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samuelanimamaningSECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Additional Mathematics Year 1
SECTION
3 SEQUENCES AND
FUNCTIONS
1
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
MODELLING WITH ALGEBRA
Applications of Algebra
INTRODUCTION
Have you noticed how numbers such as counting, even, or odd numbers are
arranged? What have you noticed? What about the regular increments or changes
such as counting numbers, days of the week, or workers’ monthly salaries? From
these scenarios, you can conclude by saying there is a pattern or rule in which
things or numbers follow and a relationship between these things. Sequences and
functions are essential mathematical concepts that help us identify patterns, model
relationships, and solve real-world problems. Sequences reveal ordered patterns,
linear functions describe constant rates of change and polynomials allow us to
represent and analyse complex scenarios. Learning these concepts equips us with
tools to solve practical problems in areas such as science, finance, and engineering,
making them highly valuable for both academic and everyday applications. This
section comprises the definition of a sequence, number patterns, rules for finding
terms of sequence, nth term of pattern, types of sequence, application of sequence,
linear functions, quadratic functions, polynomial functions and rational functions.
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
· Recognise sequences in mathematics as an enumerated collection of
objects in which repetitions are allowed and classify sequences into linear
or exponential
· Find the nth term of linear and exponential sequences
· Identify and describe the relationship of patterns, recognise the difference
between a relation and a function and write a function that describes a
relationship between two quantities in real-life situations
· Use function notation to evaluate functions for inputs in their domain and
outputs in the co-domain
· Determine the composite of two given functions
· Establish, describe and determine bijective functions and composite
function
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
· Find the inverse of simple functions including one-to-one functions
· Solve an equation of the form f(x) = cfor a simple function f that has an
inverse write an expression for the inverse
· Recognise and construct linear and parabolic functions by hand and
with the aid of technology, where appropriate show the intercepts and
investigate the turning points.
· Recognise and use appropriate algebraic notions, properties of linear and
non-linear functions, linear and non-linear equations and solve linear and
non-linear simultaneous systems
· Recognise linear equations in two variables, draw its graph by hand and
by using the appropriate technology (e.g., GeoGebra, Demos, PhET
Simulations, Geometer’s Sketch Pad), find the solution using the graph
and determine the area enclosed by the graphs
· Recognise and model statements into linear mathematical equations and
solve them simultaneously
· Solve up to three systems of linear equations simultaneously by algebraic
manipulations
· Describe polynomial functions and perform the basic arithmetic
operations on them
· Use the method of completing the square to transform any quadratic
equation in, say xinto an equation of the form ( x − p)2 = qthat has the
same solutions and explains how the quadratic formula is derived from
this form
· Use the remainder and factor theorems to find the factors and remainders
of a polynomial of degree not greater than 4
· Draw the graph of a polynomial function with degree up to 3 by hand and
by using technology (e.g., GeoGebra, Demos, PhET Simulations, and
Geometer’s Sketch Pad) where appropriate
· Recognise a rational function and determine the domain and range
· Carry out the basic arithmetic operations on rational functions
· Apply partial fraction decomposition up to factors with exponents and
irreducible quadratic factors
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Key Ideas:
• A sequence is any set of objects, often numbers, that can follow a
particular pattern infinitely whilst a series refers to the description of the
operation that would add all the items in a sequence.
• Each number in the sequence is called a term. Sequences can be either
finite (e.g., 2,5,8.), meaning they have a specific number of terms, or
infinite (e.g., 2,4.6…) continuing indefinitely (without ending).
• A function is a relation between two sets, say X and Y, such that each
member of the set X is related to one and only one member of the set Y.
In terms of ordered pairs, a function is defined as a set of ordered pairs
in which each x-element has only one y-element associated with it. There
are two main types of functions: one-to-one function and many -to-one
function.
• Algebraic variables where letters of the alphabets are used to represent
numbers, things, figures to make problem solving easier will be much
needed this week. We must also recall the concept of slope which
is a measure of the degree of steepness of a line or plane. It must be
remembered that points are written as coordinates and can be represented
in the x-y plane at this level.
• A linear equation can be written in the form y = mx + cwhere m is the
slope of the line and c is the y-intercept. Here x and y are the variables
where y depends on x which is of degree one. The quadratic function can
be written in the form y = a x2+ bx + cwhere a, b and c are constants, and
the degree is two. It must be noted that the nature of the quadratic curve is
parabolic, that is a maximum turning point or a minimum turning point.
• A system of linear equations is made up at least two linear equations
in which all have to be true simultaneously. Each equation stands for a
straight line and the solution to the system is where these lines intersect.
• Linear Equation is an equation in which highest power of variable
(usually x or y) is 1. It can be put into form: a x + by = cwhere a, b, and
c are constants while x and y are variables.
• A polynomial function is a mathematical expression that combines
numbers and variables using addition, subtraction and multiplication.
It involves only whole number exponents of the variables. Examples of
polynomials functions are p ( x)= 4 x3− x − 1, p(y)= 7 y5− 5 y4+ 2 + 3
y2− y + 1, p(a)= 9 a2− 1 etc.
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
• The degree of a polynomial with one variable is the highest exponent of
that variable in any term. The leading term is the term with the highest
degree and its coefficient is the leading coefficient. Polynomial functions
are typically written with the terms arranged in descending order of
degree.
• A rational function, much like a rational number (a fraction of integers),
consists of a ratio between two polynomial expressions. The denominator
cannot be zero.
fx
• A rational function is of the form Rx = __
gx ; g(x)≠ 0 (That is, a ratio of two
polynomials for which the divisor is not zero).
DEFINITION OF SEQUENCES
Sequences and Series are all around us and understanding them helps us make
sense of the world. Sequences are seen in our house number system. When we
walk down the street, the house numbers typically follow a sequence. Each house
number represents a term in that sequence. Also, the page numbers in a book
follow a natural order, forming a sequence. Each page number corresponds to a
term in that sequence.
Patterns occur all around us. The male honeybee hatches from an unfertilised
egg, while the female hatches from a fertilised one. The “family tree” of a male
honeybee can be represented by Figure 3.1: where M represents male, and F
represents female.
Fig 3.1: “Family tree of a male honeybee” (Lial, Hornsby, McGinnis, 2012)
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Starting with the male honeybee at the top, and counting the number of bees in
each generation, we obtain the following numbers in the order: 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8
Notice the Pattern
After the first two terms (1 and 1), each successive term is obtained by adding the
two previous terms. This sequence of numbers is called the Fibonacci sequence.
A Sequence is any set of objects, often numbers, that follow a particular pattern
infinitely. A series refers to the description of the operation that would add all of
the items in a sequence. The objects that make a sequence are called terms and the
nth term can be represented by S n , Un, an or similar notations where n is a positive
integer indicating the position of the term. For example, U1 represents the first
term and a4, represents the fourth term in a different sequence.
Problems in various fields and in our daily lives require the application of
sequences and series. For example, in trying to predict the value of an investment
after a number of years, taking into account the annual interest rate, say, 23%,
and a principal of GH¢ 100.00, the following sequence can model the problem
and hence be used for the prediction: 1 00, 100(1.23), 100 ( 1.23)2, 100 ( 1.23)3,
100 (1.23)4, …
The terms of the sequence indicate how much the investment is worth at the
beginning of each year i.e., at the beginning of the first year, it is only worth the
principal (GH¢ 100.00) and at the beginning of the fourth year (at the end of
the third year), it is worth G H¢ 100 ( 1.23)3. 00 = GH¢ 186.09. The three dots
(ellipses) indicates that the sequence continues indefinitely.
Knowledge equips us with skills and strategies to find the sum of things going on
even up to infinity which are useful in scientific thesis.
The pattern that is observed in a sequence can be used to classify sequences
and also predict other terms. In this section arithmetic (linear) and geometric
(exponential) sequences will be discussed.
Let us now, in various small groups, go through the following examples.
Example 1
Given the sequence: 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, …, determine the next term and describe the
pattern.
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Solution:
The sequence is such that 3 is added to the first number to obtain the second
number, 4 added to the second to obtain the third, 5 added to the third to obtain
the fourth and 6 added to the fourth to obtain the fifth term hence, the next term
should be 21 + 7 = 28
Mathematically, the sequence can be written thus: an = an−1+ n + 1, n ∈ ℤ, n ≥ 2,
a1 = 3 or
an = an−1 + n + 1, n = 2, 3, 4, …, a1 = 3
Example 2
Find the next three terms for each of the following sequences and describe the
pattern
a. 2, 5, 8, 11…
b. 4, 7, 12, 19…
c. 2, 1, __12 , __ 14 …
d. 1, 4, 9, 16…
3 __
e. __12 , __
23 , __, 4
4 5
Solution
a. The sequence in (a) is such that 3 is added to the first number to obtain the
second number, 3 again is added to second number obtain the third number,
3 is again added to the third number to obtain the fourth number and to get
next three terms, you have to add 3 to obtain each of the three terms that is
11 + 3 =14, 14 + 3=17 and 17+ 3 = 20. Therefore, the next three terms are
14, 17, 20
b. Let us look at the sequence in (b) dear learners, where you will find a pattern
in the numbers too. In this sequence 3 is added to first number to obtain
the second number, 5 is added to the second number to obtain the third
number, 7 is added to the third number to obtain the fourth number, 9 will
be added to the fourth number to obtain the fifth number, 11 will be added
to the fifth number to obtain the sixth number, that is 19+9=28, 28+11=39,
39+13=52. Therefore, the next three terms are 28, 39, 52.
c. Similarly, in example (c) the sequence is such that __12 is multiplied to the
first number to obtain the second number, to get third number the second
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
12 . To get the subsequent terms we need to multiply
number is multiplied by __
12 . That is __14 × __
each term by __ 12 = __
18 , __
18 × __
12 = __ 1 , __
16 1 × __
16 1 = __
2
1 . Therefore, the
32
18 , __
next three terms are __ 1 , __
16 1
32
d. The sequence in example (d) is such that we square the natural numbers 1,
2, 3, 4, to obtain the terms that is 12= 1, 22= 4, 32= 9, 42= 16. Hence the
next three-term will be 52= 25, 62= 36, 72 = 49
e. The sequence in example (e) is such that 1 is added to the numerator and the
denominator of first fraction to obtain the second fraction, 1 is added again
to the numerator and the denominator of the second fraction to obtain the
third. The sequence continues to add 1 to each term of the numerator and
54 +
the denominator to obtain the other terms, that is ____ + 1 __
5 + 1 = __
= 5 , _____
1 6 6+1
76 +
67 , ____ +1
1
56 , __
= __78 . Hence the next three terms are __ 67 , __
87 .
Example 3
Generate the first six terms of the sequence with the rule: un+1 = 2 un and u1 = 3
Solution:
un+1 = 2 un , u1 = 3
When n = 1,
u1+1 = 2 u1
u2 = 2(3)= 6
When n = 2,
u2+1 = 2 u2
u3 = 2(6)= 12
When n = 3,
u3+1 = 2 u3
u4 = 2(12)= 24
When n = 4,
u4+1 = 2 u4
u5 = 2(24)= 48
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
When n = 5,
u5+1 = 2 u5
u6 = 2(48)= 96
∴the first six terms are 3, 6, 12, 24, 48 and 96
THTERM OF ARITHMETIC AND GEOMETRIC
N
SEQUENCES
Hello learners, let us consider the following sentences to enable us to understand
the components of sequences.
1. Identifying key terms of the sequence such as the first term, the common
difference and/or ratio, and the nth term.
2. Establishing the general rule for arithmetic and geometric sequences by
using the first terms and relationship between consecutive terms (simple
recursions) and the notation of sequences.
3. Determining arithmetic and geometric sequences.
4. Identifying a sequence that is neither arithmetic nor geometric.
5. Insert arithmetic and geometric means for a given sequence.
Arithmetic Progression (or Linear Sequence)
An Arithmetic Progression (AP), also known as Linear Sequence, is a sequence
in which the difference between any two consecutive terms remains constant
throughout the sequence. The constant difference is called the common difference
of the AP.
In AP, we come across several important keywords
i. First term, a, is the initial term of the progression.
ii. Common Difference, d, is the fixed value added to each term to obtain the
next term. The Common difference, d, can be calculated as:
un+1 − un = un − un−1 for all n = 1, 2, 3, …
This means that to find the common difference, we subtract a term from the next
term and as subtraction is not commutative, the reverse is inaccurate.
iii. The nth term, an, is the term at position (n) in the sequence
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Example 4
Consider the sequence 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16…
This sequence has a common difference, d, of 3 (each term is obtained by adding
3) to the previous term i.e., 4 − 1 = 7 − 4 = 3
The first term, a, is 1
The second term is (a+ d) =1+ 3 = 4
The third term is a+ 2d = 1 + 2(3) = 7and so on.
So, the linear sequence continues, 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, …
The terms of an arithmetic progression are:
u1 = a,
u2 = (a + d),
u3 = (a + 2d),
u4 = (a + 3d), … which is equivalent to u1 = (a + (1 − 1) d), u2 = (a + (2 − 1)d),
u3 = (a + (3 − 1)d) , u4 = (a + (4 − 1)d), …
Therefore, the rule for finding the nth term of an arithmetic sequence can thus be
written as:
Un = a + (n − 1) d where a is the first term, d the common difference and n is the
position of the term.
Now let us perform the follow activities to boost our understanding further.
Example 5
Write the first five terms of the arithmetic sequence with first term −2 and common
difference 3
Solution
Let un = nth term = a + (n − 1) d
Where a = first term = u1 = −2,
d = common difference = 3
u2 = −2 + 3 = 1
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
u3 = −2 + 2(3) = 4
u4 = −2 + 3(3) = 7
u5 = −2 + 4(3) = 10.
∴ the first five terms are −2, 1, 4, 7 and 10
Example 6
Find the 29th term of the arithmetic sequence whose first three terms are −12,
−6, 0, …
Solution
−12, −6, 0, …
First term = −12,
Common difference = 0 − (−6) =6
29th term =Un=a + ( n − 1)d
By substitution
U29 = − 12 + (29 − 1) × 6
= –12 + 28 × 6
= 156
Example 7
Three consecutive terms of a linear sequence (or Arithmetic Progression, AP)
are __
m m 6+ 2 ,where m≠0and m≠− 2. Find the two possible values for m.
1 , 1 and _____
Solution
The Sequence is __
m m 6+ 2
1 , 1 and _____
Common difference d =1− __
m m 6+ 2 − 1
1 = _____
Equating the expressions, we have
1− __
m m 6+ 2 − 1 (finding L C M of the expressions)
1 = ____
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
6 − (m + 2)
m m
_____−1
= _________
m + 2 (Expanding to open bracket)
m−1 −m−2
_____ ________
m = 6 m + 2
m m
⤇ _____ = 6 −
− 1 ________ 2−m
m+2
m − 1 _____ 4−m
= _____
m = m + 2 (cross multiply the expressions)
(m − 1)(m + 2) = m(4 − m) (Expanding to open the brackets)
m2+ 2m − m − 2= 4m − m
2
Grouping like terms we have
= (m2+ m2) + ( 2m − m − 4m) − (2 )
= 2 m2− 3m − 2 = 0
Factorising the expression
=(m − 2) ( 2m + 1) = 0
Either m − 2 = 0 or 2m + 1= 0
Solving for m
:
_
m = 2 or m = − 1_2
Example 8
The 13th term of an arithmetic progression is 10 and the 25th term is 20.
Calculate:
i) the common difference
ii) the first term.
iii) the 17th term.
Solution
i) Let a be the first term and d be the common difference.
Applying the general rule:
Un = a+ ( n + 1)
U13
= 10
⤇ U13= a + ( 13 − 1)d
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
=a + 12d =10 equation 1
U25
= 20
= a + ( 25 − 1)d=20
⤇ U25
= a + 24d = 20 equation 2
Solving equation 1 and equation 2 simultaneously,
Equation 1 – Equation 2
( a − a) + ( 12d − 24d) = ( 10 − 20)
0 + ( − 12d)= − 10
− 12d = − 10
Dividing both sides by − 12
–10
d = ____
− 12
56
= __
56
d = __
ii) To find the value of a
_
Put d = 5_6 into equation 1
a + 12( __56 ) = 10
60
a + __
6
= 10
Group like terms
a + 10 = 10
a = 10 − 10
a = 0
iii) the 17th term
Un = a + ( n − 1)d
5,
= 0, d = __
a 6
, and n = 17
= 0 + ( 17 − 1)× __
U17 65
56
= 0 + 16 × __
U17
U17 16
= __1
56
× __
U17 80
= __ 6
40
= __ 3
40
= __
U17 3
13
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Geometric / Exponential Sequence
Geometric sequences are sequences in which each term after the first is found
by multiplying the preceding term by a non-zero constant. While arithmetic
sequences are marked by their common differences, geometric sequences are
defined by their common ratios. For example, the terms (except the first) of 3 ,
6, 12, 24, 48, 96, ...are obtained by multiplying the preceding terms by 2. The
common ratio, usually represented by r , is therefore 2. The sequence can hence
be rewritten as 3, 3(2), 3 (2)2, 3 ( 2)3, 3 ( 2)4, 3 ( 2)5, …
By observation, the rule for finding the terms of the sequence is 3 (2)n−1, where 3
is the first term and 2is the common ratio.
Therefore, the rule for all geometric sequences is:
The nth term, Un = a rn−1where a is the first term, r, the common ratio and n
is
u u
u n = ____
the number of terms in the sequence. Note that r = ____ un+1
n−1 n
Example 9
14 , − 1, 4, − 16, 64, …
Determine the common ratio for the geometric sequence: __
Solution
14 , − 1, 4, − 16, 64, …
__
Common ratio = ____ −6416 = − 4
Example 10
Find the nthterm of
i) 5, − 10, 20, − 40, 80…
ii) 4, __83, __
16
9
, …
Solution
i) 5, − 10, 20, − 40, 80…
First term, a = 5
40
Common ratio, r = − __ 20
= − 2
nth term, un = a rn−1
= 5 (− 2)n−1
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
ii) 4, __83 , __
16
9
, …
First term, a = 4
Common ratio, r = __83 ÷ 4 = __
23
nth term, u n = a rn−1
n−1
= 4 (__
23 )
Example 11
The fifth and ninth terms of an exponential sequence are 16 and 256 respectively.
Find
i) the first term, a and the common ratio, r if r > 0
ii) the 11th term
Solution
i) Un = a rn−1
Fifth term, U5 = a r5−1= 16
= a r4= 16 equation 1
Ninth term, U9 = a r9−1
U9 = a r8= 256 equation 2
Divide equation2 by equation 1
8
ar 56
___
4
= 2___
16
ar
Applying the quotient law of indices
56
r8−4= 2___
16
56
r4= 2___
16
r4= 16
4
_
r = √ 16 = 2
Put r =2 into equation 1 to find a
a(24) = 16
16a = 16
Divide both sides by 16
a = 1
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
ii) 11th term U11 = ar10
=1(2)10
= 1024
Example 12
The second and the fifth terms of Geometric Progression (G.P) are 1 and __18
respectively. Find the:
i) Common ratio
ii) First term
iii) Eighth term
Solution
i) U2 = 1
U2 = a r2−1= 1
U2 = ar = 1 equation 1
_
U5 = a r4−1= 1_8
_
U5 = a r4= 1_8 equation 2
Divide equation 2 by equation 1
a r4 __
1
___
ar = 8 ÷1
Using the quotient law of indices
r4−1= __ 18
_
r3= 1_8
Taking
__
cube root of both sides
3√ __18
r =
r = __12
a) Substitute r = __12 into equation 1
a(__
12 ) = 1
a
__
2
=1
a2 =1 × 2
2 × __
a = 2
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
ii) 8th term
Un = a rn−1
8−1
U8 = 2 ( 12 )
__
= 2(__
12 )7
1
2 × ___
128
2
= ___
128
1
= __
64
Activity 3.1
Let us perform the following task to add more understanding to the concept
of Sequences and their forms (Arithmetic Progressions and Geometric
Progressions).
1. Determine the next three terms of the following Sequence
a) 5 , 9, 13, 17…
b) − 1, 2, − 4, 8…
Solution
a) To determine the next three terms of sequence in (a) you can perform the
following steps
i. First find the common different between the consecutive terms.
ii. The common difference is calculated as:d =a2 − a1(13 − 9 = 4)
You then add the common difference (d) to successive terms to obtain
the next three terms as:17 + 4 = 21, 21 + 4 = 25, 25 + 4 = 29….
