HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND VICTIMOLOGY

CHAPTER I
Nature and Concepts of Human Behavior

OVERVIEW ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

What is Behavior

 Behavior refers to the action of an organism or system, usually in relation to its environment, which
includes the other organism or systems around as well as the physical environment
 Behavior can also be defined as anything that you do that can be directly observed, measured, and
repeated. Eg. Reading, singing, crawling etc.

Characteristics of Behavior
1. Primarily native or learned
2. Evoked by external stimuli or internal need
3. Automatic, voluntary, conscious motor or intentional

Attributes or Characteristics of Behavior

1. Overt- behaviors that are observable.
2. Covert- behaviors that are not observable.
3. Simple- less numbers of neurons are consumed in the process of behaving.
4. Complex- combination of simple behavior.
5. Rational- a behavior influenced or guided by reason rather than emotion.
6. Irrational- behavior done without sanity, reason or logic.
7. Voluntary- pertains to psychological or muscular processes which are under the direct control of the
cerebral cortex. This is an act which is done with full volition or will.
8. Involuntary- bodily process that goes on even when we are awake or asleep; refers to actions which
are made without intent.
9. Conscious- when acts are within the level of awareness.
10. Unconscious- unaware; when acts are imbedded in one’s subconscious.

ASPECTS OF BEHAVIOR
1. Intellectual- pertains to man’s way of thinking, reasoning, solving problems, processing info and
coping with environment.
2. Emotional- pertains to feelings, moods, temper, and strong motivational forces.
3. Social- refers to how we interact or relate with other people.
4. Moral- refers to our conscience and concept on what is good or bad.
5. Psychosexual- pertains to sexual gratification classification as male or female and how it is express
in terms of love and affection.
6. Political- refers to one’s ideology towards society and government.
7. Value/Attitude- Refers to our interest towards something, or likes and dislikes.
• Values-a person's principles or standards of behavior; one's judgment of what is
important in life.
• Attitude- a settled way of thinking or feeling about someone or something,
typically one that is reflected in a person's behavior.
LEVELS OF BEHAVIOR
1. Vegetative level- responsible for nurturing and reproduction mostly found on plants, in human
beings, for food and reproduction.
 2. Animal level- refers to the movement and sensation, mostly the use of sense and sex drives.
3. Rational psyche human- refers to values and morals, reasons and the will (purpose and freedom).

CLASSIFICATION OF BEHAVIOR
1. Normal Behavior (Adaptive or Adjusted Behavior) - The standard behavior, the totally accepted
behavior because they follow the standard norms of society.
2. Abnormal Behavior (Maladaptive or Maladjusted Behavior) - A group of behaviors that is
deviant from social expectations because they go against the norms or standard behavior of
society.

HUMAN BEHAVIOR

A. Human Behavior Defined

Human Behavior – It is the voluntary or involuntary attitude a person adopts in order to fit society’s
idea of right and wrong. It’s partly determined by heredity and environment and modified
through learning. It is also the way human being act.

B. Causation of Human Behavior

a. Sensation - feeling or impression of stimulus

 the process by which organism responds to stimulus

a.1. visual – sight
a.2. olfactory – smell
a.3. cutaneous – touch
a.4. auditory – hearing
a.5. gustatory – taste

b. Perception - knowledge of stimulus

-sorting out, interpretation, analysis, and integration of stimuli from our sensory organ.
- process by which sensory stimuli are interpreted, analysed, and integrated

 Extrasensory Perception (ESP)- a form of perception that does not involve the stimulation of any
known receptors. It also refers to any several forms of supposed ability to perceive stimuli through
some means other than sense organs.

Major Types of ESP

1. Telepathy- the ability to know another person’s thoughts.
2. Psychokinesis, or telekinesis- the ability of one’s mind to have a direct effect on another object
without the use of any physical energy.
3. Clairvoyance- the ability to see information about an object, person, scenario, location, or event in
the past, present, or future, using only extrasensory means.

c. Awareness - psychological activity, it is in accordance with the interpretation and experience of object of
stimulus

C. Two Basic Types of Human Behavior

a. Inherited Behavior – behavioral response or reflex exhibited by people due to their genetic
endowment or the process of natural selection.
Considerations for Inherited Behavior
1. Physical Trait- human inherit many physical traits from parents and ancestors.
2. Mental Trait- many scientist believed that level of intelligence and special talents are inherited.

b. Learned Behavior– involves cognitive adaptation that enhances the human beings ability to cope
with changes in the environment in ways which improve the changes for service.
Consideration s for Learned Behavior
1. Environment- after birth, the infant is exposed to an internal environment that is extremely variable.
Includes human beings who influence the infant to the language, customs and many other aspects
of culture are also important influences.
 2. Training- training is closely related to environment and include all social, educational, cultural,
moral, and religious agencies which the child comes in contact.
3. Effort of the will- by means of the will, inherited capacities and realized. The will realizes or
disregard the opportunities presented by environment and training.

