14

Semiconductor and
.Electronic Devices /
10
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p
t
I

The devices which have controlled flow of electrons are the basic building blocks of any electronic
circuit. Before the discovery of semiconductor device, such devices were most commonly va<;uum
tubes.
In this section, we will introduce the basic concepts of semiconductor physics and discuss some
semiconductor devices .
.
Metals or Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors
Metals or Conductors
They possess very low resistivity (p) or high conductivity (cr).
p~ 10-2 -10-8 Qm, 0'~10 2 -10 8 Sm-l

Insulators
They have high resistivity (p) or low conductivity (cr).
4 19
P~ 10 -l0 Qm .... ., cr~ 10- 4 -10- t9 sm-1.

Semiconductors
They are characterised by narrow energy gap(~ 1 eV) betwe th
. b
en e va1ence and an con u
d d cti'on
band . A t a bso Iute zero temperature, a 11 states m valence band full d ction ·
band are empty. Hence semiconductor behaves a • are and all states in con u
, s msu1ator at 0° K. ·
 gY sand s in Solid l
~,,er>' sand l
ener95t l due to interatomic interaction valence electrons of one atom are shared by more than
n of these closely
Jf1 a cf'/ ~n the crystal. Now, splitting 0 £ energy level takes place. The collectio
o!le atotll ergy levels are called an energy band.
cedell
sr3
ence sand . .
val i,and is the energy band which mcludes the energy levels of the valence electrons. This
yaleflce y be partially or complet ely filled with electrons.
i,aod ina
duction Band
CO~uction band is the energy band above the valence band.
~;,ence between conductor, insulator and semiconductor on the basis of energy bands are given belaw
conductor (Metal) Insulator Semiconductor
ductor, there is no energy gap In insulator, the valence band is In semiconductor also, like insulators
In co;n the conduction band which is completely filled, the conduction the valence band is totally filled and the
t,etw lly filled with electrons and valence band is completely empty and conduction band is empty but the
part~a In the conduction band and valence energy gap is quite large that small energy gap between conduction band
t,an . h h
t,and overlap eac ot er. energy from any other source and valence band, unlike insulators , is
cannot overcome it. very small.
at room temperature some
Thus,many electr?ns from below the fermi Thus, electrons are bound to Thus,
el can shift to higher energy levels above valence band and are not free to electrons in the valence band acquire
1 greater than energy
t~~ fermi level in the conduction band. move and hence, electric thermal energy
and jump over to the
conduction is not possible in this band gap
type of material. conductio n band.
Conduction Conduction ..
Eleetron ,. ! ~ijQd
energy Ee :: ::::::::::::::::
b2nd E »0 eV 9
e
Q)
C:
~ ~
.J Ee >!
e>
Q)
C:
'.Wi•
Ee
•'lu,I-J.N;llllll.f.. "O Q)
E9 > 5 eV
Q)
E9 = 1 eV
Evll/lll//Wfff//f/fll Valence ~ §:tU
C:
e
C:
e
Valence
band I
u
Q)
-Ev
u
Q) . " , Ev
I band -.::: tU

0 ro
~ ~ iii l .· ' \~ iii l·>
For metals

Energy Band Gap

The minimum energy required for shifting electrons from valence band to conduction band is
called energy band gap (Eg)·

Fermi Energy
It is the maximum possible energy possessed by free electrons of a material at absolute zero
temperature (i.e., OK). The value of fermi energy is different for different materials.
They have resistivity (p) or conductivity (a) intermediate to metals and insulators.
p~ 10-S -10 6 Qm, a~ 10+ 5 -10- 6 5m-l

Element Semiconductors
These semiconductors are available in natural form. e.g., silicon and germanium .
Compound Semiconductors , etc.
These semiconductors are made by compounding the metals. e.g., CdS, GaAs, CdSe, lnP, anthracene, polyaniline
 es as JolloUJS.
On tltt· lm~i~ <if purity, .qe,ni•con d ucI O rs• are of
·
two typ
·

1. Int rin sic Se mi co nd uc tor . sem icon duc tor. It is a pur e semiconductor.
•
.It is also cnllcd ns und ope d sem icon d ctor or ,-typ e
u If\
which
n == n, ::: n; .
'' ' d h les resp ecti vely and n; ts called intn .
..
whe re, tt r and 11 , arc num ber dcn s1tae f I trons an o '
1 s o e ec ns1c
carrier concentration.
. d tivi ty is ver y low .
Intrinsic semiconductor are not usefu ] because its con uc
con cen trat ion (n e) and free hole
Law of Mass Act ion The pro duc t .0 f h free elec tron
.t ~
concentration (11 h ) is equ al to squ are of intrinsi ier con cen trat ion (n; ).
c carr
1..e.
2
ne •n,1 ==n;