Write the next three terms as 21, 25, 29
b) − 1, 2, − 4, 8…
To find the next three terms of the Sequence in (b) follow the guidelines
below.
i. Look at the terms in the Sequence and identify the common ratio
(r)
ii. Divide the second term by the first term to determine the common
ratio (r) that is r = 2 ÷ ( − 1) = − 2
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
iii. To find the 5th term multiply the 4th term by common ratio that is
8 × ( − 2) = − 16
iv. Find the 6th as: − 16 × ( − 2) = 32
v. And the 7th term as: 32 × ( − 2) = − 64
vi) So, the next three terms are − 16, 32, − 64
2. In a certain restaurant in Walewale of the North East Region, a square
table accommodates four people. Six people visited the restaurant and
wanted to sit, two tables were joined, and they sit around perfectly. If
three tables are joined horizontally, how many people can sit around it?
What about 4 square tables joined horizontally, how many people can sit
around it now and so on.
Provide your result on the table that follows
Number of squared table(s) 1 2 3 4 5
Number of people that can sit around it 4
From the result on the table determine if there a pattern
ii. Deduce if the pattern is Arithmetic Progression (AP) or Geometric
Progression (GP).
iii. Suggest a rule for the pattern,
3. Mr. Salifu of Walewale S. H. T. S places in a savings bank Gh¢25.00 on
his son’s first birthday, Gh¢50.00 on his second, Gh¢75.00 on his third
and so on, increasing the amount by Gh¢25 on each birthday. With a
partner, or individually, work out how much will be saved up (apart from
any accrued interest) when the boy reaches his 16th birthday if the final
amount is added on this day?
Present your answer to your teacher or compare your findings with
others.
DEFINING FUNCTIONS
The concept of functions has gone through a lot of development and notable
among the mathematicians who have worked on its development are René
Descartes, Wilhelm Leibniz, Leonhard Euler, Nicolas Bourbáki and John Tate to
name but a few. Functions are the building blocks for modelling real-life scenarios
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
and, thereby, designing machines, predicting natural disasters, curing diseases,
understanding world economies and keeping airplanes in the air etc.
Relations
Hello, welcome to another interesting area of mathematics, relations and functions.
How are you related to people around you, your father, mother, siblings, teachers
and classmates?
We relate to people around us based on special connections between us. For
example, Taninu and Afiba are in one class studying Home Economics, they are
related because they are classmates.
Consider the activities (i) to (iii)
i.
A B
Ghana Cedi
Togo CFA
USA Dollar
China Yuan
ii.
A B
-1 -2
-4 -8
5 10
3 6
iii.
A B
metre Length
kilogram mass
Seconds Time
Degree Angle
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
What relationship exist between A and B in the activities above?
i. “the currency of countries”
ii. “multiplied by 2”
iii. “SI unit”
Good job for your answers.
Given the element A and B, on any non-empty sets, then any rule which assigns
elements of A to elements of B is referred to as a relation. Relation can also be
defined as a set of ordered pairs; for example, in activity (ii), the ordered pair are
(-1, -2), (-4, -8), (5, 10), (3,6). The first elements in the ordered pairs (the x-values),
form the domain. The second elements in the ordered pairs (the y-values), form
the image or co-domain. The co-domain is also called the dependent variable.
Range is the element in the co-domain that are matched to elements in the domain.
1.
x y
-1 4
1 9
3
-3 1
2.
x y
-1 0
0 1
3 4
8 9
Now, look at the diagrams above. Take your pen and write down the domain, co-
domain and the range of the relation. Are your answers the same as these?
1. The domain is the set {-1, 1, -3, 3}, the co-domain is the set {1, 4, 9} and
the range is the set {1, 9}. Notice that 4 is not part of the range because it is
not an image of any of the elements in the domain. Can you write down the
ordered pairs? Is your answer the same as this? (-1, 1), (1, 1), (-3, 9), and (3,
9).
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
2. The domain is the set {-1, 0, 3, 8}, the co-domain is the set {0, 1, 4, 9} and
the range is the set {0, 1, 4, 9}. Can you write down the ordered pairs? Is
your answer the same as this? (-1, 0), (0, 1), (3, 4), and (8, 9).
Now, investigate the rule or relation between x and y in the activities above.
Congratulations if your findings were
1. y → x2
2. y → x + 1
Several types of relations exist in life.
For example: the relation between the head prefect of a school and students at
morning assembly, is one–to–many because we have only one head prefect as
against many students.
Consider the following and guess the kind of relation using either “one” or
“many”
i. Number of people that drive a car at a time.
ii. A teacher and his or her learners
iii. Two football teams
iv. Students in a school and their headteacher
If your guess is or similar to
i. One person →one person
ii. One teacher →many students
iii. Many players →many players
iv. Many students →one headteacher
Did you know that similar types of relationship exist in mathematics as well?
Oh yes, there are basically four types of relations in mathematics namely: one-
to-one, one-to-many, many-to-one, and many-to-many. The arrow diagrams
below illustrate the four types of relations.
1. One-to-one relation: In this relation, each element in the domain has only
one image in the co-domain and each element in the co-domain is associated
with only one element in the domain. Thus, each element of the domain has
a unique image.
21
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
x y
-1 0
0 1
3 4
8 9
2. One-to-many relation: In this relation, one element in the domain is
associated with many images in the co-domain.
x y
4 2
-2
-3
9 3
3. Many-to-one relation: In this relation, several elements in the domain have
one image in the co-domain.
x y
-1 4
1 9
3
-3 1
4. Many-to-many relation: In this relation, several elements in the domain
have many images in the co-domain and several elements in the co-domain
are associated with many elements in the domain.
x y
-1 0
0 1
3 4
8
Activity 3.2
In pairs or individually, investigate which type(s) of relations discussed above
have the elements in the domain being matched to only one member in the
image.
22
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Your investigation is correct if your findings were: one-to-one, and one–to–
many. These two relations (one-to-one, and one–to–many) are called functions
in mathematics.
DEFINITION OF FUNCTIONS
A function, f,from set Ato set Bcould be defined as a pairing of elements in A
with elements in Bin such a way that each element in Ais paired with exactly one
element in Bor a rule or relation between A and Bthat assigns each element a ∈
Ato a unique element, b ∈ B.
From the definitions of functions, it can be inferred that “All functions are relations
BUT not all relations are functions”. A function must assign only ONE output to
each input. One-to-one and many-to-one relations are therefore the two types of
relations that qualify to be functions. If a function is defined by an equation, the
variable that represents elements of the domain is the independent variable. The
variable that represents elements of the range is the dependent variable.
If a function describes the relationship between a number and its square, it can be
expressed as
a. { ( − 4, 16), (− 3, 9), (− 2, 4), (− 1, 1), (0, 0), (0.5, 0.25), (1,1), (2, 4)} i.e., as
ordered pairs,
b. f(x)= x2read as “f of x” or “fat x” i.e., using a formula,
c. f : x → x2read as “fis such that xmaps on to x2i.e., using function notation
or
d. graphically.
Functions can be used to calculate electricity bills, supply and demand, and how
you are graded. For example, your end-of-semester grade mark is a function in
the form of 30% of class work and 70% of exam score which can modelled as say
G = 30%(c) +70%(e), where G is the final mark, c is the class score, and e is the
exam score.
Activity 3.3
Take your graph books and in small groups plot the points (− 4, 16), (− 3,
9), (− 2, 4), (− 1, 1), (0, 0), (0.5, 0.25), (1,1), (2, 4)on a graph. Did your
graph look like the one below, Good! The graph represents a function. If you
23
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
cannot get the graph, don’t worry, seek help from other group members or
your teacher.
Fig 3.2: Quadratic Graph
Activity 3.4
Draw any vertical line on your graph sheet to meet the curve. How many times
did your vertical line meet the curve on your graph sheet? Congratulations
on your findings that the vertical line met the curve at only one place. That is
how we use vertical lines to test for a function.
The Vertical Line Test
This is a test that checks whether or not any vertical line drawn on the same graph
as the curve of an equation cuts the curve at more than one point. If the vertical
line cuts the curve at more than one point, the curve is said to have failed the test
and vice versa. The graph of a function must pass the vertical line test.
Considering 3.3, below, in illustration 1, the vertical line cuts the curve at two
points, Aand B and thus, the curve does not pass the vertical line test. Automatically,
it does not qualify to be the graph of a function. Actually, the curve is the graph
of y2 = x. Considering that x represents elements in the domain and y elements
in the co-domain, the rule, y2= xrepresents a one-to-many relation and confirms
the conclusion that y2= xis not a function.
24
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
The curve in illustration 2 however, passes the vertical line test as the vertical line
cuts the curve at only one point i.e., Aand hence the equation / rule represented
by the curve is a function.
Fig 3.3: Vertical line test
Fig 3.4: Determining functions
25
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Activity 3.5
Investigate which of the diagrams in Figure 3.4 (a, b and c) are functions and
discuss your findings with a classmate.
EVALUATING FUNCTIONS
For a function, f,defined as f( x) = x2, f( x) is the functional value of x , it is the
image of x and on a two-dimensional plane, it is the corresponding value of x for
the point which lies on the graph of x2. For example, given that g( x)= − 2x, g(− 3)
means, apply the rule “negative of a double of a number” to − 3and hence, g ( − 3)
= − 2(− 3)= 6
Example 13
3x + 5
If r ( x)= ______
7x − 14
, evaluate r( 3), x ≠ 7
Solution
3x + 5
r( x)= ______
7x − 14
3(3) + 5
r(3)= _______
( ) 219 +
= ______ 5
− 14
7 3 − 14
14
r(3)= __ 7
r(3)= 2
Example 14
If g ( x)= 2 x2+ 3, simplify
a. g( 3)
b. g(− 8)
c. g(a + 1)
d. 3g(5)
Solution
a. g (3)= 2 (3)2+ 3
g(3)= 2(9) + 3
g(3)= 18 + 3
26
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
g(3)= 21
b. g (− 8)= 2 ( − 8)2+ 3
g(− 8)= 2(64) + 3
g(− 8)= 128 + 3
g(− 8)= 131
c. g(a + 1)= 2 (a + 1)2+ 3
g(a + 1)= 2[(a + 1)(a + 1)] + 3
g(a + 1)= 2[a2+ a + a + 1] + 3
g(a + 1)= 2[a2+ 2a + 1] + 3
g (a + 1)= 2 a2+ 4a + 2 + 3
g(a + 1)= 2 a2+ 4a + 5
d. 3g(5)= 3[2 ( 5)2+ 3]
3g(5)= 3[2(25) + 3]
3g(5)= 3[50 + 3]
3g(5)= 3[53]
3g(5)= 159
Example 15
Evaluate the following either on your own, or with a classmate, or in a small
group.
If f( x)= 11x − 3x3, evaluate:
a) f(1)
b) f (2)
c) (__ 12 )
_
d) f(√ 2 )
e) f(1 + y)
Excellent work done if your workings gave you the answers below.
a) 8
b) -2
c) 41
__
8 _
d) 5 √ 2
e) 8 + 2y − 9 y2− 9 y3
27
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Example 16
The figure below shows the path, p( x)taken by a particle in the Cartesian plane.
Use the graph to predict the vertical distance of the particle from the x − axis
when it is 1 unit to the left of the y − axis.
Fig 3.5: Path taken by a particle
28
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Solution
Fig 3.6: Prediction of vertical distance
From the graph, when x = − 1, y = − 5and thus, the vertical distance of the
particle from the x − axiswhen it is 1 unit to the left of the y − axisis 5
Example 17
Temperature conversion is a common task in everyday life, especially when
dealing with different temperature scales. Two popular temperature scales are
Celsius (°C) and Fahrenheit (°F). To convert temperatures between these scales,
we can use a function that takes an input on one scale and produces an output on
the other scale.
The function C to F, denoted by F(C) can be used to convert temperatures from
Celsius (°C) to Fahrenheit (°F). It can be represented as: F(°F) = __95 × C(°C) + 32
In this function, C(°C) represents the input temperature in Celsius, and F(°F)
represents the output temperature in Fahrenheit.
For example, 25°C in degree Fahrenheit, given by F(°F)= __95 × 25 + 32 = 77°F
29
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Addition and Multiplication Properties of a
Function
a. If f1 and f2 are two functions from Ato B, then f1 (x) + f2 (x) is defined as:
(f1 + f2 )x = f1 (x)+ f2 (x).
b. If f1 and f2 are any two functions from A to B, then (f1 ∙ f2 )x is defined as:
(f1 × f2 )x = f1 (x)× f2 (x).
c. Function Equality: Two functions are equal only when they have same
domain, same co-domain and same mapping elements from domain to co-
domain
Example 18
Given that f( x)= 3 x3− 2xand g ( x)= − 2x + 4, evaluate
a. (f + g)(− 2)
b. (f × g)( 5)
Solution
f(x)= 3 x3− 2xand g( x)= − 2x + 4
a. (f + g)( x)= 3 x3− 2x + ( − 2x + 4)
= 3 x3− 2x − 2x + 4
= 3 x3− 4x + 4
(f + g)( − 2)= 3 ( − 2)3− 4(− 2)+ 4
=− 12
b. (f × g)(x)= (3 x3− 2x)(− 2x + 4)
= ( −6)x4+ 12 x3+ 4 x2− 8x
(f × g)( 5)= ( −6)( 5)4+ 12 ( 5)3+ 4 ( 5)2− 8(5)
= − 2190
Example 19
Given that h( x)= x2− 2x + 5, g( x)= − 12x + 16, and f( x)= 5 x3− 7, evaluate:
a. (f+g) (x)
b. (h+g) (x)
c. (h×g) (x)
d. (f × g) (x)
e. (f + g + h) (3)
30
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Solution
(x)= x2− 2x + 5, g(x)= − 12x + 16, and f( x)= 5 x3− 7
h
a. (f + g)(x)= 5 x3− 7 + ( − 12x + 16)
=5 x3− 12x − 7 + 16
=5 x3− 12x + 9
b. (h + g)( x)= x2− 2x + 5 + ( − 12x + 16)
( h + g)(x)= x2− 2x − 12x + 16+ 5
( h + g)( x)= x2− 14x + 21
c. (h × g)( x)= ( x2− 2x + 5)( − 12x + 16)
(h × g)(x)= x2( − 12x + 16)− 2x(− 12x + 16)+ 5( − 12x + 16)
(h × g)( x)= − 12x3+ 16 x2+ 24 x2− 32x − 60x + 80)
(h × g)( x)= − 12x3+ 40 x2− 92x + 80
d. ( f x g)(x)= ( 5x − 7)(− 12x + 16)
3
( f × g)(x)= 5x3(− 12x + 16)− 7(− 12x + 16)
(f × g)(x)= − 60x4+ 80x3+ 84x − 112
e. ( h + g + f)(x)= x2− 2x + 5 + ( − 12x + 16)+ ( 5 x3− 7)
( h + g + f)(x)= 5 x3+ x2− 2x − 12x + 5 + 16 − 7
(h + g + f)(x)= 5 x3+ x2− 14x + 14
(h + g + f)(3)= 5 ( 3)3+ ( 3)2− 14(3) + 14
(h + g + f)( 3)= 135 + 9 − 42 + 14
(h + g + f)(3)= 116
Activity 3.6
The exchange rate in Ghana in May 2024 was modelled mathematically as
16
x = ___
y , where x represents Ghana cedis (GHC) and y represents the dollar
($).
Investigate, either in small groups or individually, the value of the Ghana
Cedi (x) when
1. y = 10
2. y = 20
3. y=0
31
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
4. y=4
Expected responses for Activity 3.6
1. GHC 1.60
2. GHC 0.80
3. GHC 0.00
4. GHC 4.00
DOMAIN, RANGE AND ZEROES OF FUNCTIONS
Domain of a Function
The domain of a function, say f(x)is the set of all values of xwhich can be
evaluated and hence its image under the function can be obtained. For example, if
for f (x), f(a), (where arepresents any element in the set, D) can be evaluated, then
the domain of f( x)is D.
The range of a function is thus the set of all functional values or images of the
elements in the domain.
Mathematically, Domain, D= {a : ∃ b ∈ Y ;(a, b) ∈ f} read as “D is the set of ‘
a’ such that for each ‘a’, there exists an element, ‘b’ in set Y
, (the range of the
function), where (a, b)is a pair from the function, f” and
Range, Y= {b : ∃ a ∈ D; ( a, b) ∈ f} read as Yis the set of ‘b’ such that for each ‘b’,
there exists an element, ‘a’ in set D, (the domain of the function), where (a, b)is
a pair from the function, f
For a polynomial function, y = f(x)
Domain = {x : x ∈ ℝ}i.e., the set of all real numbers
Range = { y : y ∈ ℝ}i.e., the set of all real numbers
p(x)
For a rational function, y = R(x)= ___ q(x)
Domain = { x : x ∈ ℝ, q(x)≠ 0}i.e., the set of all real numbers except x values for
which q(x)= 0
The range of rational functions is the domain of the corresponding inverse function
and hence cannot be written in a general form
32
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
_
For a radical function, y = f(x)= √ p(x)
Domain = { x : x ∈ ℝ, p(x)≥ 0}i.e., the set of all real numbers except values of x
for which q( x)is negative (q( x)< 0)
The range of radical functions is the domain of the corresponding inverse function
and hence cannot be written in a general form
For an exponential function, y = f(x)= a bx
Domain = {x : x ∈ ℝ}i.e., the set of all real numbers
Range:
For b = 1, the range of f( x) = a bxis simply { a} .
For bother than 1and a > 0, the range = (0, ∞).
For b other than 1and a < 0, the range = ( − ∞, 0)
For a logarithmic function, y = f(x)= log(x)
Domain = {x : x ∈ ℝ, x ≥ 0}i.e., the set of all positive real numbers
Range = { y : y ∈ ℝ}i.e., the set of all real numbers
Generally, we determine the domain by looking for those values of the independent
variable (usually x) which will make the function defined. We must also avoid 0
in the denominator of a fraction, or negative values under the square root sign.
For example, the function f(x) = x2 + 2 is defined for all real values of x, because
there are no restrictions on the value of x. Hence, the domain of f(x) is “all real
values of x”.
_
Let us consider another function y = √ x + 3 , the domain of this function is all
real values of 𝑥 ≥ −3, since x cannot be less than −3. To see why, try out some
numbers less than −3 (like −5 or −9) and some numbers more than −3 (like −2
or 4) in your calculator. The only ones that “work” and give us an answer are the
ones greater than or equal to −3. This will make the number under the square root
positive.
Example 20
Find the domain for each of the following functions:
3x + 1
1. f(x) = 2x + 1 2. 𝑓(𝑥) = _____
x−5
_ _
3. f(𝑥) = √ 16 − x 4. 𝑓(𝑥) = √ 9 − x2
4x
5. ______
_
13
√ − x
33
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Solution
1. Domain = {x : x ∈ ℝ}, all numbers are defined on the set of real numbers.
3x + 1
2. 𝑓(𝑥) = _____
x−5
Equating the denominator to zero,
We have
x − 5 = 0
x = 5
Domain = { x : x ∈ ℝ, except x = 5} or { x : x ∈ ℝ, x ≠ 5}
_
3. f(𝑥) = √ 16 − x
16 − x ≤ 0
x ≥ 16
Domain = {x : x ∈ ℝ, x ≥ 16} or { x : x ∈ ℝ, except x ≤ 16}
_
4. 𝑓(𝑥) = √ 9 − x2
9 − x2≤ 0
x2≥ 9
x ≥ ± 3
Domain = {x : x ∈ ℝ, − 3 ≤ x ≤ 3}
4x
______
5. _
13 − x
√
Domain = {x : x ∈ ℝ, x < 13} or { x : x ∈ ℝ, except x ≥ 13}
Example 21
2 m + 5
Determine the domain of the function f(m)= _________
m + m − 12
Solution
Equating the denominator to zero
m2+ m − 12 = 0
( m2+ 4m) − (3m − 12) = 0
m( m + 4) − 3(m + 4) = 0
(m − 3)(m + 4)= 0
(m − 3)= 0 or ( m + 4)= 0
34
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
m = 3 or m = − 4
Domain = {x : x ∈ ℝ, x ≠ − 4 or 3}or Domain = { x : x ∈ ℝ, except x = − 4 or x = 3
}
Example 22
1 is the set of all real numbers except x = 2
The domain of the function f(x)= ____
x− 2
i.e., Domain of yis { x : x ∈ ℝ, x ≠ 2}
Example 23
2x − 1
State the largest possible domain of the function defined by f : x → __________
2
2 x − 9x − 5
Solution
22x − 1
f(x)= __________
2 x − 9x − 5
The function, f ( x)is a rational function and hence, is only defined if 2 x2− 9x − 5
≠ 0
If 2 x2− 9x − 5 = 0,
2 x2− 10x + x − 5 = 0
2x(x − 5)+ ( x − 5)= 0
(x − 5)(2x + 1)= 0
x − 5 = 0or 2x + 1 = 0
x = 5or x = − 1_2
∴ Domain = { 12 , x ≠ 5}
x : x ∈ ℝ, x ≠ − __
Example 24
_
Find the domain of gif g : x → √ 3x − 4
Solution
Since g( x) is a radical function, the expression, 3 x − 4must be positive for the
function to be defined
3x − 4 ≥ 0
35
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
3x ≥ 4
43
x ≥ __
∴ Domain of g(x)= { 43 }
x : x ∈ ℝ, x ≥ __
Range of a Function
The range is the set of output or image points, or they are the elements in the
co-domain that have counterparts in the domain. In the diagram above, which
elements in the codomain have a counterpart in the domain? They are {1,9} and
this represents the range.