D. Viewpoints in the Study of Human Behavior

a. Neurological – emphasizes human actions in relation to events taking place inside the body,
especially the brain and the nervous system.
b. Cognitive – concerned with the way the brain processes and transforms information in various
ways.
c. Psychoanalytical – emphasizes unconscious motives stemming from repressed sexual and
aggressive impulses in childhood.
d. Behavioral – focuses on external activities that can be observed and measured.
e. Humanistic – focuses on the subject’s experience, freedom of choice, and motivation

F. Factors that Affect Human Behavior

a. Heredity – It is determined by genes. Genes are segments of cell structures called chromosomes by
which parents pass on traits to their offspring.
b. Environment – Consists of conditions and factors that surround and influence on individual.
c. Learning – Is the process by which behavior changes as a result of experience or practice.

I. Personality Dimensions That Affect Human Behavior

a. Extraversion
-The diversion that dictates conditionability and is therefore the principal factor in anti – social behavior. It
represents a central nervous system tendency that determines need for stimulation and excitement.
-Extroverts not only have high needs for stimulation, but they also do not condition easily. They frequently
seek stimulation excitement and thrills, all of which can get them in trouble.

b. Neuroticism
-It reflects an innate biological predisposition to react physiologically to stressful or upsetting
events. Basically, it represents emotionality. Persons high to neuroticism react intensely much longer to
stress and are generally moody, touchy, sensitive slights and anxious or nervous.

-Neuroticism is most important in understanding some adult criminals, less important in understanding
adolescents and even younger children.

c. Psychoticism
-It is characterized by cold cruelty, social insensitivity, disregard for danger, troublesome
behavior, dislike of others and attraction toward the unusual.

-The individual high on psychoticism tends to be impulsive, aggressive individual without appreciable
conscience or concern for others.

J. ELEMENTS OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR

Needs- refers to an organism condition which exists within the individual and which demands certain
activity. It is the triggering factors that drives or moves a person to act. It is a psychological state of tissue
deprivation. It is a biological requirement for wellbeing of the individual.
 Drive: it is the psychological state of arousal that prompts someone to take action, it is therefore an
aroused state that results from some biological needs.

 Motivation: refers to the influences that govern the initiation, direction, intensity and persistence of
behavior; it is the causes and “why’s” of behavior as required by need.

Types of Human Needs

a.Biological/biogenic needs- basic needs of man.
1. Food
2. Water
3. Sex
 4. Air
5. Water
6. Pain Avoidance
7. Stimulus Seeking

b.Psychological (Psychogenic/ Socio-genic) needs- are influenced primarily by the kind of

society in which the individual is raised. Psychological motives are those related to the individual
happiness and wellbeing, but not for the survival, unlike the biological motives that focuses on basic
needs.
1. Love and affection;
2. For security;
3. For growth and development; and
4. Recognition from other human beings.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs- every person needs to understand why people behave the way they do
and how they can be motivated to excel at all times. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, explain how people can
be motivated based on their personal needs.
1. Physiological Needs
2. Safety Needs
3. Love and Belonging
4. Esteem
5. Self-Actualization

K. METHODS IN ASSESSING OR MEASURING HUMAN BEHAVIOR

1.Descriptive Method (describing behavior)
a. Naturalistic Observation- observes the behavior in the natural setting of the person’s background.
(home, school, church)
b. Systematic Observation- making use of the adjective checklists test given by the guidance
counsel
2. Clinical Method-diagnose and treatment of serious emotional.
3. Experimental Method- relationship between variables by way of experimental (laboratory).
Specimens are required for comparison and for contrast.
4. Statistical Method- making use of researches that were conducted; measures of central
tendencies, mean etc.
L.DETERMINANTS OF BEHAVIOR
1. Heredity- genetic influence.
2. Environment- socio-cultural inheritance.
3. Self- fundamental functioning of the self-structure that we make about our self and our world. The
following are the three kinds of assumptions based on learning:
a. Reality assumption- assumption about how things really are and what kind of person we are.
b. Possibility assumption- assumptions about how things could be, about possibilities for change,
opportunities and social progress.
c. Value assumption- assumptions about how the way things ought to be, about right and wrong.

FACTORS ALTERING HUMAN BEHAVIOR

1. FRUSTRATION
Refers to the unpleasant feeling that results from the blocking of motive satisfaction. It is a form of
stress, which result in tension. It is a feeling that is experienced when something interferes with our hopes,
plans and expectation.
CAUSES OF FRUSTRATION
A. Internal frustration - may arise from challenges in fulfilling personal goals and desires,
instinctual drives and needs, or dealing with perceived deficiencies, such as a lack of confidence
or fear of social situations.
B. External frustration - involves conditions outside an individual, such as a blocked road or a difficult
task.

