silt

OL= low plastic organic silt

OH= High plastic organic soil

Fig. Plasticity (Gassagrande's) Chart

 Classify the following soil using AASHTO and USCS

1) Classify the soil sample according to the USCS classification system:

 %passing sieve No. 4 = 86%,
 %passing sieve No. 200 = 12%
 PL = 26%
 PI = 10%
 D10 (mm) = 0.1
 D30 (mm) = 0.32
 D60 (mm) = 0.9
Sieve No. % passing
2) Classify the soil sample according to the 4 69.3
AASHTO classification system: 10 59.1
20 43.3
40 38.5
60 28.4
100 19.8
200 4.5
LL
51
Non-plastic
PL
52