One of the ways to find the range is to first make x the subject and find the values
of y which make 𝑥 defined.
Example 25
Find the range of the following functions
1. f(x)→ 2x − 3
2. 53 +− 2x
f(x)→ ______ 4x
_
3. f(x) → 25 − x2
√
4. g(x) → ______1
8x − 13
Solution
1. Let f(x)= y = 2x − 3 making x the subject
y + 3 = 2x
y+3
x = ____
2
Range = { y : y ∈ ℝ, }
36
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
5 + 2x
2. y = ______
3 − 4x
y(3 − 4x)= 5 + 2x
3y − 5 = 2x + 4xy
3y − 5 = 2x(1 + 2y)
3y − 5
x = _____
1 + 2y
1 + 2y = 0
12
y = − __
Range = _ {y : y ∈ ℝ, y ≠ − __
12 }
3. f(x) → √ 25 − x2
_
y = 25 − x2
√
y2= 25 − x2
x2= 25 − y2
_
x = √ 25 − y2
Range = {y : y ∈ ℝ, y ≥ 5 }
4. 1
y = ______
8x − 13
y ( 8x − 13)= 1
8xy − 13y = 1
8xy = 1 + 13y
1 + 13y
x = ______
8y
Range = { y : y ∈ ℝ, y ≠ 0 }
Activity 3.7
Find the range of the following either in pairs or individually and compare
your answer with the one provided against the various functions.
Function Range
1. h(x) → 10x { y : y ∈ ℝ, y ≠ 0 }
3
____
2. h(x) →
x+5
{y : y ∈ ℝ, y ≠ 0 }
3. g(x)→ __ 12 x + 5 { y : y ∈ ℝ}
_
4.h(x) → √ 2x − 9 { y : y ∈ ℝ}
5. f(
x) → _____
2x + 7
7x −4
{y : y ∈ ℝ, y ≠ _
27 }
37
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Zeroes of a Function
The zero of a function, say p( x)are the values of x for which p( x)= 0
To solve for the zeros, equate the function to zero and find the value(s) of x.
Example 26
Find the zeros of the function. f( x)→ 2x − 5
Solution
f(x)= 0
2x − 5 = 0
2x = 5
x = __52
Example 27
2xx −
Find the zeros of the function. f(x)→ ______ 4
+ 16
Solution
2xx −
_ 4
+ 16
= 0
x − 4 = 0(2x + 16)
x−4=0
x = 4
Example 28
Find the zeros of the following functions
h(x)
2
2x + x − 3
a. → _________
5x − 6
2x − 5
b. h(x) → _______
2
3 x − 17
c. f(x) 16 − x2
→ ______
8
_____
2 2x −9
√
d. g(x)→ __________
3 x + 5x + 2
e. m(x)= log81( 3x − 1)
38
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Solution
2
2x + x − 3
a. _________
5x − 6
= 0
2x2+ x − 3 = 0( 5x − 6)
2x2+ x − 3 = 0
2x2− 2x + 3x − 3 = 0
2x(x − 1) + 3(x − 1)=0
(2x + 3)(x − 1) = 0
x = − __32 or x = 1
2x − 5
b. 0 = _______
2
3 x − 17
2x − 5 = 0(3 x2− 17)
2x − 5 = 0
2x = 5
x = __52
2
16 − x
c. 0 = ______ 8
16 − x2= 8(0)
42− x2= 0applying the difference of two squares
(2 − x)(2 + x) = 0
(2 − x)= 0 or ( 2 + x) = 0
x = 2 or x = − 2
______
2x − 9
√
d. 0 = __________
3 x2 + 5x + 2
_
√ 2x − 9 = 0(3 x2+ 5x + 2)
_
√ 2x − 9 = 0
2x − 9 = 02
2x − 9 = 0
2x = 9
x = __92
e. 0 = log81(3x − 1)
810= 3x − 1
1 = 3x − 1
2 = 3x
23
x = __
39
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Example 29
x+3
Find the zeroes of the function, f : x→ ____
x−2
Solution
x+3
f(x)= ____
x−2
For f( x)= 0,
x+3
____
x−2
= 0
x + 3 = 0
x = − 3
The zero of fis thus − 3
Example 30
22x − 1
State the zeros of the function defined by f : x → _________
2x − 9x − 5
Solution
22x − 1 = 0,
For f(x)= _________
2x − 9x − 5
2x − 1 = 0
x = __12
40
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
SURJECTIVE AND INJECTIVE FUNCTIONS
For two sets, Aand Bthe following statements hold
a. A function f: A → Bis called surjective (or is said to map Aonto B) if B =
range of f.
b. A function f: A → Bis called injective (or one-to-one) if, for all a1 and a2
in A, f(a1)= f(a2)implies that a1 = a2.
c. The graph of an injective function must pass the horizontal line test
d. A function f: A → Bis called bijective if it is both surjective and injective.
e. A function fis strictly increasing if f(x) > f(y) when x > y.
f. A function fis strictly decreasing if f(x) < f(y) when x < y.
g. A function fis increasing if f(x) ≥ f(y) when x > y.
h. A function fis decreasing if f(x) ≤ f(y) when x < y.
Fig 3.7: Increasing and decreasing functions
From Fig 3.7: Increasing and decreasing functions. 7, f(x)is a one-to-one
function since no part of the graph of f( x) is horizontal (parallel to the x − axis
). No more than one value of xhas the same value of y. Likewise, g(x) is a one-
to-one function as for every position on the x − axis(value of x), there is but one
height (corresponding value of y ). Both curves pass the horizontal line test (any
horizontal line drawn will cut each curve at only one point on each) and the only
confirms that they are injective.
Also, f( x)can be described as a strictly increasing function since for x = − 3,
which is less than x = − 2.3, y = − 3which is also less than y = 1.2 (corresponding
to x = − 2.3). the reverse can be said of g(x). The height of g( x)for a smaller value
of x, i.e., x = − 1.6is higher than a bigger value of x , i.e., x = − 0.3. As the graph of
41
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
g(x)is traced from left to right (increasing values of x ), the graph goes downwards
(decreasing values of y) hence g ( x)is a strictly decreasing function.
Conclusions: A function is one-to-one if it is either strictly increasing or strictly
decreasing. A one-to-one function never assigns the same value to two different
elements of the domain.
For an onto function, range and co-domain are equal.
Example 31
If f : ℝ →ℝis given by f( x)= 3x + 7, show the function above is one-to-one
Solution
f(x) = 3x + 7
f(y) = 3y + 7
For one to one function;
f(x) = f(y) ⇒ x = y
3x + 7 = 3y + 7
3x = 3y
x = y
The function is one to one.
Example 32
5x + 7
Show that the function f( x)= _____
4
, x ∈ ℝis one to one.
Solution
5x + 7
f(x) = _____
4
5y + 7
f(y) = _____
4
For one to one function.
f( x) = f(y) ⇒ x = y
5y + 7
5x + 7 _____
_____
4
= 4
5 x + 7 = 5y + 7
5x = 5y + 7 − 7
5x = 5y
x = y
The function is one to one.
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Example 33
x 13
Show that the function f(x)= ____ −8
, x ∈ ℝ, x ≠ 8,is one to one.
Solution
13
f(x) =____
x−8
13
f(y) = ____
y−8
For one to one function.
f( x) = f(y) ⇒ x = y
13 13
____ = ____
x−8 y−8
13(x − 8) = 13(y − 8)
13x − 108 = 13y − 108
13x = 13y − 108 + 108
13x = 13y
x = y
The function is one to one.
Example 34
Given that f( x)= x2, for all x ≥ 0, show that f( x)is one to one.
Solution
f(x) = x2
f( y) = y2
For one to one function.
f( x) = f(y) ⇒ x = y
x2= y2
x = ± y
x = y,
The function is one to one.
In this example, we picked x = y and ignored x = – y because, the condition given
was x must be greater zero.
43
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Example 35
2 1 , x ≠ ± 2, determine whether or not f( x)is one to one.
Given that f(x)= _____
x −4
Solution
2 1
f(x) = _____
x −4
1
f(y) = _____
y2 − 4
For one to one function;
f(x) = f(y) ⇒ x = y
1 = _____
_____ 2 1
2
x − 4 y − 4
x2− 4 = y 2− 4
x2= y2− 4 + 4
x2= y2,
x = ± y
x = − y or x = y
In this case, we are not told that x ≠ − y, therefore there are two options for x.
Hence, the function is not one to one.
Example 36
A Bijective function example: Let us consider a real-life scenario of matching
students to their unique student IDs. Suppose we have a class of students and a set
of unique student identification numbers. A bijective function can be established
between the set of students and the set of student IDs, ensuring that each student
is assigned a distinct student ID, and no two students have the same ID.
44
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
INVERSE OF FUNCTIONS
Inverse functions are functions by which mapping is from the range set to the
domain set. Thus, elements of the range set rather map onto elements of the
domain set. Let us consider the mapping below.
x y
1 5
2 10
3 15
4 20
The above mapping depicts a function which can be denoted by 𝑓: 𝑥 → 5𝑥. It is
the mapping from the domain to the range. Now, consider the following mapping.
This mapping depicts a function that can be denoted by 𝑓 −1 : 𝑥 → __15 x. The notation
𝑓 −1 : 𝑥 is the inverse function of 𝑓: 𝑥. Hence the inverse of 𝑓: 𝑥 → 5𝑥 is 𝑓 −1 :
𝑥 → __15 x. Note the notation 𝑓: 𝑥 can be expressed as (𝑥) and 𝑓 −1 : 𝑥 can also be
expressed as 𝑓 −1 (𝑥).
The inverse of bijection f denoted as f−1is a function which assigns tob, a unique
element asuch that f(a) = b. hence f−1(b) = a
The inverse of a function is visually represented as the reflection of the original
function over the line y = xas shown in Fig 3.8: Inverse functions . By definition,
functions that have inverses (known as invertible functions) must be bijective
and inverse functions are also bijective and hence pass the vertical line and the
horizontal line tests
45
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Fig 3.8: Inverse functions
Example 37
You are the manager of a car rental company, and you want to determine at what
time during the day the number of available rental cars reaches a specific number
(let’s say 20 cars). You know that the number of available rental cars ( C) at any
given time of the day (t) follows a simple linear relationship, represented by the
function f(t) = 40 − 2t. Now, you want to find the time (t) at which the number of
available rental cars is exactly 20 (C = 20).
Set up the equation:
We are given the function f(t) = 40 − 2t, and we want to find t when f( t) = 20.
So, the equation becomes:
f(t) = 20
40 − 2t = 20
Solve for t:
To solve for t, we need to isolate the variable t on one side of the equation. Let’s
proceed with the steps:
Subtract 40from both sides of the equation:
− 2t = 20 − 40
− 2t = − 20
46
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Now, divide both sides by −
2to solve for t:
( )
− 20
t = _( )
−2
t = 10
Interpretation:
The solution t = 10tells us that at 10 units of time (which could be hours, minutes,
etc., depending on the context), the number of available rental cars will be exactly
20.
Write the expression for the inverse function:
Since the function f(t) = 40 − 2tis a one-to-one function (it represents a straight
line with a non-zero slope), it has an inverse function.
The inverse function of f(t) is denoted as f−1( t). To find the inverse, interchange
the roles of t and f(t) and solve for f−1(t):
f( t) = 40 − 2t
Swap tand f( t) :
t = 40 − 2 f−1( t)
Now, solve for f−1(t)
2 f−1( t)= 40 − t
Finally, divide by 2:
( 40 − t )
f−1( t)= ______
2
(
40 − t )
So, the expression for the inverse function is f−1(t)= ______
2
.
Interpretation: The inverse function tells us that given the number of available
rental cars (t), we can determine the time (f−1(t))at which that specific number
of cars will be available. (NB: Keep in mind that in real-life scenarios, functions
and their inverses might not always have straightforward interpretations, and the
context of the problem will play a crucial role in understanding their meanings).
Explore with the help of a classmate or teacher the procedure in finding inverse of
a function f( x)= 2x + 5by calculation.
Are your findings the same as Salma whose work was confirmed by her group
members and the class teacher as correct which is presented in the table below?
47
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
STEPS WORKINGS
STEP 1
f(x)= f−1(x) = 2x + 5
Let your f(x)= f −1(x)
STEP 2
x = 2f−1(x)+ 5
Interchange x and f −1(x)
Make f−1(x) subject (write your expression x − 5 = 2f−1(x)
−1
in terms of x) x −2 5 = f (x)
_
Inverse x −2 5 . {x : x ∈ ℝ}
f−1(x)= ____
Salma did well by stating the domain of the inverse of her function.
Akasi rather presented his work as follows, study it in pairs or individually and
write your observation down.
STEPS WORKINGS
Step 1
f(x)=f−1(x) = 2x + 5
Let your f(x)= f−1(x)
f−1(x) = 2x + 5
Step 2 f−1(x) − 5 = 2x
Make x the subject
f−1(x) − 5
x =_________
2
Step 3
x −2 5
f−1(x) = ____
Interchange variables
Inverse of the function x −2 5 . {x : x ∈ ℝ}
f−1(x)= _____
Explore the solutions of both Salamatu’s and Akasi’s and share your thoughts
with your group or the entire class.
Let us now solve more examples, either in small in groups or solve them
individually and show them to your teacher or classmates the inverses of the
following functions.
1. f(x)= 9 − 4x
2x − 7
2. g(x)= _____
5
48
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
_
3. h (x)= √ 15x − 2
4. s(t)= u + at
Solution
1. f(x)= 9 − 4x
f(x)= f−1(x)= 9 − 4x
f−1(x)= 9 − 4x
x = 9 − 4 f−1(x)
4 f−1(x)= 9 − x
9−x {
f−1(x)= ____
4
, x : x ∈ ℝ}
2x − 7
2. g(x)= _____
5
2x 5− 7
gx = g−1(x) = _____
2x − 7
g−1(x) = _____
5
2g(x)−1 − 7
x = _________
5
5x = 2 g−1(x) − 7
5x + 7 = 2 g−1(x)
5x 2+ 7 = g−1(x)
_
5x 2+ 7 = g−1( x) , { x : x ∈ ℝ}
_____
_
3. h(x)= h−1 (x) = 15x
√ − 2
_
h−1(x) = √ 15x − 2
___________
15 h−1(x) − 2
x = √
x2= 15 h−1(x) − 2
x2+ 2 = 15 h−1(x)
h−1(x) = _____
2
x + 2 {
15
, x : x ∈ ℝ}
4. s ( t)= u + at
s(t)= s−1(t) = u + at
t = u + a s−1(t)
t − u = a s−1(t)
t −a u = s −1(t), { t : t ∈ ℝ}
____
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
In a mathematics quiz between Saddique SHS and St Paul SHS, the problem of
the day was:
2x
Two functions f and g are defined by f( x) → 15x − __
3
and g( x) → 3x + 5. The
schools were asked to find the inverse of these functions. The table below shows
the solution of the two schools and the marks awarded by the quiz mistress.
Sadique SHS St Paul SHS
1. x 2f−1(x)
f(x)= f−1(x)= 15x − 2_
3
x = 15 f−1(x)− ______
3 [1 MARK]
2f−1( x)
______
x = 15 f−1( x)− 3 [1 MARK] 3 x = 45 f−1( x)− 2 f−1( x)[1 MARK]
[1 MARK]
3x = 45 f−1(x)− 2 f−1(x)[1 MARK ]
3x = 43f−1
3x = [
f−1(x) 45 − 2] [1 MARK]
__ 3x
43 = f−1(x), {x : x ∈ ℝ}[1 MARK]
3x = 43f−1(x)
TOTAL MARK = 4
3x
f−1(x)= ___43
[1 MARK (-__12 )]
12
TOTAL MARK = 3 __
2.
g( x)= g−1(x)= 3x + 5 g(x)= g−1(x)= 3x + 5
g−1(x)= 3x + 5 3x = 5 − g−1(x)[0 MARK]
g−1(x)+ 5 = 3x [0 MARK] 3 g−1(x)= 5 − x[0 MARK]
g−1( x)+ 5
________ 5− x
3
= x [0 MARK] g−1( x)= _____
3
[0 MARK]
x+5 5−x
____ 3
= g−1(x),{x : x ∈ ℝ} [0 MARK] g−1(x)= ____
3
= g−1(x),{x : x ∈ ℝ}
You were appointed as a consultant to resolve a protest written by the schools
for being marked down. Will your model solution be different from what the two
schools presented? How will you explain each point where they lost the marks for
an amicable settlement?
50
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
COMPOSITE FUNCTIONS
Consider a real-life scenario where you are running a food delivery service. You
have three functions:
a. The first function calculates the total cost of the food order based on the
items selected and their prices.
b. The second function calculates the delivery charge based on the distance
between the restaurant and the customer’s location.
c. The third function calculates the total time it will take to deliver the order,
including preparation and delivery time. Now, to find the total cost for a
specific food order, you can create a composite function by combining these
three functions:
Total cost = Third Function ( Second Function ( First Function ( food _ items))).
In this example, the output of the first function (total cost of food items) becomes
the input for the second function (delivery charge calculation), and then the
output of the second function becomes the input for the third function (total time
calculation).
Fig 3.9: Composite functions
Some common properties of composite functions.
Properties include:
1. fog ≠ gof, except when g(x) = f(x)
2. (f−1∘ f) ( a) = f−1( f( a) = f−1f(a) = a
3. (f ∘ f−1)( b)= f−1(f(b) = f−1f(b)= b
4. (f ∘ g)−1= g−1∘ f−1
5. If f and gboth are one to one function, then f ∘ gis also one to one.
6. If fand gboth are onto function, then f ∘ g is also onto.
7. If fand f ∘ gboth are one to one function, then gis also one to one.
51
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
8. If fand fogare onto, then it is not necessary that gis also onto.
Example 38
If h ( x)= − 2 x2+ 3xand f( x)= 3x − 2, evaluate
a. (h ∘ f)(− 2)
b. (f ∘ h)( − 2)
Solution
h(x)= − 2 x2+ 3xand f( x)= 3x − 2
a. (h ∘ f)(x)= − 2 ( 3x − 2)2+ 3(3x − 2)
= − 2(9 x2− 12x + 4)+ 9x − 6
= − 18 x2+ 33x − 14
(h ∘ f)( − 2)= − 18 ( − 2)2+ 33(− 2)− 14
= − 152
b. (f ∘ h)(x)= 3(− 2 x2+ 3x)− 2
= − 6 x2+ 9x − 2
(f ∘ h)( − 2)= − 6 ( − 2)2+ 9(− 2)− 2
= − 44
Example 40
If g ( x)= 8x − 3and f( x)= 5 + x, evaluate
a. (g ∘ f)
b. (f ∘ g)
c. (f ∘ f)
Solution
a. (g ∘ f)= g(5 + x)
= g(5 + x)= 8(5 + x)− 3
= 40 + 8x − 3
(g ∘ f)= 8x + 37
52
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
b. (f ∘ g)= f(8x − 3)
= f(8x − 3)= 5 + ( 8x − 3)
= 5 + 8x − 3
(f ∘ g)= 8x + 2
c. (f ∘ f)= f(5 + x)
= f(5 + x)= 5 + (5 + x)
= 5 + 5 + x
(f ∘ f)= 10 + x
Activity 3.8
In small groups, complete the following table and verify the properties of
composite functions for each of the questions.