COMMON SOURCES OF FRUSTRATIONS

a. Physical obstacles (environmental barriers)- refers to the condition in the environment which
 present obstacles to the satisfaction of drives; physical barriers or circumstances that prevent a
person from doing his plan or fulfilling his wishes. Ex. Traffic jam, rugged roads, flat tire etc.
b. Social circumstances (socio-cultural barriers) - are restrictions or circumstances imposed by
other people and the customs and laws of society living.
c. Personal shortcoming (biological barriers)- refers to the limitations within the individual
himself such as being handicapped by diseases, deafness, paralysis, which serve as a barrier to
the things one ought to do.
d. Conflicts between motives (motivation conflicts)- refers to conflict within the person.
REACTIONS TO FRUSTRATIONS (COPING MECHANISMS) SOMETIMES CALLED FIGHT-FLIGHT
REACTIONS
a. Fight- by fighting the problems in a constructive manner and direct way by breaking the
obstacles barring him from his goal, or by getting angry and become aggressive; and/or
b. Flight- by running away from the problem by sulking, retreating, becoming indifferent, and by
giving up without a fight.
MOST NORMAL PERSON REACTS TO FRUSTRATION IN THE FOLLOWING WAYS:
1. Direct approach
2. Detour
3. Substitution
4. Withdrawal or retreat
5. Developing feeling of inferiority
6. Aggression- it is a form of behaviour characterized by physical/verbal attack, it may be directed
outward (against others) or inward (against the self.)
Two Kinds of Aggression
a. Instrumental Aggression- oriented toward some goal other than doing injury (e.g the
acquisition of money as a goal of armed robbery.)
b. Angry Aggression- is reasons to specific frustration and goal is injury.
7. Use of defense mechanism
Defense Mechanism
 It is the unconscious techniques used to prevent a persons’ self-image from being damaged;
 it safeguards the mind against feelings and thoughts that are too difficult for the conscious mind
to cope with.
 According to Sigmund Freud in his psychoanalytical theory, a defense mechanism is a tactic
developed by the ego to protect against anxiety.
TYPES OF DEFENSE MECHANIC
1. ESCAPE REACTION TECHNIQUES- these are characterized by withdrawal from frustrating or anxiety
producing situation.
a. Repression- it is the unconscious withdrawal of certain painful thought or feelings. An instinct,
feeling, or thought that is pushed out to the ego’s realm of conscious awareness so that the
individual “forgets” something that would cause anxiety.
Example: A girl may deliberately “tend to forget” the moments she had shared with her past
boyfriend just because thoughts of him would only make her grow fond of him and
reminisce the memories that go with their breaking up.
b. Fantasy- is a sort of imagination which can provide an escape from frustration by giving as
imaginary satisfaction.
Example: Daydreaming
c. Regression- reverting to patterns of behavior used in earlier development.
Example: A child who is upset by the arrival of a new sibling resorts to thumb sucking,
bedwetting, etc.
d. Apathy- the opposite of active aggression and is characterized by indifference or withdrawal.

e. Reaction formation- a tendency to conceal a motive from oneself by giving strong expression to
the opposite motive behaving in the opposite way of which you think or feel.
 Example: A woman dotes on her aging mother by cooking her meals, cleaning her home and
taking her to appointments while she secretly despises her.
f. Denial- this is a “negative fantasy” where an individual may refuse to admit the existence of reality
too painful or unpleasant to face.
Example: If you tell yourself “I’m just a social drinker” instead of dealing with your serious
drinking problem.
2. COMPROMISE REACTION TECHNIQUES AND SUBSTITUTE ACTIVITIES- these enable the
individual to change the anxiety-arousing situation in some way.
Rationalization- is putting something into a different light or offering a different explanation for one’s
perceptions or behaviors in the face of a changing reality. Also known as scape goat. Example: A woman
who starts dating a man she really, really likes and thinks the world of is suddenly dumped by the man for
no reason. She re-imagines the situation in her mind with the thought, “I suspected he was a loser all
along.”
Kinds of Rationalization
a. Argument by “sour grapes” and “sweet lemon”- this is one of the oldest recorded for Aesop, the
Greek story teller, make it the subject of a fable in 500 B.C. “A famished fox saw some clusters of
ripe black grapes hanging from a vine. She resulted to all her tricks to get at them, but wearied
herself in vain, for she could not reach them. At last, she turned away, beguiling herself of her
disappointment and saying: “the grapes are sour, and as not as ripe as I thought”.

b. Argument by predestination- this is an insistence that every individual is a pawn of fate and that
all events are preordained.
Example: A law student who fails on his bar examination and rationalizes: “I was never meant to be
a lawyer”.
c. Argument by exception- the rationalization reasons that the individual’s shortcoming is highly
unusual and unrepresentative and therefore permissible.Example, “I’ll drink whisky just this once”.