2. Extrinsic Se mi co nd uc tor
Pure sem icon duc tor whe n dop ed wit. .
h som e imp urit· t ms are emb e dde d 1s . kn
own as extnns·
yaO 1c
semiconductor.
Wh en pur e sem icon duc tors are dop ed wit h imp
urit ies, the n its elec tric al conducti vity increase
muc h significant level. s at
Extrinsic semiconductors are basically of two types as follo
ws
(i) 1rt ype semiconductor
In n-type sem icon duc tor maj orit y cha rge carr
iers are elec tron s and min orit y cha rge carr
holes i.e. ne > nh. iers are
Here, we dop e Si or Ge wit h a pen tava lent elem
ent, the n fou r of its elec tron s bon d with the
silicon neig hbo urs whi le fifth rem ains ver y wea four
kly bou nd to its par ent ato m, wh ich is resp
for con duc tion . onsible
The formation of an n-type semiconductor is shown as
below.
/ •· \ / ·..
....

·····-8)•·······-Gf····--.(3······--.
.....( \• ........i \···· ····r \···········

. :' ~
~
:

:
:

:' ............
~
:
.,••· ·~·· ····· ·~~ •···· ···b ····· ····• .
· •.....~ .......... ~ ...

:: ::
~

-~
:
: :
:
: :

........
:"'···9····· ·····~··········b.......... .
...... :' .............p .......... ~ .......... .
, I f I •
, I I
I I I
I f I
I I I
•, ,' ', .· ~ :
1

Pentavalent.D~nar Ato~ ~
Tetravalent Si or Ge givi ( s, Sb, P, etc) Doped for
ng n-type Semiconductor
 ' 1/
ype se mi co nd uc tor
is do .
(iiJ p-t ure form of s~m ico ndu.ctor (Ge or Si) ped wit h triv alen t imp urit i es (B , Al , 1n etc), the
wnefl a ~ con duc tor 1s for me d
e se .
cha rge ear ner s are hol es and min orit y h
p-tJP. . . c.- arg . n >n
e carr iers are elec tron s 1.e. 1
,tajo fJt}' ,. ._ . e. r
/ ·••

··•....si ~·••........... ··.

1v• : : ··:

vi •··
· · ·.o
•

•'. .\:•·• ··......

:~: e ..\ ...... ~

.......... \ ~ ·• .. "•·•~ 9-; -· •--· •.

...... \
j
·...·•8
( f ... ....·@
i \~-~~-.·.~ ~-+ ~ .... ..... .

.
.•····e·
'
~

.·. ... . +4 .
.
:.
.:

.
·. •···· · ·· .
:
.: ~
.'
4~ ....
········•· +e
•~~·
.:.o;,- ·\ .

:
:
..
C'I,- .
"•

···9 ··· ·•·• ...

(l~,-.Al,.. B etc.) ~o~ ed in Tetravalent Si
Trivalent Acc ept~ r ~tom _
+4
.
.:·• ······· ;. .·· ···· ·····
~ :

ductor
or Ge Lattice G1v1ng p- type Semicon

p-n Ju,:1c~ion tor and p-type

junctio n an arr ang em ent ma de by a close contact of n-type semiconduc
Ap-n IS
sezniconductor.
in p- n Ju nc tio n
Formation of De pl et io n Re gio n Electron
to the concentration
During formation of p-n junction, due ide to
Acceptor ion
Willi ~efo~ gradient across p and n sides, holes diffuse from p.:.s e e e :e•e " e
to p-side : : ! •
srespoltli~e n-side (p ➔ n) and electrons diffuse from n-side
Hole I I I

e e e e•,e :e: e e e e
pe and n-type material
(n ➔ p). The small reg ion bet we en p-ty
I • • • •
I I
I I

.
I

e et e
which has only imm obi le ion s and no free
charge carriers is e e e e:e : :e:: : . .
. e e e e:e ,,e: e e e e
called the dep leti on layer.
I I • • • •
I

p-ty pe ~ n-type
ord er of 10-6m. The
The width of dep leti on reg ion is of the Depletion layer
depletion region is
potential difference dev elo ped across the
called the pot ent ial barrier.