1. g(x)= x + 4 and f(x)= 5x − 16
2. f(x)= 1 − xand f( x)= 3x2
Property Remarks
Write Verified if the property is true
and if not, write Not verified
fog ≠ gof, except g( x) = f(x)
( f−1∘ f) (a) = f−1(f(a)
= f−1f(a) = a
(f ∘ f−1)(b)= f−1(f(b)
= f−1f(b)= b
(f ∘ g)−1= g−1∘ f−1
If f and gboth are one to one
function, then f ∘ gis also one
to one.
If fand gboth are onto
function, then f ∘ g is also
onto
53
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
LINEAR FUNCTIONS
Hello, may I have your attention as we look at the concepts of linear relations and
parabola that we see around us and in our daily activities. May I also ask that you
pay attention to the behaviour of these relations and be able to make sense out of
them in real life situations?
Linear and parabolic functions are among the most essential types of functions.
They are part of a wider range of functions called polynomial functions. Whether
you are charting the path of a projectile, analysing trends in data, or simply
modelling real-world scenarios, these functions play crucial roles.
Linear functions have a constant rate of change, which makes them ideal for
representing relationships that evolve uniformly over time or space. They serve as
the building blocks for more complex mathematical concepts and are prevalent in
various fields, from economics to physics.
Parabolic functions, on the other hand, exhibit a curved, symmetrical shape and
are characterized by a squared term. They often describe phenomena such as the
trajectory of a thrown object, the shape of a suspension bridge cable, or the arc of
a fountain’s water.
We will focus on the properties, applications, and graphical representations of
both linear and parabolic functions. Through exploration, problem-solving, and
real-world examples, you will gain a deeper understanding of these fundamental
mathematical concepts and their significance in everyday life.
We discussed linear sequences, and it was established that the general rule for a
linear sequence is un = a + (n − 1)dwith the values of un and (n − 1) changing
from term to term. This presupposes that there are only two variables (un and
(n − 1)) as the value of ‘a’ and d
would be constant for all the terms of the same
linear sequence. One of the features that qualifies un = a + ( n − 1)dto be a linear
equation is the presence of exactly two variables
Linear functions are of the forms:
1. f( x)= ax + b: Variables are xand f( x)while ‘a’ and ‘b’ are constants
2. y = mx + c: Variables are xand ywhile ‘m’ and ‘c’ are constants
3. y − y 1 = m(x − x1) : Variables are xand y while y1, mand ‘x1’ are constants
Note: It must be noted that the degree of linear functions is one whilst that of
quadratic functions whose nature is parabolic is two.
54
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
GRAPHS OF LINEAR FUNCTIONS
Since linear functions have exactly two variables, any two-dimensional plane
/ system like the Cartesian coordinate system can be used to represent them.
Corresponding values of the two variables are taken as pairs and plotted as
locations on the grid. The infinitely many points that satisfy a linear function or
equation join to form a straight line.
Some notes:
For a linear equation, y = mx + c,
1. The value of the y intercept is the y coordinate of the point where the graph
of the function cuts the y − axis, when the value of x = 0
2. The value of the xintercept is the xcoordinate of the point where the graph
of the function cuts the y − axis, when the value of y = 0
3. mis the slope or gradient of the line or a plane. It is the ratio of the increment
/ decrement of values of the dependent variable to the increment / decrement
∆y y − y
= ___
of values of the independent variable. It often written as m ∆x
or m =_____
2 1
x − x 2 1
y 1 − y2
or m = _____x1 − x2 where ( x1, y1) and ( x2, y2) are points on the line. Note that,
y2 − y1
m ≠ _____
x1 − x2 since x1 and y2 are not corresponding coordinates just as x2 and
y1 are not coordinates of the same point
4. If m > 0, the graph strictly increases and when m < 0, it strictly decreases
Example 41
To graph the equation y = 2x − 1, we can use
A. the intercepts method:
i. Start by plotting the y-intercept: (0, − 1), which can be obtained by
finding the value of y when x = 0
ii. Plot the x-intercept: (0.5, 0), which can be obtained by finding the value
of xwhen y = 0
iii. Connect the points to get a straight line as demonstrated below.
Note: that since linear functions are polynomial functions and hence have the
domain and ranges as the set of real numbers and the fact that a straight line has
no extremities, it should be emphasised that lines drawn to connect the points
should stretch to the ends of the grid.
55
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Fig 3.10: Intercept method of graphing linear equations
B. Using the gradient and y-intercept:
i. Start by plotting the y-intercept: ( 0, − 1), which can be obtained by
finding the value of y when x = 0
ii. Use the slope, m = 2to find other points. The slope can be found by
comparing the equation to be graphed to the most appropriate general
equation of a line, in this example, y = mx + c
iii. Since the slope is in the ratio 1 : 2, we can go up 2 units and right 1 unit
from the y-intercept to find the next point (0 + 1, − 1 + 2)= (1, 1)and
the next, ( 1 + 1, 1 + 2)= ( 2, 3)and so on.
56
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Fig 3.11: Gradient and y-intercept method of graphing linear equations
C. Using the gradient and x-intercept:
i. Start by plotting the x-intercept: ( 0.5, 0), which can be obtained by
finding the value of xwhen y = 0
ii. Use the slope, m = 2to find other points.
iii. Since the slope is in the ratio 1 : 2, we can go up 2 units and right 1 unit
from the y -intercept to find the next point ( 0.5 + 1, 0 + 2)= ( 1.5, 2)and
the next and ( 1.5 + 1, 2 + 2)= ( 2.5, 4)and so on.
Fig 3.12: Gradient and x-intercept method of graphing linear equations
D. Plotting points in a suitable range:
In some cases, it is not convenient to plot the intercepts of the line on the
grid. Such situations can occur when multiple graphs have to be constructed
57
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
on the same grid and a common scale for the axes that allows for all the
intercepts to be located and easily plotted cannot be easily obtained. In a
case such as this,
i. A convenient value for x may be chosen, say x = 2and its corresponding
yvalue (y = 3) found by substituting it into the equation of the line
ii. The process is repeated for a different value of x , say, x = − 2 to obtain
(− 2, − 5)
iii. The two points obtained can then be plotted and a straight line drawn to
join the points to the edges of the grid
Fig. 3.13: Graphing linear equations by plotting suitable points.
Activity 3.9
Consider the figures below:
In small groups or individually, calculate the slope of AB and the slope of CD
and by comparing the results determine which one is gentler.
58
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Whichever approach you choose to calculate the slopes, if you arrive at same
results as the suggested solution following then you have understood the
concept. Attention should be paid on the negative sign for the slope of AB.
Vertical drop
___________________
Slope of AB=
Horizontal distance moved
−64
=_
−32
=_
Vertical rise
___________________
Slope of CD =
Horizontal distance moved
=_45
Since the magnitude of the slope of AB is less than the magnitude of the slope
of CD, the slope of AB is gentler.
DETERMINING AREAS ENCLOSED BY GRAPHS
The area enclosed by two or more graphs can be found by finding the area of the
plane figures that is bounded by the graphs.
Example 42
Find the area bounded by y = − 3x + 6, the x − axisand the y − axis
Solution
The graph of y = − 3x + 6intersects the x − axisat (2, 0)and the y − axisat (0,
6)while the two axes intersect at the origin with coordinates ( 0, 0)
Fig 3.14: Solution region to y = − 3x + 6, the x − axisand the y − axis
59
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
The area bounded by y = − 3x + 6, the x − axisand the y − axisis in the shape of
a right triangle with vertices, ( 0, 0), (0, 6)and ( 2, 0).
This translates into a base length of 2 unitsand a height of 6 units.
The required area is thus: __12 ( 2)(6)= 6 square units
Example 43
Consider the linear equation: 2x − 3y = 6.
i. Draw the graph of this linear equation by hand or using a graphing utility on
a coordinate plane.
ii. Find the area bounded by the graph, the x − axis, y − axisand y = 4
Solution
For 2 x − 3y = 6,
x − intercept = ( 3, 0)
y − intercept = (0, − 2)
Intersection points between 2x − 3y = 6and y = 4is (9, 4)
Fig. 3.15: Solution region for 2x − 3y = 6, x − axis, y − axisand y = 4
From the graph in Figure 3.15, the bounded area (a trapezium) has vertices at A
(9, 4), B(0, 4), C(0, 0)and D( 3, 0)
The parallel sides, |AB| and |DC| have lengths, 9 unitsand 3 units respectively
while the perpendicular height is 4 units
12 (|AB|+ |DC|))× |BC|
The area of the bounded region = Area of ABCD = __
12 (9 + 3)(4)
=_
= 24 squared units
60
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
MODELLING WITH LINEAR EQUATIONS
Most real-life problems can be translated to the world of mathematics, solved
and the solutions interpreted in the real life. Linear functions are among the wide
range of mathematical tools for doing just that.
Example 44
A local electronics store is selling a new smartphone model. The store manager
has recorded the number of smartphones sold and the corresponding price for
each week. The data is as follows:
Week 1: Price GH¢ 800.00, Number of Smartphones Sold: 30
Week 2: Price GH¢ 700.00, Number of Smartphones Sold: 40
Week 3: Price GH¢ 600.00, Number of Smartphones Sold:50
Week 4: Price GH¢ 500.00, Number of Smartphones Sold: 60
Construct a linear function that represents the relationship between the price (p)
and the number of smartphones sold (n) and predict the number of smartphones
that would be sold if the price is reduced to GH¢ 200.00
Solution
Price ( p)/ GH¢ 800 700 600 500
Sales (n) 30 40 50 60
If the required function must be linear, then the pairs from the table must satisfy
an equation of the form: n = mp + c
From the table,
When p = 600, n = 50. Thus
50 = 600m + c
Also, when p = 500, n = 50. Thus
60 = 500m + c
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
A system of two linear equations can be formed and solved to obtain the values
of mand cas such:
50 = 600m + c
60 = 500m + c }
− 10 = 100m
10
m = − ___
100 = − 0.1 and
60 = 500 ( 10
− ___
100 ) + c
c = 60 + 50 = 110
∴the required function is n(p)= − 0.1p + 110
∴When p = GH¢ 200.00, n(200)= − 0.1(200)+ 110 = 90
When the price is reduced to GH¢ 200.00, 90 smartphones will be sold
Alternatively,
It can be observed from the table that there is a common difference in the prices
i.e., G
H¢ 100.00and a common difference in the number of sales too i.e., 10.
This suggests that the ratio of difference in the co-domain, range or values of
Nto the difference in the elements in the domain or values for price will be a
constant. That constant is the gradient. The gradient is negative since we expect
a decreasing function. While the prices increase, the number of sales decreases,
thus:
10
Gradient, m = − ___
100 = − 0.1
Linear functions are of the form, y = mx + cso we expect the required function
to be n(p)= mp + c
When n = 60, p = 500
60 = − 0.1(500)+ c
c = 60 + 50
c = 110
∴the required linear function is n(p)= − 0.1p + 110
When p
= GH¢ 200.00, n(200)= − 0.1(200)+ 110 = 90
∴When the price is reduced to GH¢ 200.00, 90 smartphones will be sold.
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Another solution is to plot the points, (p, n)on the cartesian plane and use the
graph to find the gradient and estimate the y − interceptto obtain the values of m
and c respectively as illustrated in
Fig 3.16: Graphical solution to example
From the graph, when p = GH¢ 200.00, n = 90
∴When the price is reduced to GH¢ 200.00, 90 smartphones will be sold
PARABOLIC OR QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS
As the name suggests, parabolic functions represent the path taken by points on
a parabola.
Parabolic functions are of the forms f(x) = a x 2 + bx + cwhere a, band c are
constants and a ≠ 0. The variables are xand f( x)while ‘a’ and ‘b’ are constants.
Parabolic functions have a degree of 2.
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
GRAPHS OF PARABOLIC FUNCTIONS
The graph of a quadratic function in terms of xi.e., y = a x2 + bx + cis either
shaped like the intersection symbol, ∩ thus opening downwards or the union
symbol, ∪
opening upward
Some notes:
For a parabolic function, f(x)= a x2+ bx + cwith vertex (turning point) located
at ( u, v)
1. If a
> 0,
a. The graph of f( x)is “⋃” shaped, same as the turning point
b. It has a minimum point
c. It decreases in the interval: x = (− ∞, u)while increasing in the interval:
x = (u, ∞)
d. Its range is the interval: y = [ u, ∞)
2. If a < 0
a. The graph of f(x)is “⋂” shaped
b. It has a maximum point, same as the turning point
c. It increases in the interval: x = (− ∞, u)while decreasing in the interval:
x = (u, ∞)
d. Its range is the interval: y = ( − ∞, u]
Fig 3.17: Parabolic graphs
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Illustration 1 in Fig 3.17: Parabolic graphs shows the graph of y = x2− 2, having
a positive number, 1 as the coefficient of the squared term. It has a minimum
value at A ( 0, − 2), its turning point. It decreases for values of x in the interval:
(− ∞, 0)and increases for 0 < x < ∞. y ∈ [ − 2, ∞)as the values of ywould not be
less than − 2, the ycoordinate of the lowest point on the graph.
For y = − 3 x2− 5x + 1(the corresponding graph shown in Illustration 2) however,
the coefficient of the squared term, i.e., − 3 < 0and thus, is shaped like ⋂ . It has
a maximum value at A( − 0.833, 3.083), its turning point. It increases for values
of x in the interval: (− ∞, − 0.833) and increases for x ∈ (− 0.833, ∞) and has a
range between negative infinity to 3 .0833(inclusive) as the values of ycannot be
greater than 3.0833.
Example 45
Construct a parabolic function whose graph has a minimum value at its vertex at
(1, − 2) and passes through the point ( 2, 1).
Solution
Vertex is located at ( 1, − 2)
Point on graph (2, 1)
From the vertex, a movement of 3 unitsupwards and 1 unitto the right results in
the location of ( 2, 1)
Since the graph of a parabolic function is bilaterally symmetrical, a movement
from the vertex of 3 unitsupwards and 1 unitto the left will provide the location
of another point (1 − 1, − 2 + 3)= ( 0, 1)which lies on the graph
Fig 3.18: Parabolic graph passing through minimum point ( 1, − 2)
65
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
We expect that any parabolic function to be of the form f( x)= a x2+ bx + c and
since the coordinates of points that lie on its graph must satisfy the equation,
For (1, − 2),
− 2 = a (1)2+ b(1)+ c
a + b + c = − 2
For (2, 1),
1 = a (2)2+ b(2)+ c
4a + 2b + c = 1
For ( 0, 1),
1 = a (0)2+ b(0)+ c
c = 1
a + b + c = −2
c = 1}
4a + 2b + c = 1
The solution to the system of equations results in a
= 3, b = − 6and c = 1 which
are the constants in the quadratic function hence we obtain
f( x)= 3 x2− 6x + 1
These further examples are to help you appreciate what we have gone through
this far. Take your time in small groups or individually and work through them,
observing the details and finding out if there are corrections to be made.
Example 46
Plot a graph of y = − x2+ x + 2 f or − 3 ≤ x ≤ 4.
Solution
Complete a table of values
x − 3 − 2 − 1 0 1 2 3 4
y − 10 − 4 0 2 2 0 − 4 − 10
Let us go through a few examples to complete the table.
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Given y = − x2+ x + 2
For x = -3
y = − ( − 3)2+ ( − 3)+ 2
y =− 9 − 3 + 2
y = − 10
For x = 0
y = − 02+ 0 + 2
y=2
For x = 3
y = − 32+ 3 + 2
y=− 4
Then plot the points from the table of values, taking care to join the points with a
smooth curve, not straight lines.
Fig 3.19: Graphical Representation of y = − x2+ x + 2 for − 3 ≤ x ≤ 4.
Example 47
Plot a graph of y = x2− 2x − 15from the table of values.
x − 4 − 3 − 2 − 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
y 9 0 − 7 − 12 − 15 − 16 − 15 − 12 − 7 0 9
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Solution
Fig. 3.20: Graphical Representation of y = x2 – 2x – 15
Example 48
Copy and complete the table below for the function.
y = − x2− 7x − 12and use it plot the graph.
x − 7 − 6 − 5 − 4 − 3 − 2 − 1 0 1 2
y − 6 0 − 2 − 12
Solution
Table of values
x − 7 − 6 − 5 − 4 − 3 − 2 − 1 0 1 2
y − 12 − 6 − 2 0 0 − 2 6 − 12 − 20 − 30
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Fig 3.21: Graphical representation of y = − x2− 7x − 12
Example 49
By using a graphical method, solve the simultaneous equations; y = x2 − x − 6
and y = x + 2
Solution
By substituting the values of x, the corresponding values y can be obtained.
y = x2− x − 6
x − 4 − 3 − 2 − 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
y 14 6 0 − 4 − 6 − 6 − 4 0 6 14
y=x+2
x − 3 − 1 0 1 3 4
y − 1 1 2 3 5 6
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Plot both graphs on the same axes.
Fig 3.22: Graphical representation of y = x2− x − 6 and y = x + 2
From the graph the solutions are where the two graphs intersect, (-2,0) and (4,6).
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
GRAPHICAL SOLUTION TO LINEAR
INEQUALITIES INVOLVING ONE VARIABLE
Activity 3.10: Graphing Inequalities Involving x
Steps:
1. Understanding the Inequality:
Determine the inequality involving x. For example, let’s consider the
inequality x > k.
2. Identify the Vertical Line:
The inequality x > k means all values of x that are greater than k. This
forms a vertical line on the x-axis at x = k.
3. Graphing the Line:
Draw a vertical line at x = k on your graph paper or graphing tool. Label
it as x = k.
4. Determine the Shaded Region:
Based on the inequality:
· x > k: Shade the region to the right of the vertical line x = k. This
represents all x-values greater than k.
· x < k: Shade the region to the left of the vertical line x = k. This
represents all x-values less than k.
· x ≥ k: Include the line x = k itself and shade to the right of it.
· x ≤ k: Include the line x = k itself and shade to the left of it.
5. Label the Shaded Region:
Clearly label the shaded region on your graph paper or tool to indicate
which side of the line satisfies the inequality.
6. Verify:
If using a graphing tool, you can verify by plugging in different values
of x to see if they satisfy the inequality and lie in the shaded region.
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Example 50
Suppose the inequality is x > 3.
a. Draw the vertical line x = 3.
b. Shade the region to the right of this line.
c. Your graph should look like this.
Fig 3.23: graphical illustration of x>3.
Note, the line x = 3is dashed as the inequality does not include the line itself.
Example 51
Suppose the inequality is y ≤ 4.
a. Draw the horizontal line at y = 4.
b. Shade the region below this line.
Solution
1. The line y = 4is a horizontal line with y the intercept (0, 4).
Draw a solid line and shade below it as shown below:
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Fig 3.24: Graphical illustration of y = 4
Note, the line here is solid as it is included in the inequality.
Example 52
x ≥ 0is illustrated as follows
Fig 3.25: Graphical illustration of x ≥ 0
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Example 53
y ≥ 0is illustrated as follows
Fig 3.26: Graphical illustration of y ≥ 0
Example 54
Illustrate 4x > 3on a graph.
Solution
The solution to an inequality is the range of values for the variables involved that
make the inequality true. For example, given that 4x > 3:
when x = 1 ⇒ 4x = 4(1) = 4, the inequality holds true since 4is greater than 3.
when x = 3 ⇒ 4x = 4(3) = 12, the inequality also holds true since 12is greater
than 3.
There are infinitely many values for xwhich will make the inequality hold true
hence it is more expedient to write out a range that caters for all those values. For
4x > 3, all values of x which are greater than 3 / 4satisfy. This translates into a
truth set = { x : x > 3 / 4} which can be illustrated by a shaded area on a graph as
shown in Figure 9. It can be observed that a broken line is used to indicate the
boundary of the solution region (shaded with blue). This is because the solution
3
does not include x = __ 4
74
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Fig 3.27: Graphical illustration of 4x > 3
75
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
GRAPHICAL SOLUTION TO LINEAR
INEQUALITIES INVOLVING TWO VARIABLES
Strategy for Graphing Linear Inequalities in Two
Variables
Solve the inequality for y, then graph y = mx + b
1. y > mx + bis the region above the line
2. y = mx + bis the line itself
3. y < mx + bis the region below the line.
Steps:
1. Find the intercepts on x and y axes, bearing in mind that at the x-intercept, y
= 0 and at the y-intercept, x = 0.