d. Argument by the doctrine of balance- this is an excused based on the concept that failure must
always be equated with success, a foolish theory reflected in the proverbs “you can’t win ‘em all”
and “lucky at cads, unlucky at love”.
e. Argument by extenuating circumstances- this is the contention that a unique adverse
environment was the cause of failure.
Example: The exam was objective and I didn’t get a chance to express myself
f. Argument by necessity of self-preservation
Example: I had to cheat or I would have failed.
g. Argument by comparison- this is the peculiar assertion that the shortcoming of others excuses the
individual’s shortcomings.
Example: It was alright to cheat a little, everybody else cheated more.
h. Argument by sympathism- this is a plea for undeserved compassion. Example, “I didn’t get the
teaching job because I wear glasses and I don’t see well”.
i. Argument by procrastination- this admits a present weakness, but postpones its correction to the
future.
Example, “I should have performed well on the exam, but I promise to do better next time”.
j. Argument by faulty definition- this proposes that an incorrect definition is a suitable argument.
Example, “taxes are basic wrong so I will not report all my income.”
k. Argument by intellectualism- this shroud a shortcoming with technical language so that its true
severity cannot be evaluated easily.
Example, “I am parsimonious” (translation “I am selfish”).
Identification- sometimes an individual forfends (defend/forbid) anxiety by unconsciously identifying him
with other persons or things.
a. Introjection (Positive Identification)- here, the person senses “oneness” between himself and
another that enables him to assimilate “reflected glory” to himself.
Example, a boy positively identifies with his father, (“my father is a mayor of our town”).
b. Projection (negative identification)- when a person finds that some of his thought and feelings
are intolerable, he does not only repress them but likewise convince himself with the belief that
some people have these thought and feelings towards him.
Example, a student has strong desire to cheat in an examination but refuses to do so because his
conscience won’t let him. Hence, he may become extremely suspicious of other students and may
accuse them of cheating when they are not actually.
Sublimation- this defense mechanism is characterized by the redirection or rechanneling of urges (mostly,
libidinal or sexual) toward more socially acceptable forms of expression.
Example, persons who are sexually frustrated often substitute an abiding interest in the arts or sciences
with high intensity and prolonged attachment leading to super productivity.
3. AGGRESSIVE REACTION TECHNIQUES- when a person fails in his attempt to realize a certain goal,
which had been thwarted by a social being, personal inadequacy, or inanimate objects, depending on the
severity of his frustration he may manifest destructiveness and hostile modes of behaving.
a. Direct aggression- frustration often leads to an actual or direct aggression an actual or direct
aggression against an individual or object that is the source of the frustrating condition. Example, a child
takes a toy from another child the second is likely to attack the first in an attempt to regain the toy.
b. Displaced aggression- when the source of frustration is vague and intangible or when the person
responsible for the frustration is so powerful than an attack would be dangerous, aggression may be
displacing and the aggressive reactions maybe directed toward an innocent person or object rather than
the actual cause of the frustration.
Example, a boy may strike the wall with his fist upon learning that he received a failing mark in one of his
subjects.
2. CONFLICT
Refers to the simultaneous arousal of two or more incompatible motives resulting to unpleasant emotions. It
is a source of frustration because it is a threat to normal behavior.
TYPES OF CONFLICT
1. Double Approach Conflict- a person is motivated to engage in two desirable activities
that cannot be pursued simultaneously.
2. Double Avoidance Conflict- a person faces two undesirable situations in which the
avoidance of one is the exposure to the other resulting to an intense emotion.
3. Approach- Avoidance Conflict- a person faces a situation having both a desirable and
undesirable feature. It is sometimes called “dilemma”, because some negative and some
positive features must be accepted regardless of which course is taken.
4. Multiple Approach- Avoidance Conflict- a choice must be made between two or more
alternatives each of which has both positive and negative features. It must be difficult to
resolve because the features of each portion are often difficult to compare.
SOURCES OF CONFLICT (According to Sigmund Freud)
1. ID- the most basic part of the personality. It also represents our most animalistic urges,
like the desire for food and sex. The id seeks instant gratification for our wants and
needs-pleasure principle. If these needs or wants are not met, a person can become
tense, anxious, or angry.
2. EGO- deals with reality, trying to meet the desires of the id in a way that is socially
acceptable in the world. This may mean delaying gratification and helping to get rid of the
 tension the id feels if a desire is not met right away.
3. SUPEREGO- develops last, and is based on morals and judgments about right and
wrong. Even though the superego and the ego may reach the same decision about
something, the superego’s reason for that decision is based more on moral values, while
the ego’s decision is based more on what others will think or what the consequences of
an action could be on the individual.
3. ANXIETY

It is an emotion characterized by feeling of tension, worried thoughts and physical changes like increased
blood pressure. A normal reaction to stress and can be beneficial in some situations. It can alert us to
dangers and help us prepare and pay attention. Anxiety disorders differ from normal feelings of
nervousness or anxiousness, and involve excessive fear or anxiety.

TYPES OF ANXIETY DISORDERS

1. Generalized Anxiety Disorder
2. Panic Disorder
3. Phobia
4. Social Anxiety Disorder
5. Separation Anxiety Disorder
CAUSES OF ANXIETY DISORDERS
1. Personal Environment (poverty, family conflict etc.,)
2. Personality
3. Family Dynamics
4. Brain Chemistry
5. Genetic Vulnerability

4. STRESS
Any event or circumstance that threatens the individual and requires some form of coping reaction

Stressor – anything (physical or psychological) that produces stress (negative or positive). Promotion is
positive but with more responsibilities-stress.