or p- n Junction Diode vided at the ends for

Semiconductor Di od e p-n jun ctio n wit h metallic contacts pro
Asemiconductor dio de is basically a
the application of an ext ern al vol tag e.
Ap-n junction diode is represented by the symbol .
P l>i n
d' . f urrent when the diode is under
The direction of arr ow ind ica tes the convention
al rrection c °
forward bias.
.5t . f p- n Junction Diode
· r1 •cs o . ction and current flowing through
I-V (C ur re nt -V olt ag e) Ch ara cte
It e app lied across p-n JUn
'l'L ag • · d · de
ine graphical rel atio ns bet we en vo stic Jun ction io .
the junction are cal led I-V cha rac teri s of
 teristic itive terminal of the externa
Forward Biased Charac d biased when the pos of the diode. l ba.tt~
Junction diode is said to be forwa! . al to the n-type f o. pi
-type and negative termm b. d diode is shown as below
connected to th e P . . a fiorward iase ,rti•
. ·t dui
The czrcu1 ' gra"m and J- V ch.aracteristzcs of . ases from knee voltage, then cu teC
lta e mere rtent
From figure, it is clear that when forward vo g . . . s~. \ cuJ
rising sharply.
Kn Voltage The minimum forward voltage o
ove:;ome the barrier potential is called knee voltage.
f p-n junction d10de which 1s just req\li
r~ l·. ,.
fh

V
8 ~
p n
<!' 7
.S6

l1
5
4 Ge
a; 3
~
0 2
LL

1
Battery
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Forward bias (V)
(a)
(b)

Reverse Biased Characteristic

In reverse biased, when negative terminal of the external battery is connected to the p-type antl
positive terminal to the n-type of the diode. The circuit diagram and I-V characteristics of a revm
biased diode is shown as below
When the reverse voltage increases, then small reverse saturation current is flowing. When tht
reverse voltage across the p-n junction reaches a sufficiently high value, the reverse runenl
suddenly increases to a large value, then this voltage is called breakdown voltage. At breakdown
voltage, large number of covalent bond is broken.
~ - - Reverse bias (V)
p n
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0
0 2i
4
6
8 ~
il
a
....
10 ~
Q)
a:
Battery
. . _ ~ ~~I--+- . . . J

(a)
(b)
Note p-n Junction diode is also called a unidirectional d .
ev,ce.
\ , de as R ec ti~ er ern ati ng vo lta ge / cu rre nt .
.
.t 010 oeess of co~ ver tin g alta rec tifi er for con ver tin a;nto d~rect vo lta ge / cur ren t is
called
111e. pr tiOil• Diode 1s us ed as ng cu rre nt/ vo lta ge into direct g tem ati
\\ ~c a/v olt ag e.
ct1
rrent tUJO ways oif usi.ng a a·zode as a rectifier as fiollows
, re are
flt& ·ode as a H al f-W av e Re
ct ifi er
¼~ d
1 ing to po sit ive half-cycle
1, OI conducts co rre spo ndert neg ati ve
:n do ef n? t conduct_ du rin g is kn ow n
Oiode cle hence AC is conv ed by dio de int o un idi rec 1 on a pu sat mg DC. This action
11a.If1'..w~ve rectification.
as Jtllll· ":t (a)
cu Input AC
p-n Q,)
+
N
g
....T
::::, I

....a.::::, Cl)
Cl)
I
I
I
0 e
0
I

Output vohage
±
(\3
I I
Q,) I I

+ -
. . =2B -= -- ~- -- ..J
. s- N I
I
I
I

0
(b) >
veform
Rectifier (b) Input and Output Wa
(a) Circuit Diagram of Half-Wave

ifi er
2. Diode as a Fu ll- W av e Re ct
For full-wave rectification, du rin g
the
w the
~ positive half of the inp ut AC,
rd
upper p-n junction dio de is for wa
d
~ bia~ as shown in fig ure (a) an RL
ed
lower p-n junction dio de is rev ers
8i bi~sed. P2:::..i
L -__ i.::::S~2_ _-10 ~2t ---+ --J

During the negative half-cycle of inp ut

ffn +
+ (b)
is
AC, the upper p-n jun cti on dio de (a)
the low er p-n
reverse biased an d
junction diode is fo rw ard bia sed
as sh ow n in figure (b).
n gi.ven as below
The input and output waveforms have bee j,_
t
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
T 1 I
: :
Q): :
I I
~I I

$L -- .i -. -+ -- -1 -- t- --
O,
_,
>•
:::JI
ci:
.s:
I I
I
I I
: I
_i I
I 1 I
TI
I u: 1 :
Q ): c n
: : '
C): I . I
L---
co
0> ! ! : l i nm e~
I I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I•
,._, I I I
:::, I
ci:
I
::
I
: : :
S: I I I

O Input and Output Waveform