2. Prepare a table of values.
3. Draw the boundary line according to the table of values, using dashed line
for the symbols <and >, and solid lines for the symbols ≤and ≥.
4. For boundaries with the symbol >or ≥shade the area above the line and for
boundaries with symbol <or ≤, shade the area below the line.
Example 55
Show the graphical representation of the linear inequality involving two variables, say
2x − 3y < 4,
1. The inequality is rewritten as an equation, i.e., 2 x − 3y = 4so that the
boundary of the solution can be drawn. It can be easier to write it in the form
y = mx + c, so in this case, y = 2 / 3 x − 4 / 3
2. A test to determine which side of the boundary line forms part of the solution
region can then be conducted by determining which side of the line contains
points that satisfy the inequality. Thus:
3. select a point, say (0, 0)
4. substitute the coordinates of the point into the inequality to check if it
satisfies 2 (0) − 3 (0) = 0
0 is less than 4 hence (0, 0) satisfy the inequality and hence the side of the line,
2x − 3y = 4that forms the solution is the side that contains (0, 0) as shown in
Figure 10.
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Fig 3.28: Linear inequality in two variables
Example 56
Graph each inequality:
1. 2 x − 3y < 6
2. y + 2x ≥ 3
Solution
1. If 2 x − 3y < 6, solve for y
3y > 2x − 6
y > __
3
63
2 x – __
y > __23 x − 2
2 x − 2;
Now, iny = __
3
Intercept on x – axis
2x
When y = 0, 0 = __3
− 2
2x
3(0) = 3(__3
) − 3(2)
0 = 2x − 6
− 2x = − 6
x = 3
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Intercept on x – axis is (3,0)
Intercept on y-axis,
When x = 0, y = -2
Intercept on y – axis is (0, -2)
Table of values
x 0 3
y -2 0
Draw the boundary line according to the table of values, using a dashed line
for the boundary because it is not included in the inequality.
Shade the region above the line because of the symbol >.
Fig 3.29: Graphical illustration of 2x − 3y < 6
2. If y + 2x ≥ 3, solve for y
y≥ − 2x + 3.
Now in y = − 2x + 3;
Intercept on x-axis;
When y = 0, 0 = − 2x + 3
2x =3
x =3 / 2
x = 1.5
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Intercept on x axis is (1.5, 0)
Intercept on y axis;
When x=0, y = − 2(0) + 3
y = 3
Intercept on y-axis is (0, 3)
Table of values
x 1.5 0
y 0 3
Draw the boundary line according to the table of values. Because of the
symbol ≥, every point on or above the line satisfy the inequality. To show
that the line y = − 2x + 3is included, draw a solid line and shade the region
above.
Fig 3.30: Graphical illustration of y + 2x ≥ 3
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
GRAPHICAL SOLUTION TO SYSTEMS OF LINEAR
INEQUALITIES
The solution region to a system of two or more linear inequalities is the region
that is made up of all points that satisfy all the inequalities.
Example 57
1. Graph the solution set of the system
x + 2y ≥ 8
x + y ≤ 12
x ≥ 0
y ≥ 0
Solution
We will go through the following steps to find the solution region
a. draw the graphs of x+ 2y= 8, x + y = 12, x = 0 and y =0,
b. identify regions on the grid that contain points that may satisfy all inequalities,
c. verify whether or not test points from those regions satisfy the inequalities
d. make conclusions to determine the solution region
Figure 3.31 shows the graphs of the four equations and possible solution regions
namely A 1, A 2and A 3 .
We would only consider points in the regions named A 1, A 2 and A 3 since
points in those regions satisfy both x≥ 0 and y ≥ 0
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Fig 3.31: Graphical illustration of x+ 2y= 8, x + y = 12, x = 0 and y =0
Region Test Point Inequality Check Conclusion
A1 (1, 1) x + 2y≥ 8 1 + 2(1) = 3 Does not satisfy
x + y ≤ 12 1 + 1 = 2 Satisfies
A2 (5, 5) x + 2y≥ 8 5 + 2(5) = 15 Satisfies
x + y ≤ 12 5 + 5 = 10 Satisfies
A3 (10, 10) x + 2y≥ 8 10 + 2(10) = 30 Satisfies
x + y ≤ 12 10 + 10 = 20 Does not satisfy
From the table, A 2, is the solution region since it is the only region which contains
points that satisfy all four inequalities
Fig 3.32: Solution Region for example 57
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Activity 3.11
In groups or individually, show graphically the region which satisfies
simultaneously the inequalities:
2x + 3y ≤ 8
x − 2y ≥ − 3
x ≥ 0
y ≥ 0
Go through the following steps:
· draw the graphs of 2x+ 3y= 8, x − 2y = − 3, x = 0and y =0,
· identify regions on the grid that contain points that may satisfy all
inequalities,
· verify whether or not test points from those regions satisfy the inequalities,
· make conclusions to determine the solution region
After going through the activity above, your graph should be like the one
below. The required region is the quadrilateral one which is in the darkest
colour as this satisfies all of the inequalities.
Fig 3.33: Solution region for 2x+ 3y= 8, x − 2y = − 3, x = 0and y =0
82
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
LINEAR PROGRAMMING
We can apply the solution set of the system of linear inequalities to linear
programming. Linear programming is a method of finding solutions to a system
of linear inequalities that maximises or minimises a function of the form f(x, y)
= ax + by,where a and bare constants. It has a variety of practical applications
such as maximizing and minimizing costs, finding the most efficient shipping
schedules and so on, to determine the maximum and minimum value of a function,
by substituting the coordinates of the vertices of the polygon.
Activity 3.12
A carpenter can make a maximum of 20 tables and 30 chairs per day. Each
table requires 3 hours of labour and each chair requires 2 hours of labour.
The maximum total number of hours of labour that the carpenter has at his
disposal is 96.
(a) Give three inequalities that express the above conditions.
(b) Graph and shade the common region that satisfies these inequalities.
(c) Find the maximum number of chairs and tables that can be made within
the time at his disposal.
Expected Solution
(a) Let xbe the number of tables made in a day and ythe number of chairs
made. Hence the inequalities are
0 ≤ x ≤ 20
0 ≤ y ≤ 30
3x + 2y ≤ 96
(b) The graph shows the inequalities, the required regions is shaded and
labelled P
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Fig 3.34: Solution region for Activity 3.12
(c) From the graph the coordinates of the vertices of the polygon are:
(0,0), (0,30), (12,30), (20,16) and (20,0).
Hence, we can use any points within area P to decide the optimal number
of tables and chairs to be made. For example, 12 tables and 30 chairs =
42 items could be made with 96 hours of labour.
Activity 3.13
In pairs, or individually, work through the following scenario. Then compare
your solution to the one below. Which one do you prefer?
1. A factory produces two agricultural pesticides, A and B. For every barrel
of A, the factory emits 0.25 kgof carbon monoxide (CO) and 0.60 kg of
sulfur dioxide (SO2), and for every barrel of B, it emits 0 .50 kgof CO
and 0 .20 kgof SO2. Pollution laws restrict the factory’s output of CO to
a maximum of 75 kgand SO2 to a maximum of 90 kgper day.
2. Find a system of inequalities that describes the number of barrels of
each pesticide the factory can produce and still satisfy the pollution laws.
Graph the feasible region.
3. Would it be legal for the factory to produce 100 barrels of A and 80
barrels of B per day?
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
4. Would it be legal for the factory to produce 60 barrels of A and 160
barrels of B per day?
Expected Solution
a. We will first record the data in a table
CO/kg SO2 / kg
A 0.25 kg 0.60 kg
B 0.50 kg 0.20 kg
Maximum 75 kg 90 kg
Let x = number of barrels of A produced per day and
y = number of barrels of B produced per day
The number of barrels produced cannot be negative hence x ≥ 0 and
y ≥ 0 and since there are maximum masses of CO and SO2 that are
allowed,
Total amount of CO produced = 0.25x + 0.50y ≤ 75
Total amount of SO2= 0.60x + 0.20y ≤ 90
These bits of data translate into the system:
x ≥ 0⎫
y ≥ 0⎪
⎬
0.25x + 0.50y ≤ 75⎪
0.60x + 0.20y ≤ 90⎭
Test Point Inequality Check Conclusion
(50, 50) 0.25x + 0.50y ≤ 75 0.25(50)+ 0.5(50)= 37.5 Satisfies
0.60x + 0.20y ≤ 90 0.60(50)+ 0.20(50)= 40 Satisfies
(50, 200) 0.25x + 0.50y ≤ 75 0.25(50)+ 0.50(200)= 112.5 Does not
satisfy
0.60x + 0.20y ≤ 90 0.60(50)+ 0.20(200)= 70 Satisfies
(150, 50) 0.25x + 0.50y ≤ 75 0.25(150)+ 0.50(50)= 62.5 Satisfies
0.60x + 0.20y ≤ 90 0.60(150)+ 0.20(50)= 100 Does not
satisfy
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
So, we can now draw the inequalities.
Fig 3.35: Solution region for Activity 3.13
Note that the equations could be multiplied through to a convenient
number to obtain an equivalent equation with whole numbers as
coefficients. E.g.:
0.25x + 0.50y ≤ 75 ≡ x + 2y ≤ 300
b. (100, 80) falls in the solution region hence it is legal for the factory to
produce 100 barrels of A and 80 barrels of B per day
c. It would be illegal for the factory to produce 60 barrels of A and 160
barrels of B per day since (60, 160) falls outside the shaded region.
Now, let us talk about polynomial functions.
To understand this topic, it is important to revise algebraic expression, graphs
of linear and quadratic functions and long division learnt at JHS.
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS
A Polynomial function comprises various combinations on constants, variables,
and exponents and is of the form: Pn (x) = a xn + b xn−1 + c xn−2 + d xn−3 + …
where a
, b, c, d, …are constants and nis a non-negative integer.
Some types of polynomial functions are, linear, quadratic, cubic, quartic and
quintic functions. The classification of polynomial functions into these types
depends on the degree (the highest exponent of the independent variable) of the
polynomial. For example, the highest exponent of x in − 2 x2+ 4 x3+ 2xis 3 and
thus, the expression is a cubic polynomial expression.
n Type of General Form Examples
polynomial
0 Constant f(x)= c 23
y = 2, y = − 4, y = __
f(x)= − 2x + 3,
1 Linear f( x)= ax + b, , a ≠ 0
y = 3x − 4, x − 2y = 4
f(x)= 2 x2− 4x + 3,
f( x)= a x2+ bx + c,
2 Quadratic y = − 5 x2− 4,
a ≠ 0
g(x)= x2+ 3_2 x
f(x)= a x3+ b x2+ cx + d, y = x3, y = x3− 2x,
3 Cubic
a ≠ 0 f(x)= 3 + 4x − x3
y = − x4+ x3,
a x4+
f( x)= b x3+ c x 2+ dx
4 Quartic y = 3 x4+ x3− 2x,
+ g, a ≠ 0
f( x)= 3 + 4 x2− x3− x4
f( x)= − 2 x5+ 3,
f(x)= a x5+ b x4+ c x3+ d
5 Quintic 2 y = x5+ 3x − 4,
x + gx + h, a ≠ 0
x5+ x3− 2y = 4
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
PERFORMING ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS ON
POLYNOMIAL FUNCTION
Only like terms (terms which have the same variables raised to the same powers)
can be added or subtracted.
Example 58
f(x) = 4 x4− x3− 9 x2+ 2x − 5and h( x)= x3+ 3 x2− 2x + 2 then,
1. f( x)+ h(x)= 4 x4− x3− 9 x2+ 2x − 5 + ( x3+ 3 x2− 2x + 2)
= 4 x4− 6 x2− 3
2. f(x)− h(x)= 4 x4− x3− 9 x2+ 2x − 5 − ( x3+ 3 x2− 2x + 2)
= 4 x4− 2 x3− 12 x2+ 4x − 7
Example 59
If h( x) = 5 x3+ 2 x2+ x + 5 and g(x) = 2 x3+ 5x + 7, find:
1. h(x) –g(x)
2. h(x) + g(x)
Solution
1. h(x) − g(x) = ( 5 x3+ 2 x2+ x + 5) –(2 x3+ 5x + 7)
Group terms with the same degree or power
= (5x3− 2 x3) + (2 x2) + ( x − 5x) + ( 5 − 7)
Then simplify
= 3 x3+ 2 x2—4x − 2
2. hx + gx = 5 x3 + 2 x2 + x + 5 + (2 x3 + 5x + 7)
Again, group the terms with the same degree or power
= ( 5x3+ 2 x3)+ ( 2 x2) + ( x + 5x)+ ( 5 + 7)
And then simplify:
= + 2 + 6x + 12
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Go through the following steps with a classmate or in a small group to learn
how to divide two polynomial functions.
Example 60
Divide x3− 5 x2+ 4x − 3by x − 2
Steps to follow when dividing polynomials
1. Divide x3by xto get the first term of the quotient
2. Multiply x − 2 by x2, make up the rest of the terms by simply adding 0x
and 0 respectively
3. Subtract and bring down 4x − 3
4. Divide − 3 x2by x to get − 3xthat is the second term of the quotient.
5. Repeat the process in step 2 and subtract
6. Bring down − 3
7. Divide 2xby xand multiply x − 2by − 2
8. Finally subtract to get− 7that is the Remainder
Solution
Here it is in action with the Long Division Method:
x 2− 3x − 2
______________
x − 2 √ x 3− 5 x2+ 4x − 3
(__
x3− 2 x2+ 0x + 0)
−
− 3 x2+ 4x − 3
− ( −
__ 3 x2+ 6x − 0)
− 2x − 3
−_ ( − 2x + 4)
−7
3 2
x − 5 x + 4x − 3
_____________
x−2
x −7 2 where x 2− 3x − 2 is the quotient and − 7
= x2− 3x − 2 − ____
is the remainder.
Example 61
With the steps of dividing a polynomial by a divisor using the long division
4 3 2
x + x −
11 x − 5x + 30
method, find the quotient and the remainder of P(x) = ___________________
x−2
.
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Solution
x3+ 3 x2− 5x − 15
x-2 x4 + x 3− 11 x2− 5x + 30
x4− 2 x3
3 x3− 11 x2
3 x3− 6 x2
5 x2− 5x
5 x2+ 10x
- 15x + 30
15x + 30
0
Therefore, the quotient is x3+ 3 x2− 5x − 15and the remainder is zero.
Example 62
With the steps of dividing a polynomial by a divisor using the long division
3 2
2 x − 13xx−+1
method, find the quotient and the remainder of P(x)= _________________
26x − 24
.
Solution
2 x2− 11x + 15
x – 1 2 x3− 13 x2+ 26x − 24
2x3− 2 x2
− 11 x2+ 26x
− 11 x2+ 11x
15x − 24
15x − 15
– 9
Therefore, the quotient is 2 x2− 11x + 15and the remainder is -9.
90
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Dear learners, let us explore an alternative method to carry out the division of
polynomial functions which is the Synthetic Division. To effectively do this and
understand, you have to go through the following steps below:
1. Write down the coefficients of the polynomial functions (i.e. 1x2 + 1x − 2)
2. Use the zero of the linear factor (divisor), as your divisor (i . e. if x + 2 = 0,
x = − 2
3. Perform the synthetic division
a. Bring down 1 (the leading coefficient), multiply − 2 by 1and get − 2
b. Add 1 and − 2 to get − 1
c. Multiply − 2 by − 1to get 2
d. Add − 2 and 2to get 0
4. Finally write down the quotient (x − 1)
Synthetic Method
Here it is in action, divide x3− 5 x2+ 4x − 3by x − 2
We begin by writing the coefficients to represent the divisor and the dividend.
Divisor = x − 2
x − 2 = 0 ⇒ x = 2
91
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Since the coefficients of the quotients are only three, it suggests that there are only
three terms which are x2, − 3xand − 2. − 7is the remainder of the division.
3 2
x − 5 xx−+24x − 3 = x2− 3x − 2 − ____
_____________
∴ x−7 2
Example 63
With the steps of dividing a polynomial by a divisor using the synthetic division
method, find the quotient and the remainder of P(x)= _____________
2 x3− 13 x2+ 26x − 24
x−1
Solution
Consider the div isor x − 1 = 0, ∴ x = 1
1 2 –13 26 –24
2 –11 15
2 –11 15 –9
Therefore, the quotient is 2 x2− 11x + 15and the remainder is -9.
Example 64
With the steps of dividing a polynomial by a divisor using the synthetic division
4 3 11 x2− 5x + 30
x + x −
method, find the quotient and the remainder of P(x) = ___________________
x−2
Solution
Consider the divisor x − 2 = 0, ∴ x = 2
2 1 1 -11 -5 30
2 6 -10 -30
1 3 -5 -15 0
Therefore, the quotient is x3+ 3 x2− 5x − 15and the remainder is zero.
92
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
POLYNOMIAL GRAPHS
Constant Functions
Constant functions of the form y = cor x = crepresent horizontal or vertical lines.
For y = c, the value of y (which indicates the height of the graph) remains constant
regardless of the value of x. cindicates the value of ywhere the line cuts the y −
axis
The graph of x = cis a vertical line that cuts the x − axiswhen x = c. Figure 3.36
shows the graphs of x = − 3, x = 2, y = − 2and y = 5.
Fig 3.36: Graphs of constant functions
The lines x = 0and y = 0are special lines i.e., they coincide with the y − axis and
the x − axis respectively
93
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Linear Functions
f(x) = ax + brepresents a straight line which cuts the y − axisat ‘b’ and has
slope, ‘a’. The value of ‘a’, i.e., negative of positive, determines the nature of
the straight line. If a < 0, the straight line strictly decreases and if a > 0, the line
strictly increases.
Fig 3.37: Graphs of linear functions
The basic linear function with equation y = xis the straight line that bisects the
Cartesian plane as shown in illustration 2 in Figure 3.37. It passes through all
points that have the same xand ycoordinates including the origin.
Quadratic Functions
Quadratic functions are also called parabolic functions because their graphs are
parabolas. Graphs of parabolic functions have been discussed extensively in
week 8.
Cubic Functions
Parabolic graphs can be used as a model to graph cubic functions.
Example 65
3 2
34x − __
x4 + ___
f(x)= __ 32 x – 2
94
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
14 (x3+ 3 x2− 6x − 8)
= _
14 (x+ 4)(x+ 1)(x−2)
= __
x3 3 x2 3
Fig 3.38: Graphical illustration of f( x)= __
4 + ___
4 − __
2 x – 2
The roots of the graph (where it crosses the x-axis) are x = − 4, x = − 1and x = 2
The graph increases in the interval ( − ∞, − 2.7) and (0.73, ∞) and decreases in
the interval (-2.7, 0.73).
95
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
COMPLETING THE SQUARE TO FIND THE
QUADRATIC FORMULA
From the general form of the quadratic equation a x2+ bx + c = 0
Follow the steps below to ‘complete the square’.
1. Divide through by the coefficient of the quadratic term ie a
bx __ c
x 2+ __
a + a = 0
2. Transfer (carry) the constant term to the Right Hand Side (RHS)
bx c
x2+ ___ _
a = − a
3. Add the square of half the coefficient of the x − termto both sides of the
equation
a + (2a ) = (
bx ) − ac
b 2 b 2 __
x2 + __ __ __
2a
4. Write the Left Hand Side (LHS) as a perfect square and simplify the RHS
(x + __ ) = b 2 − __
b 2 ___ 2
2a ac
4a
(x + __ ) = b − 4ac
b 2 _______ 2
2a
4a2
5. Take the square root of both sides
_
–b
x + __
2a
= ± _
√
b2− 4ac
4a2
6. Proceed to_
solve for x
± √ _
–b 2−
x = __
2a b 4ac
2
4a
7. Further simplifying the expression we have:
_
2
x = __
2a ± b −2a4ac
–b √_
________
b2 − 4ac
√
x = –b ± ________
2a
This is the general formula for solving quadratic equations.
Activity 3.14
Either working with a classmate or individually work through these examples
of completing the square.
96
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Example 66
Using completing the square, find the roots of the equationx2− 6x + 7 = 0
Solution
The coefficient ofis 1
x2− 6x = − 7
Next thing is to add the square of half the coefficient of x on both sides of the
equation
The coefficient of x is − 6and half of it is− 3and square of it is ( − 3)2
x2− 6x + ( − 3)2= − 7 + ( − 3)2
(x − 3) 2= − 7 + 9
Simplifying the equation we have:
( x − 3)2= 2
Taking the square root of both side
__
x − 3 = ± √ 2
Solve for x :
x = 3 ± 1.414
x = 3 + 1.414 = 4.414 or
x = 3 − 1.414 = 1.586
Example 67
Solve the equation 2x2− 6x + 4 = 0by completing the square.