TYPES OF STRESS
1. Eustress (positive stress) – Greek “eu” meaning either “well” or “good”. When attached to
word stress literally means “good stress”; stress that is healthy or gives one a feeling of
fulfillment.

2. Distress (negative stress)-persistent stress that is not resolved thru coping or adaptation; this
may lead to anxiety or withdrawal (depression) behavior.
THREE STAGES OF STRESS (GENERAL AROUSAL SYNDROME)
1. Alarm – when the threat or stressor is identified or realized. In this stage adrenalize will be
produced in order to bring about the fight-or-flight response.
2. Resistance – body begins to try to adapt to the strains or demands of the environment, body
cannot keep this up indefinitely; resources are gradually depleted.
3. Exhaustion – all body resources depleted and unable to maintain normal function.
MAJOR SOURCES OF STRESS
1. Biological Deprivation- extreme hunger can cause deep physical and emotional
disturbances.
2. Danger (real or imagined) – “combat exhaustion” is a term to describe breakdown in behavior
resulting from danger, which rapidly produces stress.
3. Threats of self-esteem- these threats are often affected by age and personality factors. Some
people set such high standards from themselves completely.
4. Overload (excessive demands) – this result from too much stimulation.
5. Crises and stresses that accompany normal social and personal development- as we
grow up, we worry about ability to meet the new demands and new roles that each stage of life
present.
COPING is the attempt by an individual to deal with the source of stress and control his or her reaction to it.
It is the way, in which we respond to the situations, including stimuli, threats, and promises that we are
frequently faced.

Forms of Coping
1. Direct Action- young children typically show vigorous action when their needs are
not satisfied. The person aggressively tries to retrieve a desired object to protect a
territory or keep a privilege.
2. Avoidance- retreat or running away from something.
3. Prediction- this helps reduce stress by making a person confident that she/he
handles a situation well.
4. Use of defense mechanism.

5. CRISIS
A form of severe stress; Crisis usually stems from two (2) major sources, first, a stressful event involving a
fundamental loss or deprivation that is perceived as threatening to the individual’s self-concept and
personal integrity, second, a crushing threat, whether threat is real or imagined, to the psychological well-
being of the person.

TYPES OF CRISIS
1. Individual crisis- it is a state when the person is in disorganization or being upset.
2. Economic or financial crisis- when a person is deprived of the basic necessities of life,
foods, material things and opportunities for comfort and survival.
3. Emotional crisis- emotion which can be defined as a state of arousal something expressed,
accompanied by physiological changes in the body a motivating force and ranges from
pleasant to unpleasant to feelings is the source of the hardest kind of individual crisis. The
most common types of emotional crisis are anxiety, depression
4. Social crisis- lack of interest, confidence and social skills to relate meaningfully,
harmoniously and fruitfully with others.
5. Moral crisis- irrational or distorted concept of what is right or wrong, good or bad.
Underdeveloped conscience and lack of moral values and integrity as a person.

6. EMOTION
The word “emotion” comes from the Latin word “emovere” meaning “to move out” or “stir-up”. To
“move out” conveys the idea of an outward expression of something inside. It connotes a stirred up bodily
state. In psychology, emotion is often defined as a complex state of feeling that results in physical and
psychological changes that influence thought and behavior.

THEORIES OF EMOTION
The major theories of motivation can be grouped into three main categories: physiological, neurological,
and cognitive.

1. The James-Lange Theory of Emotion- Independently proposed by psychologist William

James and physiologist Carl Lange, the James-Lange theory of emotion suggests that
emotions occur as a result of physiological reactions to events. This theory suggests that
when you see an external stimulus that leads to a physiological reaction. Your emotional
reaction is dependent upon how you interpret those physical reactions.
2. The Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion- Walter Cannon disagreed with the James-Lange
theory of emotion on several different grounds. First, he suggested, people can experience
physiological reactions linked to emotions without actually feeling those emotions. For
example, your heart might race because you have been exercising and not because you are
afraid. According to the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion, we feel emotions and experience
physiological reactions such as sweating, trembling, and muscle tension simultaneously.
More specifically, it is suggested that emotions result when the thalamus sends a message
to the brain in response to a stimulus, resulting in a physiological reaction. At the same time,
the brain also receives signals triggering the emotional experience.
3. Schachter-Singer Theory- Also known as the two-factor theory of emotion, his theory
suggests that the physiological arousal occurs first, and then the individual must identify the
reason for this arousal to experience and label it as an emotion. A stimulus leads to a
 physiological response that is then cognitively interpreted and labeled which results in an
emotion.
4. Cognitive Appraisal Theory/The Lazarus Theory- According to appraisal theories of
emotion, thinking must occur first before experiencing emotion. Richard Lazarus was a
pioneer in this area of emotion, and this theory is often referred to as the Lazarus theory of
emotion. According to this theory, the sequence of events first involves a stimulus, followed
by thought which then leads to the simultaneous experience of a physiological response and
the emotion.

CHAPTER II: Learning, Personality and Motivation

I. LEARNING
 A process which brings about a change in the individual’s way of responding as a result of
practice or other experience.
 It may also be defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from
practice, or behavior changes due to maturation (rather than practice), or temporary
conditions of the organism (such as fatigue or drug induced states).
 Conditioning- a simple form of learning in which a stimulus is to be associated
with a response.
POSSIBLE WAYS OF LEARNING
a. One can learn by direct exposure to the events by experiencing the events, by acting and
seeing the consequences of his actions.
b. One can learn things vicariously, by watching others’ experience the events.
c. One can learn through language, either by being told directly or by reading.
TYPES OF LEARNING
1. Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov, a Russian psychologist). It involves association of
an unconditioned and a conditioned stimulus in such a way that the conditioned stimulus
elicits the unconditioned response. There is the formation or strengthening of an association
between a conditioned stimulus in a controlled relationship with an unconditioned stimulus
that originally elicits the response.
2. Operant or Instrumental Conditioning (B.F. Skinner). This involves a selection from many
responses of the one that habitually will be given in a stimulus situation. The organism’s
behavior in a stimulus situation brings about consequences that determine whether or not
goal achievement is attained.
3. Observational Learning (Albert Bandura). It does not require the learner to behave or to
be reinforced. It only requires that the learner observe a model.
II.PERSONALITY
 This term is taken from the Latin words “per” and “sonare”, which literally means “to sound
through”. This means that an actor’s mask through which the sound of his voice was
projected.
 Traditionally, actors wore masks in the theater to indicate whether they were happy, sad or
angry. Hence, we wear masks to show the world what we want others to see in us.
 It is defined as the sum total traits and characteristics of a person that distinguishes him from
one another.
 The characteristics and ways of behaving that account for a person’s unique adjustment to
his environment.
 It includes characteristics that are important in a person’s adjustments and maintenance of
self-respect.
 Personality is dynamic, as an individual grows and learns he develops his personality. It is
never static; childhood upbringing and early experience help shape personality.

CHARACTERISTICS INVOLVED IN PERSONALITY

a. Physical – body built, height, weight, texture of the skin, shape of the lips, shape of the
face, etc.
b. Mental – range of ideas, mental alertness, ability to reason, to conceptualize, etc.
c. Emotional – one’s temperament, moods, prejudices, bias, emotional response, such as
aggressiveness and calmness, etc.
d. Moral – his positive or negative adherence to the do’s and don’ts of his society, his value
systems, moral principles, etc.
e. Spiritual – faith, beliefs, philosophy of life, etc.
THEORIES AND APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY

1. Constitutional Class/Type Theories – these theories posit that humans can be classified into different
classes or types, each class or type having characteristics which distinguishes him from other classes or
types.
a. Physique or Body Types
 William Sheldon (Somatotyping Theory). He based his theory in the three layers of
tissues in the human embryo – the endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm. These three
are present in an individual, but one predominates over the others.
1. Ectomorph: who are thin and fine-boned, were said to have a tendency toward
a “cerebrotonic”
personality (i.e., introverted, thoughtful, inhibited, sensitive).
2. Mesomorph: who are square and muscular, were said to have a tendency
toward a “somotonic”
personality (i.e., active, dynamic, assertive, aggressive).
3. Endomorph: who are rounded and soft, were said to have a tendency toward a
“viscerotonic”
personality (i.e., relaxed, comfortable, extroverted);

b. Hans Eysenk’s Personality Trait

1. Introverts – They are already over-aroused and shun sensation and
stimulation. Introverts are reserved, plan their actions and control their
emotions. They tend to be serious, reliable and pessimistic.
2. Extroverts – are sociable and crave excitement and change, and thus can
become bored easily. They tend to be carefree, optimistic and impulsive. They
are more likely to take risks and be thrill seekers. Eysenck argues that this is
because they inherit an under aroused nervous system and so seek stimulation
to restore the level of optimum stimulation.
3. Emotionally Unstable – being anxious, excitable and easily disturbed
c. Body Chemistry and Endocrine Balance (Types of Temperament) Galen – a Roman
physician
1. Sanguine Person – a person with too much blood (warm-hearted, pleasant,
active and confident).
2. Phlegmatic Person – person with excess phlegm (slow moving and
emotionally flat).
3. Melancholic Person – person with excess of black bile (suffers from
depression and sadness).
4. Choleric Person – with too much yellow bile (quick to anger and violence,
temperamental).
2. Psychodynamic Theories – according to some historically influential
theories of personality, differences in personality arise from the different
ways in which people try to satisfy one central motive such as the sex
drive, the desire to superiority, or the drive to achieve one’s full
potential.
2. Psychoanalytic theory
 Sigmund Freud the father of psychoanalysis; an Austrian physician who developed
theories on personality development that have had an enormous influenced on
psychologist and other students of human behavior.
 Freud’s psychodynamic theory of personality emphasizes the importance of early
childhood experiences, repressed thought that we cannot voluntarily access and the
conflicts between conscious and unconscious forces that influence our thoughts and
behaviors.
Psychoanalysis
 This is based on the assumption that each of us has an unconscious mind as well as
a conscious mind. The unconscious has thoughts, memories and emotions. It started
as a fairly simple theory; the unconscious contains memories of traumatic
experiences and the goal of the psychoanalysts is to bring those memories to
consciousness.
a) Conscious – these are our wishes, desires, or thoughts that we are aware of or can recall,
at any given moment. Freud, however, theorized that our conscious thoughts are only
 a small part of our total mental mind, much of which involves unconscious thoughts or
forces.
b) Preconscious – contains elements of experience that are presently out of awareness but
are made conscious simply by focusing on them.