Solution
First, always ensure the coefficient of the polynomial function is 1 (i.e. the
coefficient of x2is 1), before completing the square. In this case, it is not, so we
need to make it so, by dividing through by 2.
62 x = − __
x 2− __ 42
To obtain
x2− 3x = − 2
Then add the square of half the coefficient ofxto both sides of the equation
97
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
2
−23 )
The coefficient ofxis − 3and half of it is( ___
Now
32 )2 = − 2 + (− __
x2 − 3x + (− __ 32 )2
94
32 )2 = − 2 + __
(x − __
− 84+ 9
32 )2 = ______
(x − __
(x − __32 )2 = __
14
Taking square root of both sides:
_
x − __32 = ± _
41
√
Solve for x :
32 ± __
x = __ 12
x = __32 + __ 32 − __
12 or x = __ 12
42 or x = __
x = __ 12
x = 2 or x = __12 Example 6
Exampel 68
Solve, by completing the square, x2+ 6x + 2 = 0
Solution
Since the coefficient of x2is already 1, you go ahead to complete the square.
x2+ 6x + 2 = 0
x2+ 6x + 2 = − 2
Then add the square of half the coefficient ofxto both sides of the equation. The
coefficient of x is 6and half of it is3.
x2+ 6x + + ( 3) 2= − 2 + ( 3)2
Simplify by grouping the perfect square:
(x + 3)2= − 2 + 9
(x + 3)2= 7
Taking the square root of both sides:
_
x + 3 = ± √ 7
98
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Make x the subject
__ __
x = − 3 + √ 7 or x = − 3 − √ 7
Use your calculator to simplify the value of x
x = − 0.35or x = − 5.65
Example 69
Evaluate by completing the squares 2x2—5x + 1 = 0
Solution
First, always ensure the coefficient of the polynomial function 1 (i.e. x 2 is 1),
before completing the square. To make it so in this case, divide through by 2
2 x2—5x = − 1
52 x = −__12
x 2− __
Then add the square of half the coefficient of x to both sides of the equation. The
52 and half of it is − __
coefficient of x is − __ 54
52 x + (
x 2− __ 54 )2 = − __
__ 12 + ( 54 )2
__
Grouping perfect squares:
(x − __
54 )2 = − __ 25
12 + __
16
( 54 )2 = _______
–8 16
+ 25
x − __
( 54 )2 = __ 17
x − __ 16
_
x − __54 = ± 17
√_16
Make x the subject:
_
54 ± _
x = __ 17
√
16
____ ___
54 + __
x = __ 17
16√ 54 − __
o r x = __ 17
16
√
Use your calculator to get the final answer
x = 2.28 or x = 0.22
99
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
The quadratic formula and its usage.
Use the method of completing the square to write the general quadratic functions
ax2 + bx + c = 0 in the formA (x ± B)2± C = 0 or A (x ± B)2= C, where A, B
and Care constants, and C
is the maximum or minimum value of the function,
and the maximum and minimum occurs at x ± B = 0.
From the general form of quadratic expression y = ax2 + bx + cwe can derive
the function in the form A(x ± B)2 ± C = 0,where A, B and C are constants
and determine the maximum and minimum value of the function and where they
occur.
y = a x 2+ bx + c
Factorising out a we have:
a [ x2 + __ ac ]
ab x + __
Completing square:
a [ x2 + __
ab + (__ ) + ac − (__
b 2 __
2a ) ]
b 2
2a
a [(x + __
b2 a)2 + __ b 2 ]
2
ac − ___
4a
a [ (x + __ ) + 4ac −2 b ]
b 2 _______ 2
2a
4a
a [(x + __ ) − b − 4ac ]
b 2 _______ 2
2a 2 4a
a [(x + __ ) − ( )]
b 2 2
2a b − 4ac
_______
2 4a
a (x + __ ) − ( b −4a4ac ) = 0
b 2 2
2a _______
Activity 3.15
Either working with a classmate or individually work through these examples
of completing the square.
Example 70
Express y = 5 − 2x − 4 x2 in the form y = A − B(x + C),where A, B and C are
constants. Hence state the maximum value of the function f : x → 5 − 2x − 4 x2.
100
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Solution
Start by completing the square:
y = 5 − 2x − 4 x2
Re arrange the expression:
y = − 4 x2− 2x + 5
Factorise out the x2coefficient, − 4
y = − 4[x2 + __ 54 ]
12 x − __
y = − 4[x2 + __ 54 ]
12 x + (__14 )2 − (__14 )2 − __
Write it in perfect square and simplify:
y = − 4[(x + __
14 )2 − __ 54 ]
1 − __
16
y = − 4[(x + __
14 )2 + ______
− 116
− 20
]
2
14 ) + __
y = − 4(x + __ 21
4
Re write it in formA − B( x + C)2:
( 14 )2
21 − 4 x + __
y = __
4
Compare the expression to that ofA − B( x + C)2:
( 14 )2
21 − 4 x + __
y = __
4
21
Hence A = __4
14
, B = − 4, C = __
21
∴The maximum value of f : x → 5 − 2x − 4 x2is __ 4
Example 71
Express the following equation in the form A( x + B) 2+ C. Hence find the least or
greatest value of the function and the value of x at which it occurs.
f( x) = 3x2− x − 6
Solution
First method – completing the square
f(x) = 3(x2 − __
13 x − 2)
101
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
f(x) = 3(x2 − __
13 x + ( 16 )2 − 2)
16 )2 − (__
− __
f(x) = 3((x − __
16 )2 − (
__ ))
1 − 2
36
f(x) = 3((x − __
16 )2 − ( 36 ))
1 −
_____72
f(x) = 3((x − __
16 )2 − ( 36 ))
73
__
16 )2 − 3(__
f(x) = 3(x − __ 36 )
73
f(x) = 3(x − __
16 )2 − __
73
12
Equating:
2 73
16 ) − __
3(x − __ 12 to A( x + B)2+ Cand comparing terms we have:
–73
A = 3, B = −__16 , C = ___ 12
The least value of f( x)= _
1273and it occurs at x = 1_6
−
Second Method - Equating
Equate f( x) = 3 x2− x − 6to A( x + B)2+ C
Expand the RHS:
RHS = A(x2+ 2Bx + B
2) + C
RHS = A x 2+ 2ABx + A B
2+ C
Equate f(x) = 3 x2− x − 6to A x2+ 2ABx + A B2+C and compare terms:
A = 3, 2AB = − 1, A B2+ C = − 6
−61
= 3 and 2 AB = − 1, therefore 2( 3)B = − 1, 6B = − 1, therefore, B = ___
We know A
−61
We also know that A B2+ C = − 6, but A = 3 and B = ___
3(−__16 )2 + C = − 6
3(__
36 )
1 + C = −__
1
6
_1 + C = − __
16
12
1 − __
C = −__
12 6
− 112
1 = ______ − 72
73
= − __
12
−12
73
The least value of f(x) = ____ 16
and it occurs at x = __
102
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Recognise the importance of the expression b2− 4ac from the general
quadratic formula:
_
b ± b2 − 4ac
−____________
√
We know that the quadratic formula is x =
2a
The part inside the
square root,
b2− 4ac,is called the discriminant and it determines the nature of the roots of the
function and the following properties holds:
a. If b2− 4ac ≥ 0, the roots are real
b. If b2− 4ac > 0, the roots are real and different/discrete, ie the quadratic has
two distinct intersections on the x-axis.
c. If b2 − 4ac < 0, the roots are complex and imaginary, ie the graph has no
real roots, so it does not intersect the x-axis.
d. If b 2 − 4ac = 0, the roots are real and equal or the equation is a perfect
square, ie the graph just touches the x-axis at the maxima or minima.
Example 72
Describe the nature of the roots of the following equations:
1. x2− 6x + 9 = 0
Solution
Using the discriminant formula b2− 4ac,
a = 1 ( ie coefficient of the x 2term), b = − 6 ( coefficient of x term)
c = 9 (the constant)
Substituting into the formula ( − 6)2− 4(1)(9) = 36 – 36 = 0
The equation has equal roots since the discriminant is equal to zero
2. 2 x2− 5x + 3 = 0
Solution
Using the discriminant formula b2− 4ac.
a = 2, b = − 5, c = 3
Substituting into the formula ( − 5)2− 4(2)(3)= 25 − 24 = 1 > 0
As the discriminant is greater than 0, the equation has two real and different
roots
103
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
3. 3 x2− 2x + 4 = 0
Solution
Using the discriminant formula b2− 4ac.
a = 3, b = − 2, c = 4
Substituting into the formula= ( − 2)2− 4(3)(4)= 4 − 48 = − 44 < 0
As the discriminant is less than zero, the equation has no real roots, ie, it has
complex roots
Use of Quadratic Equations in Real-Life Situations
Quadratic equations are important and widely used in various fields, including
mathematics, physics, engineering, economics, and computer science. Some
common applications and uses of quadratic equations include:
1. Solving for unknowns: The primary use of quadratic equations is to find the
values of the variable x that satisfy the equation. This is especially useful
when dealing with problems that involve motion, distance, area, or quantities
that vary quadratically.
2. Geometry: Quadratic equations are often used in geometry to find the
coordinates of points, lengths of sides, or angles of shapes.
3. Projectile motion: When an object is thrown or launched into the air, its
path can often be modelled by a quadratic equation, helping to determine its
maximum heigh time of flight, and range
Example 73
A company manufactures and sells a product. The revenue 𝑅 (in dollars) from
selling 𝑥 units of the product is given by the polynomial function R(𝑥) = 50𝑥 − 0.5x2.
The cost 𝐶 (in dollars) to produce 𝑥 units is given by C(𝑥) = 10𝑥 + 100. How
many units should the company produce and sell to maximise its profit?
Solution
The profit P is given by the difference between revenue and cost: P(𝑥) = 𝐶(𝑥) –𝑃(𝑥)
P(x) = (50x − 0.5 x 2) − (10𝑥 + 100)
P(𝑥) = 50𝑥 – 0.5 x2− 10𝑥 – 100
P(x) = −0.5x2+ 40𝑥 – 100
104
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
The maximum profit, is found at the maxima of the quadratic function:
P(𝑥) = −0.5x2+ 40𝑥 – 100
b
The vertex of a parabola a x2+ 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 is given by 𝑥 = − __
2a
.
By comparison, 𝑎 = −0.5 and 𝑏 = 40:
40
𝑥 = − ______
( )
2 − 0.5
𝑥 = 40
∴ The Company should produce and sell 40 units to maximise its profit.
Example 74
A car’s fuel efficiency (in miles per gallon) can be modeled by the polynomial
function (𝑣) = −0.02v2+ 1.2𝑣 + 20, where 𝑣 is the speed of the car in miles per
hour.
At what speed should the car be driven to achieve the maximum fuel efficiency?
Solution
To find the speed that maximises fuel efficiency, we need to find the maxima of
the quadratic function (𝑣) = −0.02v2+ 1.2𝑣 + 20.
b
The vertex of a parabola a x2+ 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 is given by 𝑣 = − __
2a
.
By comparison, 𝑎 = −0.02 and 𝑏 = 1.2:
1.2
𝑣 = − ________
2
2( − 0.02)
1.2
𝑣 = ____
0.04
𝑣 = 30
∴ The car should be driven at 30 miles per hour to achieve the maximum fuel
efficiency.
Use the roots (sum and products) to find other
quadratic equations.
Explore the relationship between the constants a, b and cof the general quadratic
function: ax2+ bx + c = 0and α and β,and use these relations to write other
quadratic equations with given roots.
105
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Relationships that exist between the roots and the coefficients of a quadratic
equation.
Assumingα and β are now the roots of the general quadratic equation a x2+ bx + c = 0
instead then (x − α)(x − β) = 0(Now expand your expression)
x(x − β) − a(x − β) = 0
x2− xβ − xα + αβ = 0
Factorise the x terms:
x2− ( α + β)x + αβ = 0…… … equation 1
Also consider:
ax2+ bx + c = 0.
Divide through by a
You will have:
ab x + __
x 2+ __ ac = 0…… … … … … … equation 2
Comparing the two equations, you can see and write the relationship that connects
the coefficients of the equation and the roots ie
Sum of roots ba
𝜶 + 𝜷 = − __
Product of roots ac
𝜶𝜷 = __
You then write the equation as: x2− ( sum of roots)x + product of roots = 0
Example 75
If 2x2− 3x + 6 = 0has roots α and β,find the sum and product of the roots.
Divide through by 2
32 x + __
x2− __ 62 = 0
The sum of roots
α + β = − (−__32 ) = __
32
The product of roots:
62 = 3
αβ = __
106
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Example 76
Find the quadratic equation whose roots are − 2and 3 and has a minimum value.
Solution
x2− ( sum of roots)x + ( products of roots)= 0
x 2− ( − 2 + 3)x + ( − 2)(3)= 0
x2− x − 6 = 0
Example 77
If the roots of a quadratic equation are __23 and − 4, find the equation if it has a
minima.
Solution
x2− ( sum of roots)x + productsof roots)= 0
x2 −( __
23 + (− 4x)) + ( __
23 × ( − 4) = 0
x2 − ( 2 +3− 12 )x + (
______ 2 ×3− 4 ) = 0
______
–10
x 2− ____
3
–8
x + __ 3
= 0
Multiply through by 3
3 x2+ 10x − 8 = 0
Example 78
If the roots of a quadratic equation are 2 and 5, find the equation if it has a minima.
Solution
Sum of roots = 2 + 5 = 7
Product of roots = 2 × 5 = 10
Put this in the formula of the equation:
x2− ( 7)x + (10) = 0
x2− 7x + 10 = 0
107
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Example 79
If the roots of a quadratic equation are 5 and –2, find the equation if it has a
minima.
Solution
Using the formula, you will have:
x2− ( 5 + ( − 2))x + ( 5 × (− 2)) = 0
Simplifying you will obtain
x2− 3x − 10 = 0
Example 80
52 and it has a minima.
Find the equation whose roots are 7 and __
Solution
14 + 5 __
52 = _____
Sum of roots = 7 + __
2
= 19
2
Product of roots = 7 × __ 52 = __
35
2
Using the formula, you will have:
x2− (
_2)
19 35
x + __
2
= 0
Tidy it up by multiplying through by 2:
2 x2− 19x + 35 = 0
108
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
FACTOR AND REMAINDER THEOREMS
Use the factor and remainder theorems to solve problems of polynomial functions
in context:
We must now explore and recognise that generally for any polynomial function P
(x) division by another polynomial result in:
Dividend Remainder
_
Divisor
= quotient + _Divisor
and so;
Dividend = Quotient × Divisor + Remainder
It is important to recognise that for any polynomial functions P( x) , if (x – a) is a
divisor then;
P( x)= q(x)∙ ( x − a)+ r; where q( x) is the quotient and ris the remainder.
We can now establish the Remainder theorem and use it to solve related problems:
Remainder Theorem: Given any polynomial functions P(x) , if ( x – a)is a divisor
then;
P( a) = q(a) ∙ ( a − a) + r; and P( a)= r
Example 81
Find the remainder when the polynomials f( x) = 4 x 4 − x 3 − 9 x 2 + 2x − 5 is
divided by ( x – 2)
Solution
x – 2 = 0
⇒ x = 2
f( 2)= 4 ( 2)4− 23− 9 ( 2)2+ 2(2)− 5 = 19
Example 82
If f( x) = x3− 3 x2+ x − 5,what is the remainder when f( x)is divided by x − 1 ?
109
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Solution
In this question the divisor is (x − 1) hence from the remainder theorem,f(1) is
the remainder
f(1)= ( 1)3− 3( 1)2+ (1) − 5
= 1 − 3(1)+ 1 − 5 = − 6
Example 83
Find the remainder when f( x) = 8 x3− 3 x2− 5x + 2is divided by
a) x − 1
b) x + 1
c) 3x + 1
Solution
a) x − 1 = 0
x = 1
f(1) = 8( 1)3− 3( 1)2− 5(1) + 2 = 8 − 3 − 5 + 2 = 2
b) x + 1 = 0
x = − 1
f(− 1)= 8( − 1)3− 3( − 1)2—5( − 1) + 2
− 8 − 3 + 5 + 2 = − 4
c) 3 x + 1 = 0
3x = − 1
x = − _13
f(−__13 ) = 8(−__13 )3 − 3(− __
13 )2 − 5(− __
13 ) + 2
= 8(− __ ) (9 ) + 5 × 3 + 2
1 − 3 __
27 1 1
__
8
= − __ − __3 + __
27 9 3
5 + 2
− 8 − 9 + 45 + 54
= _____________
27
82
= __
27
110
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
FACTOR AND REMAINDER THEOREMS
If a polynomial f( x) is divided by x − 2 and f(a) = 0then the remainder is zero
(0). If the remainder is zero, then the divisor (x − a)is a factor of f(x).This result
which is the factor theorem, states that:
Iff(a) = 0,then (x − a) is the factor off(x).
Similarly, if f( − a) = 0then ( x + a) is also a factor of f( x)
Example 84
Determine whether or not ( x + 2) is a factor of f( x) = x3+ 2 x2− x − 2
Solution
f( − 2)= (− 2)3+ 2 ( − 2)2− (− 2) − 2
= − 8 + 8 + 2 − 2 = 0
Therefore, ( x + 2) is a factor of f(x).
Example 85
Determine whether or not ( x − 1) is a factor of f( x) = x3+ 2 x2− x − 2
Solution
f(x) = ( 1)3+ 2(1)2− ( 1) − 2= 1 + 2 − 1 − 2 = 0
Therefore, (x − 1) is a factor of f(x).
Example 86
Determine whether or not (x − 2) is a factor of f( x) = x3+ 2 x3− x − 2
Solution
f(2)= ( 2)3+ 2(2)2− 2 − 2 = 8 + 8 − 2 − 2 = 1
Sincef(2) ≠ 0, it means that ( x − 2) is not a factor off(x)
Example 87
Show that f( x) =6 x3+ 7x2− x − 2is divisible by (2x − 1)
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Solution
2x − 1 = 0
12
x = _
f( 12 ) = 6( __
12 ) + 7(__
12 ) − (__
12 ) − 2
3 2
__
= 6(__
18 ) + 7(__
14 ) − __
12 − 2
68 + __
= __ 74 − __
12 − __
21
6 + 14 − 4 − 16
= ____________
8
08 = 0
= __
Therefore, 6 x3+ 7 x2− x − 2is divisible by 2 x − 1
Example 88
Show that ( x + 2) is a factor of f( x) = x3− 2 x2− 5x + 6
Solution
Let x + 2 = 0
x = − 2
f( − 2)= ( − 2)3− 2( − 2)2− 5( − 2) + 6
= − 8 − 8 + 10 + 6 = 0
( x + 2) is a factor x3− 2 x2− 5x + 6
GRAPHS OF POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS
We need to be able to use graphs of polynomial functions to solve problems.
To do this we need to draw quadratic and cubic polynomial functions by hand and
with the aid of appropriate technology and discuss what happens to the curve as
x − valuesdecreases or increases, the point where the curve touches the y − axis
, axis of symmetry and turning points.
112
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Fig 3.39: Quadratic and Cubic graphs
We are going to study the behaviour of some graphs of polynomials in the
following examples;
Example 89
Let’s look at the cubic graph of f( x)= x3− x2− 5x − 3 from x = − 4to x = 4
Fig 3.40: Plot of f ( x)= x3− x2− 5x − 3 with centred axes
It can be observed that as x increases from -4 to -1, y is increasing from about -45 to
0. At the point (-1,0) is where a local maximum turning point occurs. Beyond this
point as x continues to increase from -1 to about 1.67, y then decreases gently to a
113
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
local minimum turning point of about (1.67, -13.19) after which as x continue to
increase, y also increases. Leaners, please do pay attention to the quoted estimates
of the points and based on the scale of the graph make sense of them.