c) Unconscious – contains the biological instincts such as sex and aggressions. Some
unconscious urges cannot be experienced consciously because mental images and words
could not portray them in all their color and fury. Other unconscious urges may be kept below
the surface by repression. Unconscious forces represent wishes, desires or thought that
because of their disturbing or threatening content, we automatically repress and cannot
voluntarily access.
The Structure of Personality
a) ID-the primitive and instinctive component of personality. It consists of all the inherited (i.e.,
biological) components of personality present at birth, including the sex (life) instinct – Eros
(which contains the libido), and the aggressive (death) instinct - Thanatos.
b) EGO-The ego is that part of the id which has been modified by the direct influence of the
external world. The ego operates according to the reality principle, working out realistic ways
of satisfying the id’s demands, often compromising or postponing satisfaction to avoid
negative consequences of society. The ego considers social realities and norms, etiquette
and rules in deciding how to behave.
c) SUPEREGO- The superego incorporates the values and morals of society which are learned
from one's parents and others. It develops around the age of 3 – 5 years during the phallic
stage of psychosexual development. The superego consists of two systems: The conscience
and the ideal self. The conscience can punish the ego through causing feelings of guilt. For
example, if the ego gives in to the id's demands, the superego may make the person feel bad
through guilt.

Psychosocial Development Theory

Erik Erikson developed the social and emotional development of children and teenagers which
continues into adulthood
  Psychosocial Development Theory is similar to that of Freud's Personality Theory except that
Adler's drive for human behavior is the need to overcome the feelings of inferiority.

 Inferiority is a feeling that humans feel since they are born. They grow up being dependent on their
parents and feeling like they cannot do anything on their own. It is humans drive to overcome
inferiority and become superior which causes humans to act. Humans act to achieve perfection and
superiority. Those that do feel like they are being overwhelmed by feelings of inferiority will develop
an inferiority complex. An inferiority complex brings an exaggerated feeling of inferiority on the
sufferer and they will feel less motivated to strive for superiority.

 His theory also contains the effects of the order of the family. Children who are the only child will get
pampered which will cause the child to feel inferior when left to do things on their own. Those who
are firstborn get all the attention at first but then all that attention goes towards the middle child.
Now the firstborn feels neglected and inferior and develops to reserved and conservative. The
middle child will be competitive and constantly try to beat the firstborn. The youngest child will be
pampered and will feel inferior when left to do things by themselves. The youngest child could also
feel the need to constantly beat their older siblings like the middle child.

3. Social Learning Theories

 Albert Bandura urges that personality is shaped not only be environmental influences on the person
but also by the person’s ability to influence the environment.
 States that thinking is an important determinant of behavior.
 Three Factors that affect personality: Cognitive, Environmental, and Behavioral Factors

The Filipino Personality

a. Bahala Na – it implies complete trust. It also means resignation for whatever he has in life.
b. Smooth Interpersonal Relations (SIR) – the facility of getting along with others in such a
way as to avoid outward signs of conflicts; gloomy or sour looks, harsh words, open
disagreement or physical change. To maintain SIR, pakikisama and euphemism (use of
inoffensive terms) are essential.
c. Mañana Habit – this means procrastination. Putting off for the next day what they can do for
the day.
d. Ningas Cogon – defined as the enthusiasm, which is intense only at the start but gradually
fades away.
e. Utang na Loob – defined as “reciprocity”, “a debt of gratitude”, “a debt inside oneself”. It is
considered to a negative trait by many, which sometimes a deterrent to progress, as one
may forego opportunities just to be with or do something for someone whom you owe a debt
of gratitude.
f. Hiya – a painful emotion arising from relationship with an authority figure or with society,
inhibiting self-assertion in a situation which is perceived as dangerous to one’s ego. It is a
kind of anxiety, a fear of being left, exposed, unprotected and unaccepted. It is a fear of
abandonment, of “loss of soul”, a loss not only of one’s possession or even of one’s life, but
of something perceived as more valuable than life itself, namely the ego, the self.
g. Hospitality – refers to the warm welcome that the Filipino gives to visitors who come to his
home, especially strangers and foreigners.
h. Pervasive Sense of Inferiority – this is the self-concept that is characterized by the rural
Filipinos’, low sense of personal worth, a low sense of independence, and a high deference
to authority.
i. Subsistence – rural Filipinos are known for being contended to meet each day’s needs as
they arise. They usually live according to the following expressions: “remedyo na lang at
dilihensya”. They express an attitude of satisfaction once one’s basic needs are met. Closely
related to his is the observation that Filipinos are present-oriented. They do not plan ahead.
They want quick solutions to their problems.
j. Amoral Familism – the tendency of the Filipino family to become individualistic, inward
directe, hence unable to look at horizons beyond one’s family.
k. Compadre System – refers to the attitude of Filipinos to use established relationship for
protection and for acquiring necessary position or reward even if such is not due to them by
way of principles or basic rules.
l. Concept of Success and Failures –this refers more to Filipino perception and attitude of
swerte (good luck) and or malas (bad luck).
m. Submissiveness – a characteristic of the Filipino which shows his non-willingness to
challenge those in authority, his willingness to accepts commands and criticism from others
without attempt to even question them.
n. Amor Propio – this involves self-esteem but not necessarily self-confidence. A central
element of this is the need of the Filipino to be treated as person, not as an object.
Eventually, criticisms and mistakes are oftentimes difficult for a Filipino to accept.
III. MOTIVATION
It is an internal condition initiated by drives, needs or desires and producing a goal directed
behavior; mechanism within an organism that activates behavior or directs it towards some goal