Example 90
If we now consider the cubic graph of f(x)= x3+ 2x2− 8x from x = − 4to x = 4
Fig 3.41: Plot of f ( x)= x3+ 2x2− 8x with centred axes
Here, we see a similar trend where, as x increases from -4 to -1, y is increasing
from about -35 to about 16.9. At the point (-2.43,16.9) is where a local maximum
turning point occurs. Beyond this point as x continues to increase from -2.43
to about 1.10, y is decreasing to a local minimum turning point of about (1.10,
-5.26) after which as x continue to increase, y also increases. Again, please do pay
attention to the quoted estimates of the points and based on the scale of the graph
make sense of them.
114
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Example 91
The next example is a quadratic function of the form f( x)= x2− 2x − 15
Fig 3.42: Plot of f ( x)= x2− 2x − 15with centred axes
The nature of this curve is a minimum parabola with the minimum point occurring
at the point (1, -16). It must be noted that there is a line of symmetry at x=1.
Example 92
The final example is a cubic of the form f( x) = (x − 2)3
Fig 3.43: Plot of f( x) = ( x − 2)3with centred axes
This last example depicts a cubic function with a point of inflexion at x=2.
Note that other than a momentary stationary point at (2,0), the curve is always
increasing.
115
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
DEFINITION, DOMAIN, RANGE AND ZEROS OF
RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
Congratulations for your hard work, and commitment in your studies so far. Are
you conversant with the factorisation of binomial terms, factorisation of quadratic
expressions? For example, mx + mycan be factorised as m(x + y)and the quadratic
expression x2 − 2x − 15can be factorised as (x + 3) and (x − 5). There is also
the need to be able to distinguish between a perfect square and difference of two
squares. A perfect square (a + b)2 can be expanded to get a2 + 2ab + b2 or (a
+ b)( a + b) whereas difference of two squares which is a2 − b2 which can be
expressed as ( a − b)(a + b).
A rational function, much like a rational number (a fraction of integers), consists
of a ratio between two polynomial expressions. The denominator cannot be
zero.
A rational function is of the form
fx
Rx = __
gx ; g(x) ≠ 0 (That is, a ratio of two polynomials for which the divisor is not
zero).
2
xx −
For example, f(x) = _____ +1
2
is a rational function.
The concept of rational functions finds their use in various fields like modelling
rates of change, describing physical phenomena, solving optimisation problems,
Music and Sound Engineering and in Biology and Medicine.
Domain of rational functions
f(x)
The domain of a rational function, R(x)= ___
gx is the set of all real numbers except
numbers for which g( x)is zero.
Example 93
x−1 2
What is the domain of the function y = ____
Solution
As per our definition of domain of a rational function, which expression in
x−1 2should not be zero.
y = ____
x − 2 = 0
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Solving, we obtain:
x = − 2
The domain of yis the set of all real numbers exceptx = 2.
That is, domain of yis { x : x ∈ R, x ≠ 2}
Example 94
Determine the domain of the following rational functions;
5x − 3
a. f(x)= ______
2x − 14
b. 3x2 + 1
p( x)= _____
x − 9
c. q(x)= (x −3x4)(2x
+8
___________
+ 4)
Solution
5x − 3
a. Given that f(x)= ______
2x − 14
, let the denominator 2x − 14 = 0
2x = 14
⇒
x = 7
Thus, the domain of f( x) is real except x = 7. That is { x : x ∈ R, x ≠ 7}
b. 3x2 + 1, let x2− 9 = 0 ⇒ ( x − 3)( x + 3)= 0 ⇒ x = 3 or x = − 3
Given p( x)= _____
x − 9
Domain: { x : x ∈ R, x ≠ 3 or ≠ − 3}
c. ( 3x)(+ 8 ) ,
Given q(x)= ___________
x − 4 2x + 4
Let (x − 4)(2x + 4)= 0 ⇒ ( x − 4)= 0 or ( 2x + 4)= 0
⇒ x = 4 orx = − 2
Domain: {x : x ∈ R, x ≠ 4 or − 2}
Range of rational functions
The range of a rational function refers to the set of all possible output values
(y-values) it can produce. That is the range is the same as the domain of the
inverse function. Thus, in finding the range, we first find the inverse function, then
its domain, which is the range.
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SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Example 95
Determine the range of the following rational functions;
5x − 3
a. f(x)= ______
2x − 14
3x + 8
b. p(x)= ______
2x − 7
Solution:
5x − 3
a. Given f(x)= ______
2x − 14
let f( x)= y
5x − 3
⇒ y = ______
2x − 14
making xthe subject
y ( 2x − 14)= 5x − 3
2xy − 14y = 5x − 3
2xy − 5x = 14y − 3
x(2y − 5)= 14y − 3
Thus, the inverse function is;
14y − 3
x = _______
2y − 5
Finding the domain of the inverse function, let 2y − 5 = 0 ⟹ y = __52
Range: {y : y ∈ R, x ≠ __
52 }
b. 3x +8
Given p(x)= _____
2x − 7
Let p( x)= y
3x +8
⇒ y = ______
2x − 7
y (2x − 7)= 3x + 8
2xy − 7y = 3x + 8
2xy − 3x = 7y + 8
x( 2y − 3)= 7y + 8
7y + 8
x = _____
2y − 3 which is the inverse function
For the domain of the inverse, let 2y − 3 = 0 ⟹ y = 3_2
Range: {y : y ∈ R, x ≠ __
32 }
118
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Example 96
Determine the range of each of the following rational functions;
x2 + 2
a. f(x) = ______
2
2x −4
10
b. f(x) = ____
x+5
Solution
a. 22 x2 − 4 , let y = f(x)
For the range of f(x) = x2 + __
2
x + 2
y= ______
2
2 x − 4
Making x the subject of the equation
y( 2 x2− 4)= x2+ 2
2 x2y − 4y = x 2+ 2
2 x2y − x2= 4y + 2
x2(2y − 1)= 4y + 2
4y + 2
x2= _____
2y − 1
_
4y + 2
x = ± _
√ (2y − 1)
4y + 2
For the range _____
2y − 1
≥ 0
(4y + 2)(2y − 1)≥ 0
1 and y ≥ __
y ≤ −_ 12
2
Therefore the range is {y: y∈ R, __ −21 }
12 ≤ y and y ≤ ___
b. x10
For the range of f(x)= ____
+5
, let y = f(x)
10
y = ____
x+5
Make x the subject of the equation,
y( x + 5)= 10
xy + 5y = 10
xy = 10 − 5y
10 − 5y
x = ______
y
For the range y ≠ 0
Therefore the range is {y: y∈ R, y ≠ 0 }
119
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Zeroes of rational functions
The zeroes, or roots, of rational functions, are the specific input values (x − values)
that cause the entire function’s output (y − value) to become zero. They basically
“cancel out” the numerator when the denominator doesn’t equal zero. Finding the
zeroes of rational functions involves solving the equation formed by setting the
function equal to zero and manipulating the expression to isolate x.
Example 97
xx −
What is/are the zeros of the function f : x → ____+3
2
Solution
The zeros are computed as x + 3 = 0 ⟹ x = − 3
Example 98
2x −1
Find the zeros of the function defined by f : x → __________
2
2 x − 9x − 5
Solution
22x − 1
To find the zeros of f( x)= __________
2
x − 9x
− 5
2x − 1
_________ = 0
2x2− 9x − 5
⟹ 2x − 1 = 0
12
⟹ x = __
Thus, the zeros of f(x)are x = 1_2
Example 99
Determine the zeros of the following functions;
(x − 3)(5x2 + 7x + 2)
a. f(x) = _______________
2 2
(x + 2)
2
b. 2x17
f(x)= ______ − 8
120
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Solution
(x − 3)(5x2 + 7x + 2)
a. For the zeros of f(x) = _______________
2 2
(x + 2)
( x − 3)( 5 x2+ 7x + 2)= 0
⟹ x − 3 = 0 or 5 x2+ 7x + 2 = 0
(5x + 2)(x + 1)= 0
x = 3 or x = _
−
52or x = − 1
−52 or x = − 1
Therefore the required zeros are x = 3 or x = ___
2
b. 2x17
For the zeros of f(x)= ______ − 8
2
x 2− 8
______
17
= 0
⟹ 2 x2− 8 = 0
⟹ 2(x2− 4)= 0
⟹ (x − 2)(x + 2)= 0
⟹ x = 2 or x = − 2
Therefore the required zeros are x = 2 or x = − 2
121
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
BASIC OPERATIONS ON RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
Basic arithmetic operations involving rational functions may be performed by
factorising both the numerator and denominator where applicable and cancelling
out any common factors.
Example 100
By factorising out the numerator and denominator simplify each of the following;
3x − 6
i) _____
2
x − 4
2
25 x − 5
ii) _________
x − 4x − 5
2 x2+ x − 6
iii) _________
2 x2− x − 3
Solution
3x − 6 ________ 3(x − 2)
i) _____
2
= x + 2x − 2
x − 4
3
= _____
(
x + 2)
2 5(x − 1) 2
25 x − 5 = __________
ii) _________ (x − 5)(x + 1)
x − 4x − 5
5(x − 1)(x + 1)
= ___________
( )( )
x − 5 x + 1
5(x − 1)
= ______
( x − 5)
(x + 2)(2x − 3)
2x2+ x − 6 ___________
iii) _________ = ( )( )
2 x + 1 2x − 3
2x − x − 3
x+2
= ____
x+1
Example 101
2x −1
Given that f( x)= _____
x−2
xx −
and g( x)= ____+3
3
. Simplify:
a. f(x)− g(x)
b. f(x)+ g(x)
122
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Solution
a. x−2
− xx +
2x − 1 ____
f(x)− g(x)= _____ −3
3
(2x − 1)(x + 3)− ( x − 3)(x − 2)
_______________________
=
( )( )
x − 2 x + 3
(2 x2+ 6x − x − 3)− ( x2− 2x − 3x + 6)
_____________________________
=
( )( )
x − 2 x + 3
(2 x2+ 5x − 3)− ( x2− 5x + 6)
______________________
=
( )( )
x − 2 x + 3
2
(x + 10x
= __________
−9
x − 2)(x + 3)
b. 2x −1 _
f(x)+ g(x)= _____
x−2
+ xx +− 33
_________________
( 2x − 1)( x + 3)+ (x − 3)( x − 2)
=
(x − 2)(x + 3)
(2 x + 6x − x − 3)+ ( x − 2x − 3x + 6)
= _____________________
2 2
(
x − 2)(x + 3)
(2 x + 5x − 3)+ ( x − 5x + 6)
= _________________
2 2
(
x − 2)(x + 3)
2
3x)(+ 3 )
= __________
(
x − 2 x + 3
Example 102
2w −6
Simplify the expression ______
3−w
Solution
Solve this by factorising both the numerator and denominator,
2(w − 3)
_
(3 − w)
It appears that there are no common factors for both the numerator and denominator.
What do think can be done to get common factors for them?
You are right by your response that we should multiply for both numerator and
denominator by − 1
− 1[2(w − 3)]
__________
− 1(3 − w)
−−2w
_______ +6
3+w
, then factorise this:
− 2(w − 3)
________
(w − 3) , then simplify:
− 2(w − 3)
________
(w − 3) = − 2
123
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Example 103
2x − 42
Simplify _____
4 − x
Solution
Solve this by factorising both the numerator and denominator,
_ 2(x − 2)
(2 − x)(2 + x)
Once again, it appears that there are no common factors for both the numerator
and denominator.
Once again, we need to multiply both the numerator and denominator by − 1.
− 1(2x − 4)
________
− 1(4 − x2)
− 2x + 4
_ 2
− 4 + x
− 2x + 4
______
2
, then factorise this:
x − 4
− 2(x − 2)
__________ , then simplify:
(x − 2)(x + 2)
− 2(x − 2)
__________
(x + 2)(x − 2)
_ −2
(x + 2)
Activity 3.17
In small groups or individually, simplify each of the following rational
expressions:
9 − x 2 5x − 20 2
x − 6x − 27
a. __________
2
b. ______2
c. __________ 2
x + 2x − 15 16 − x 81 − x
Congratulations on your effort. If your answers are similar to the following,
you are on the right path, if not, consult a teacher or a friend for assistance.
− ( x + 3) − ( x + 3)
a. _______
x + 5 b. x−+54
____ c. _______
x+9
124
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
DECOMPOSITION INTO RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
Decomposition into partial fractions is a technique used to simplify and decompose
a rational function into a sum of simpler fractions. It is particularly useful when
dealing with complex rational functions, making integration, differentiation and
solving equations more manageable.
Equivalence of expressions
Example 104
Find the values of the constants A, Band C such that
x − 4x + 5 = A(x − 1)(x + 2)+ B(x + 2)(x − 4)+ C(x − 4)(x − 1)
2
Solution
x2− 4x + 5 = A(x − 1)( x + 2)+ B(x + 2)( x − 4)+ C(x − 4)( x − 1)
x2− 4x + 5 = A x2+ Ax − 2A + B x2− 2Bx − 8B + C x2− 5Cx + 4C
x2− 4x + 5 = A x2+ B x2+ C x2+ Ax − 2Bx − 5Cx − 2A − 8B + 4C
x2− 4x + 5 = ( A + B + C)x2+ (A − 2B − 5C)x − 2A − 8B + 4C
By comparison, A + B + C = 1,
A − 2B − 5C = − 4 and
− 2A − 8B + 4C = 5
Solving the three equations simultaneously,
5
A = __
18
, B = − __ 17
29 and C = __
18
Decomposition into Partial Fractions
Rational expressions with linear factors as denominators can be decomposed as
follows:
(ax − b)
________________
= _____
A + _____
(x + (x C
B + _____ …
((x − p)(x + q)(x − r)…) (x − p) q) − r)
Rational expressions with repeated factors as denominators can be decomposed
as follows:
ax − b3 = ____
______ A + ______ C
B + ______
(x − p) (x − p) (x − p)2 (x − p)3
125
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Rational expressions with irreducible quadratic factors as denominators can be
decomposed as follows:
ax
_________ −b
Ax + B
= __________
a x2+ bx + c a x2+ bx + c
Rational expressions with numerators having degrees greater or equal to the
degree of the denominator are deemed improper. Such expressions need to be
reduced by long division before being decomposed into partial fractions
Example 105
2
( 2x)+
Resolve _________ (
1
)
in partial fractions.
x − 1 x + 2
Solution
2 1
( 2x)+
_________ ( –2x)(+ 5 ) Using long division
= 2 + __________
x − 1 (x + 2) x − 1 x + 2
A + ____
= 2 + ____ B
x+
x− 1 2
2(x − 1)(x + 2)
= ___________ x−A 1 + ____
(x − 1)(x + 2) + ____ B
x+2
2(x − 1)( x + 2)+ A(x + 2)+ B(x − 1)
= ___________________________
( )( )
x − 1 x + 2
2x2+ 1 = 2(x − 1)(x + 2)+ A(x + 2)+ B(x − 1)
2x2+ 1 = 2 x2+ 2x − 4 + Ax + 2A + Bx − B
2x2+ 1 = 2 x2+ ( A + B + 2)x + 2A − B − 4
By comparison, A + B + 2 = 0 and
2A − B − 4 = 1
Solving the equations simultaneously yields A = 1and B = − 3
2
2x + 1
∴ __________
( )( )
= 2 + _____ (x –3
(x −1 1) − _____
+ 2)
x − 1 x + 2
Now let us work through the following examples together paying attention to the
details in each one of them.
Example 106
( 3x )+( 2 ) in partial fractions.
Resolve _________
x + 3 x + 2
126
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Solution
( 3x )+( 2 ) = ____
_ A + ____
B
x +
x + 3 x + 2 x + 3 2
A(x + 2)+ B(x + 3)
= _____________
( )( )
x + 3 x + 2
Since the denominators are the same, then the numerators are also the same.
3 x + 2 = A(x + 2)+ B(x + 3)
When x = − 2
3(-2) + 2 = A(-2 + 2) + B(-2 + 3)
–6+2=B
⇒ B = − 4
When x = − 3
3(− 3) + 2 = A(− 3 + 2) + B(− 3 + 3)
− 9 + 2 = − A
⇒ A = 7
( 3x )+( 2 ) = ____
_ 7 − ____
x +4 2
x + 3 x + 2 x + 3
Example 107
2
3 x + x + 1
Express __________
in partial fractions.
( x − 2 (x + 1)
) 2
Solution
3 x2+ x + 1
___________
A + _____
= _____
( x − 2)( x + 1)2 (x − 2)
(x + 1)
C 2
B + ______
(x + 1)
A(x + 1)2 + B(x − 2)(x + 1) + C(x − 2)
____________________________
=
2
(x − 2) (x + 1)
Since the denominators are the same
3 x2+ x + 1 = A ( x + 1)2+ B(x − 2)( x + 1)+ C(x − 2)
When x = 2
3 ( 2)2+ 2 + 1 = A ( 2 + 1)2+ B(2 − 2)( 2 + 1)+ ( 2 − 2)
12 + 3 = 9A
15 = 9A
⇒ A = __53
127
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
When x = − 1
3 ( − 1)2− 1 + 1 = A ( − 1 + 1)2+ B(− 1 − 2)(− 1 + 1)+ C(− 1 − 2)
3 = –3C
⇒ C = − 1
When x = 1(or any value of x)
3 ( 1)2+ 1 + 1 = A ( 1 + 1)2+ B(1 − 2)( 1 + 1)+ C(1 − 2)
53 ) − 2B − (
3 + 2= 4(__ − 1)
20
5 – __
3
− 1 = − 2B
83 = − 2B
⇒ − __
43
⇒ B = __
2
3 x + x + 1
∴ __________
3(x 5− 2) + ______
= ______ ( 4 ) − ______
1
x − 2 (x + 1)
( ) 2 3 x + 1 2
(x + 1)
Example 108
3x + 21 in partial fractions.
Resolve __________
(x − 1)(x + 1)
Solution
3x + 21 = ______
___________ Bx2 + C
(x −A 1) + ______
( x − 1)( x + 1) (x + 1)
A(x2+ 1)+ (Bx + C)(x − 1)
= ____________________
2 ( x − 1)( x + 1)
Since the denominators are the same
3x + 1 = A(x2+ 1)+ ( Bx + C)( x − 1)
When x = 1
3(1) +1 = A{ (1)2+ 1}+ {B(1)+ C}(1 − 1)
3 + 1 = 2A
4 = 2A
⇒ A = 2
When x = 0
3(0) + 1 = A{( 0)2+ 1}+ {B(0)+ C}( 0 − 1)
1=A–C
1=2–C
⇒ C = 1
128
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
When x = 2(or any value of x)
3(2) + 1 = A{ (2)2+ 1}+ {B(2)+ C}(2 − 1)
6 + 1 = 5A + 2B + C
7 = 5(2) + 2B + 1 substituting A = 2 and C = 1
7 − 10 − 1 = 2B
– 4 = 2B
⇒ B = − 2
3x + 1
∴ __________ = _____
–2x
( 2 ) + ______ +1
( x − 1)( x + 1)
2 x−1 2 (x + 1)
Example 109
2 x + 1 2
Resolve __________
in partial fractions.
( ( x − 1 x + 2 )
)( )
An improper fraction is one whose numerator is of equal degree or greater than
that of the denominator. To deal with this situation, we first obtain a quotient and
proper fraction and split the latter into partial fractions.
Solution
Consider the expansion of the denominator
( x − 1)( x + 2)= x2+ x − 2
2
x2+ x − 2 2x2 +1
– ( 2x2+ 2x − 4 )
– 2x + 5
2
2 x + 1 (− 2x + 5)
___________
= 2 + _
( x − 1 x + 2 )
( )( ) ( )( ) x − 1 x + 2
Consider:
(− 2x + 5)
_
( A + _____
= _____ B
(x +
x − 1)(x + 2) (x − 1) 2)
(A(x + 2) + B(x − 1)
= _______________
(x − 1)(x + 2)
Since the denominators are the same:
− 2x + 5 = A(x + 2) + B(x − 1)
When x = 1
− 2(1) + 5 = A(1 + 2) + B(1 − 1)
129
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
2 + 5 = 3A
−
3 = 3A
A=1
When x = − 2
–2(–2) + 5 = A( –2 + 2) + B(–2–1)
4 + 5 = − 3B
9 = − 3B
B = − 3
2 x2+ 1 3
1 − _____
Therefore __________
= 2 + _____
( x − 1 x + 2 )
( )( ) ( ) (x
x − 1 + 2)
Activity 3.18
Now in groups of three or individually, solve each of the following problems
to confirm the answers given.
1. Find the values of A and B such that 31x − 8 = A(x − 5) + B(4x + 1)
Ans. A = 3 and B = 7
2. Find the values of A, B and C such that
4x2+ 4x − 26 = A(x + 2)(x − 4)+ B(x − 4)(x − 1)+ C(x − 1)(x + 2)
Ans. A = 2, B = − 1 and C = 3
3 2
3. 2x(x
+ x − 15x − 5
Express h(x) = ______________
in partial fractions.
+ 3)(x − 2)
3 2
2x(
+ x − 15x − 5 (
Ans. _____________)(
= 2x − 1)+ ____ 1 − ____
x + 3
3
x −
2
x + 3 x − 2 )
4. A factory produces a certain product, and the average cost per unit is
given by the function
5000 + 2x
f(𝑥) = _______
x where 𝑥 is the number of units produced. What is the
average cost in cedis per unit if 100 units are produced?
Ans. The average cost per unit is GHC 52 if 100 units are produced.
130
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
EXTENDED READING
1x whose nature is a rectangular
The simplest example of a rational function is f(x) = __
hyperbola which can be illustrated graphically as follows;
1
Fig 3.44: Plot of f(x) = __
x with asymptote and centred axes
Here, the x and y axes are asymptotes. An asymptote is line horizontal, vertical or
oblique which the graph does not touch or cross.
Graphical representation of rational functions
There are certain rational functions that after simplifying will result in a linear
function. In such situations, it is important that we note the x values that need to
be excluded, particularly when we are trying to draw the graph of the function.
The set of ordered pairs of the simplified function will be exactly the same as
the set of ordered pairs of the original function. If we plug the excluded value(s)
for x into the simplified expression, we get a set of ordered pairs that represent
“holes” in the graph. These holes are breaks in the curve. We use an open circle
to designate them on the graph.
2
x +x +
For example, considering the function f(x) = ________2x + 1
1
Simplifying we get
(x + 1)(x + 1)
f(x) =___________
x+1
= x + 1, for x ≠ − 1
131
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
For the hole in the graph put x = − 1into the simplified f(x)
f( − 1)= − 1 + 1 = 0
This occurs at (–1, 0)
Therefore, the graph of the simplified f( x) = x + 1can be drawn as follows:
x2 + 2x + 1
Fig 4.45: Plot of f(x) = _______
x + 1 with discontinuity at x = –1
It must be observed that the red spot is the hole which occurs at (-1,0)
2
5x 5x
− 10x
Similarly, the graph of f(x) = _______
This can be simplified as;
5x(x − 2)
f(x)= _______
5x
= x − 2for x ≠ 0
Therefore the hole is (0,–2)
132
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
The graph is as shown:
Fig 3.46: Plot of f ( x)= _
5x x − 2
( )
5x with discontinuity at x = 0
Once again, the hole is the red spot.
xx +
Let us now study graphically the behaviour of the rational function f(x) = ____ −3
2
as
shown;
x−3
Fig 3.47: Plot of f(x) = ____
x + 2 with asymptote at x = -2 and y = 1
133
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
The broken red line is the vertical asymptote and broken green line the horizontal
asymptote.
xx −
Again, for the function f(x) = ____ +2
2
, the graph is;
x+2
Fig 3.48: Plot of f(x) = ____
x − 2 with asymptotes
The broken red line is the vertical asymptote and broken green line the horizontal
asymptote
Identifying rational function
Which of the following is/are rational function(s);
a. f(x)= 3 x2− 5x + 2
This is a rational function; it could be written over the denominator 1 and 1 is a
polynomial.
2
b. 3x 2x
− 5x + 2
f(x) = _________−1
This is a rational function; it is a ratio of two polynomials.
__
c. f( x)= 3x3+ 3√ x
This is not a rational function; it is not the ratio of two polynomials.
134
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Activity 3.18
In small groups or individually, solve the following problem:
The total revenue from the sale of a popular video of a Ghanaian film is
approximated by the rational function;
300 x 2
R(x) = _____
2
x +9
( x) is the
Where x is the number of months since the video was released and R
total revenue in hundreds of Ghana cedis.
i. Find the total revenue generated by the end of the first month.
ii. Find the total revenue generated by the end of the second month.
iii. Find the total revenue generated by the end of the third month.
iv. Find the revenue in of the second month only.
Congratulations if your answers are;
i. GH¢ 3000
ii. GH¢ 9231
iii. GH¢ 15000
iv. GH¢ 6231
135
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Review Questions 3.1
1. Determine the next three terms of the following sequence
a. 5, 9, 13, 17, …
b. 1, 3, 9, 27, …
c. 2, 6, 18, 54, …
d. 1, 3, 5, 7 …
e. 2, 4, 8, 16, …
1 , ___ 1 , ____ 1 ,…?
2. What kind of sequence is the following: 1, __
10 100 1000
a. Neither geometric nor arithmetic
b. Geometric and arithmetic
c. Geometric only
d. Arithmetic only
3. Which of the following sequences is not classified as arithmetic or
geometric?
a. 21 , 1, __
__ 32 , 2, …
b. __12 , __ 13 , __
14 , __
15 , …
c. __12 , __
14 , __
18 , __1 …
16
d. __13 , ___ −35 , …
−31 , − 1, ___
e. 12 , 0, − __
1, __ 12 …
4. Find the 10th term of the arithmetic sequence: 2, 5, 8, 11, ...
5. Given the arithmetic sequence: 3, 7, 11, 15, ... Find an expression for the
nth term of this sequence.
6. For the geometric sequence: 4, 12, 36, 108, ... Find the formula for the nth
term of the sequence.
136
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
7. Complete the table for the sequence given by the formula Un = 13(2)n−1,
n> 0
N 1 2 3 4 5 6
Un = 13(2)n−1
8. The second and fourth terms of exponential sequence (GP) Of positive
terms are 4 and 9 respectively. Find:
a) the common ratio
b) the first term
9. Ali bought a new car for Gh¢50,000.00. It is believed that the value of
depreciation per annum is 20% of the value at the beginning of the year.
Calculate the number of years after which the car is worth GH¢13,110.00.
10. Three consecutive terms of an AP. Have a sum of 21 and a product of 315.
Find the numbers.
11. The first term of an AP is 11 and the fifteenth term is 21.
Find:
a) the first term
b) the common difference
c) the nth term
Review Questions 3.2
1. Evaluate g(− 3)if g (x)= 2 x 2− 4x + 7
2. Let f (x)= 3x + 2 and g(x)= 2x 2− 1.Determine the composite function
(g ∘ f)(x)
3. 12 and g(x)= log 10(x), find the composite function, (g ∘ f)(x)
Given f(x)= __
., giving your answer to 4 decimal places.
4. Given the functions f(x)= 3x and g(x)= x − 2, find the composite function
(f ∘ g)(x)
5. Given the function f(x) = 2x + 3, evaluate f(4)
6. Consider the function h(t)= 3t³ − 2t² + 5. Calculate h( − 1).
____
7. Consider the function v(t) = log10(t2 + 1) − √ (t) . Calculate v(4).
8. State the domain of P(x)= − 3x3+ 6x − 7
137
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
_
9. State the domain of f( x) = √ 2x + 3 ,
2 3 + x
10. Find the domain of function g(t) = ________
x − 4x + 3
11. Find the inverse of the function f(x) = 2x + 5
12. Find the inverse of the function h (x)= 4 − 3x
13. Find the inverse of the one-to-one function p(x) = 5x – 7
14. Determine whether the function f(x) = 2x + 3is bijective
15. If an astronaut weighs 65 kgon the surface of the earth, then her weight
when she if dmiles from the earth is given by
2
w(d)= 65 (_
3960 + d)
3960
a. Determine her weight when she is 150 miles above the earth.
b. Construct a table of values for the function wthat gives her weight
at heights in the interval: [0, 300]using 50 miles for the increment.
c. From your table, describe the nature of the function, w(d), (increasing
or decreasing, injective, surjective and bijective).
16. Establish whether the function g(x) = x²is bijective on the domain of real
numbers.
_
17. Consider the functions p( x)= x³and q( x) = √ x . Find the composite function
(q ∘ p)(x)
Review Questions 3.3
1. Construct a linear function passing through the points (1, 4)and (3, 10)
2. Given the linear function y = 2x − 5, find its x−intercept and y-intercept.
3. Determine the turning point of the parabolic function y = − 2x² + 4x + 1,
state whether it is a maximum or minimum and describe the nature of its
graph
4. Kojo and Afi went to the shop to buy stationery for school. Kojo bought 5
exercise books and 3 pens for GH¢18. Afi bought 3 exercise books and 4
pens for GH¢13. Find the cost of an exercise book and a pen.
138
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
5. A manufacturing company produces two types of products: Product A and
Product B
. The company’s production costs and sales revenue for each
product are as follows:
Product A:
Production Cost per unit: GH¢10
Selling Price per unit: GH¢25
Product B:
Production Cost per unit: GH¢15
Selling Price per unit: GH¢30
In a given month, the company produced a total of 1,000units of Product
A and Product Bcombined. The total production cost was G H¢12,000,
and the total sales revenue was GH¢27,000.
a. Use appropriate algebraic notations and properties to represent the
situation algebraically.
b. Solve the simultaneous equations to find the number of units
produced for each product
6. On the same graph sheet, plot the straight lines y = 4x − 2 and y = 2x + 4
and state the point of intersection.
7. Plot the graphs of y = x2− 4x − 21 and y = x + 3for − 4 ≤ x ≤ 10 using
scale of 2cm to 2 units on the x-axis and 2 cm to 5 units on the y-axis .
Hence from graph state the point of intersection.
8. i) Using a scale of 2 cm to 2 units on both axes, draw on a sheet of
graph paper two perpendicular axes ox and oy.
ii) Draw on the graph sheet, the equation y = 2 − 2x for values of x from
-1 to 3.
iii) On the same graph sheet, draw a graph for the equation y = __12 (x + 1)
for values of x from -1 to 3
iv) Using the graphs, find the values of x and y at the point where the
two lines meet.
139
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
9. Plot the graphs of y = 4x − x2 and y = x2 − 16on the same graph sheet
for values of x from –5 to 5, using a scale of 2 cm to 1 unit on the x-axis
and 2 cm to 4 units on the y-axis.
Hence, state from the graph.
a. The minimum point of the curve y = x2− 16
b. The maximum point of the curve y = 4x − x2
c. The points of intersection of the two curves.
10. Find the area bounded by y = − 2x + 8, the x-axis and the y-axis
11. Find the area bounded by 3x − 2y = 6, y = 4, the x-axis and the y-axis
Review Questions 3.4
1. Graph the solution set to the system of inequalities and identify each
vertex of the region: x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0, 3x + 2y ≤ 12 and x+ 2y ≤ 8
2. Graph the following system of inequalities: y > − 3x + 4 and 2y—x > 2
3. One kind of cake requires 200 g of flour and 25g of fat, and another kind
of cake requires 100g of flour and 50g of fat. Suppose we want to make
as many cakes as possible but have only 4000g of flour and 1200g of fat
available, although there is no shortage of the various other ingredients.
How many cakes of each kind should we make?
4. Graph the system of inequalities; x > 4 and y < 3
5. Illustrate the solution set of the linear inequalities: 3y − 2x ≤ 5 and y + 2x ≥ 4
Review Questions 3.5
1. Giveng(x) = 3x2− 5x + 2 a ndh(x) = 2x2+ 4x − 1
a. Determine the sum ofg(x) andh(x)
b. Find the difference betweeng(x) andh(x)
2. Consider the polynomial functionp(x) = 6x4− 3x3+ 2x2− 8x + 5
a. What is the degree of the polynomial function?
b. What is the leading coefficient of the polynomial?
c. Evaluate p(1)
140
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
3. Given the polynomialp(x) = 3x4− 4x3+ 2x2− 7x − 10, use the Remainder
Theorem to determine if p( x) is divisible by x − 2
4. A local farmer wants to build a rectangular pen for his animals. He plans
to use one side of his barn as one side of the pen, and he has 2 00 feet
of fencing material to complete the other three sides. What dimensions
should the farmer use to maximise the area of the pen?
5. The number of tickets sold during the Senior High School Football season
can be modeled by t( x) = x3 − 12x2 + 48x + 74. Use the remainder
theorem to find the number of tickets sold during the 12 game of the
school football season
6. Given the polynomial p (x) = 5x4− 3x3+ x2− 10x + 10. Find the remainder
when it is divided by x − 2
7. Write down the equations whose sums and products of roots are respectively
a) 5, 9
b) 32 , __
__ 16
c) − __ 47 , − __ 12
d) − 1, __ 35
8. From each equation, calculate the discriminant and hence describe the
nature of its roots.
i 4x2+ 3x + 1 = 0
ii. 2a2− 5a − 8 = 0
iii. 9x2+ 12x + 4 = 0
9. Find the minimum or the maximum values of :
i. 4 + 3x − x 2
ii. x2− 5x + 4and where they occur
10. Using completing squares solve the following
a. x2+ 6x + 9 = 0
b. 2x2− 8x − 4 = 0
c. x2+ 3x + 1 = 0
d. 2x2+ 2x − 1 = 0
e. x2+ 4x − 8 = 0
141
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Review Questions 3.6
1. 2x
x−3
+1
What is the restriction on the domain of the rational function f(x)= ______ ?
2
2. x x− 1 excludes what value/s?
The range of the function g(x) = ____
3. What are the zeros of the function h( x) = (x + 2)(x − 5)?
f(x)
4. xx −
If f(x) = ____ +1
2xx +− 13 what is the numerator of ___
and g(x) = ______ ?
2 g(x)
5. 2 1
What is the decomposed form of the function j(x) = _____
x −4
2
6. xx −+21 defined for all real numbers except x = 2.
Why is the function k(x) = _____
7. 2x x+ 1 and g(x) = ____
Given f(x) = _____ xx −
+2
3
, find the product f( x)× g(x) .
8. Given that f( x) = 2x2
+3
_____ , find the constants A and B in the following
x − 9
____ A B
____
form: x + 3 + x − 3
3 2
9. 3x + 52x − 7x
Resolve the following into partial fractions; _______________
+3
2 ( x − 1)
10. Find the values of the constants A, B and C such that
x2− 4x + 5 = A(x − 1)(x + 2) + B(x + 2)(x − 4) + C(x − 4)(x − 1)
11. A mining company in Tarkwa, a town in the Western Region of Ghana extracts
ore from a mine, and the cost of extraction per ton is given by the function
𝐶(𝑡) =1000 + 20t
________
t , where t is the number of tons of ore extracted.
What is the cost per ton if the company extracts 50 tons in cedis?
12. A pharmaceutical company in Cape Coast produces a certain medication,
500 +
and the average cost per dose is given by the function (𝑑) = ________
d
10d
where
𝑑 is the number of doses produced.
What is the average cost per dose if the company produces 200 doses in
cedis?
13. A water tank is being filled and the amount of water in the tank is represented by
500t
the function (𝑡) =____
t+2
, where (𝑡) is the amount of water in litres after 𝑡 hours. |
How much water will be in the tank after 4 hours?
142
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS
Review Questions 3.1
1 a. 21, 25, 29
b. 81, 243, 729
c. 162, 486, 1558
d. 9, 11, 13
e. 32, 64, 128
2. Geometric only
3. Sequence b is neither an AP nor a GP
4. 29
5. Un = 4n − 1
6. Un = 4( 3)n−1
7.
n 1 2 3 4 5 6
Un = 13( 2)n−1 13 26 52 104 208 416
8. a) common ratio (r) =
3 _ 2
b) first term (a) = __83
9. It takes 6 years
10. 5, 7 and 9
11. a) First term = 11
b) Common difference = __57
c) 57 n + __
nth term = __ 72
7
143
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Review Questions 3.2
1. 37
2. ( g ∘ f)(x) = 18x2+ 24x + 7
3. – 0.3010
4. ( f ∘ g)(x) = 3x − 6
5. 11
6. 0
7. − 0.7696
8. {
x : x ∈ ℝ}
9. { x : x ∈ ℝ, x ≥ − 3 __ 2 }
10. { x : x ∈ ℝ, x ≠ 1 or 3}
11. f−1(x)= _
x − 5, {x : x ∈ ℝ}
2
12. f−1(x)= _
4
−3 x, {x : x ∈ ℝ}
13. f−1(x)= _
x+7 {
5 , x : x ∈ ℝ}
14. It is bijective
15. a. 60.34kg
b.
d 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
w 65 63.39 61.84 60.34 58.90 57.51 56.17
16. It is not bijective
_
17. x3
√
Review Questions 3.3
1. Correctly plot the graph of y = 3x + 1
2. x-intercept is (__52 ,0) and y-intercept is (0,–5).
3. The turning point is (1,3) and it is a maximum, so it is a ∩
shape parabola.
4. Cost of an exercise book is 3 cedis and cost of a pen is 1 cedi
144
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
5. Let the number of units of product A produced be x
Let the number of units of product B produced be y
Expression for total cost products A and B= 10x+15y
Expression for total sales of products A and B= 25x+30y
x + y = 1000 ………….1
10x + 15y = 12000 ………….2
25x + 30y = 27000 ………….3
Solving simultaneously, x = 600 and y = 400
6. point of intersection is (3,10)
7. The point of intersections is (-3,0) and (8,11)
8. 35 and y =__45
x = __
9. a. minimum point = (0,-16)
b. maximum point = (2,4)
c. the points of intersections are (4,0) and (–2, –12)
10. 16 square units
40
11. __
3
square unit
Review Questions 3.4
1. And the region is the more heavily shaded quadrilateral in the middle.
145
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
2. The region which satisfies both inequalities is the darker region in the top
right.
3. Let x represent the number of the first cake made and y represent the
number of the second cake made.
The restrictions on flour means that 200x + 100y < 4000. |
(Divide both sides by 100 means that 2x + y < 40)
And the restriction on fat means that 25x + 50y < 1200.
(Divide both sides by 25 means that x + 2y < 48)
146
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Evaluate the objective function z = x + y
z = x + y at each vertex:
• At (0, 0): z=0+0=0
• At (20, 0): z=20+0=20
• At (0, 24): z=0+24=24
• At (10.8, 18.8) z=10.8+18.8 = 29.6
Therefore, to maximise the number of cakes, we should make approximately
10.8 cakes of the first kind and 18.8 cakes of the second kind. Obviously,
we would not want to make 0.8 of a cake, so maybe have 11 of the first
kind and 18 of the second kind, or 10 of the first kind and 19 of the second
kind.
4.
5.
147
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Review Questions 3.5
1. (a) 5x2− x − 1
(b) x2− 9x + 3
1. (a) 4
(b) 6
(c) 2
2. P(2) = 0, therefore, (x − 2) is a factor
3. 50 feet by 100 feet
4. t( 12)= 650
5. p(2)= 50
6. (a) x2− 14x + 45 = 0
(b) 18 x2− 15x + 2 = 0
(c) 14 x2+ 15x + 4 = 0
(d) 5 x2+ 2x − 3 = 0
7. (i) − 7 < 0complex and imaginary roots
(ii) 89 > 0roots are real and different
(iii) 0 real and equal roots
8. (i) 25
maximum value is− __4
32
and it occurs at x = __
94 and it occurs at x = __
(ii) minimum value is− __ 52
9. a. x = − 3, repeated root
_ _
b. x = 2+ √ 6 , or = 2− √ 6
_ _
− 3 + √ 5 − 3 − √ 5
c. x = _______
2
,
or x = _______
2
_ _
− 1 + 3 − 1 − √ 3
√
d. x = _______
2
,
or x = _______
2
_ _
e. x = − 2 + 2 √ 3 , or = − 2 − 2 √ 3
148
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
Review Questions 3.6
1. When x = 3
2. 0 < y < 4
3. −2, 5
4. x2+ 2x + 1
5. ( − 1 ) + ______
______ 4(x 1− 2)
4 x + 2
6. When x = 2the function will be undefined.
2
7. 2 x 2− 5x − 3
_________
x + 2x
8. A = 1_2 and B = 3_2
3x + 5 _______
9. _____ + 4x2 + 8 2
2
x − 1 (x − 1)
5
10. A = __
18 , B = ___ 17
−92 , C = __
18
11. GH¢ 40
12. GH¢ 12.50
13. 333.33 litres
149
SECTION3 SEQUENCES AND FUNCTIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
List of Contributors
Name Institution
Yaw Efa Ghana National College
Stella Awinipure Walewale SHTS
Joseph Fancis Kittah Bompeh SHTS, Takoradi
Mpeniasah Kwasi Christopher Three-Town SHTS
150
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