SOURCES OF MOTIVATION
a. Biological Factors – the need for food, water, temperature regulation, etc.

b. Cognitive Factors – the needs of acquiring knowledge, reasoning, intuitions or perceptions

that motivates human behavior
c. Emotional Factors – such as panic, fear, anger, love and other emotions

d. Social Factors – people react to parents, teachers, siblings, friends, television and other
forces.
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
1. Drive Theory – an explanation of behavior that emphasizes internal factors that energize
organisms to seek, or maintain some goal. Often the goal is to reestablish a state of
physiological balance. (a hungry organism deprived of food for twenty-four hours spends
most of its time looking for food; it is driven to seek food).
2. Expectancy Theory – an explanation of behavior that emphasizes a person’s expectation of
success and need for achievement as the energizing factors. According to achievement
theories, people engage in behaviors that satisfy their desires for success, mastery and
fulfillment.
3. Cognitive Theory – it emphasizes the role of thought and individual choice regarding life
goals and the means of achieving them. It also emphasizes the role of decision making in all
dreams of life.
4. Humanistic Theory – emphasizes the role of human qualities, such as dignity, individual
choice, self-concept, and self-achievement and self-actualization.

5. Incentive Theory – an explanation of behavior that is goal-directed; actions are directed

toward attaining desirable stimuli called positive incentives and toward avoiding unwanted
stimuli called negative incentives. This theory explains why people play chess, ride roller
coasters, etc.

HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
Abraham Maslow proponent of this hierarchy of needs or the Ladder of Human Needs states that
fundamental needs must be satisfied before a person can turn to self-actualization needs.
a. Physiological or Biological Needs – these are lower-order needs which keep the
individual survive; food, air, water, sex, sleeps, shelter, clothing, and other bodily
needs; to satisfy hunger, thirst and sex drives.
b. Safety Needs – protection from harm, need to avoid pain, to obtain bodily comforts and
to be free from fear and insecurity; to feel secure, safe and out of danger.
c. Belongingness and Love Needs – to affiliate with others; to be accepted and belong;
affiliations with others and acceptance by others; need to give and receive love. This is
the beginning of higher needs.
d. Esteem Needs– self-esteem, esteem of others, status, power, autonomy, competence,
prestige, recognition, independence, stability; to achieve, be competent, gain approval
and recognition; feeling of success and self- worth; need to accomplish and achieve as
we develop skills to gain personal achievement and social recognition.
e. Need for Self – Actualization – the need to feel one’s unique potential; need to know
all about ourselves and the world around us, the need to create and appreciate beauty,
and the tendency to be an inner-directed achiever; achieving one’s full potential,
 personal growth, and creative unique human being. It is also defined as having become
everything that one is capable of becoming.
CHAPTER III

CRIMINAL PSYCHOLOGY
A. DEFINING CRIMINAL PSYCHOLOGY

 It is the branch of psychology which investigates the psychology of crime with particular
reference to the personality factors of the criminal.
 Criminal psychology is the study of the wills, thoughts, intentions and reactions of criminals,
all that partakes in the criminal behavior.
 Criminal psychology is the study of the thoughts and behavior of criminals. It answers the
question: why do criminals do what they do?
B. DEFINING CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR

 Legal Definition: Criminal Behavior refers to actions prohibited by the state and punishment
under the law.
 Moral Definition: Criminal Behavior refers to actions that violate the norms of religion and
morality and are believed to be punishable by spiritual beings.
 Criminal Behavior refers to actions that may be rewarding to the action but that inflict pain or
one loss or others. That is criminal behavior is anti-social behavior.
 Criminal Behavior refers to antisocial acts that place the actor at risk of becoming a focus of
the attention of criminal and juvenile justice professionals.
Goals of Studying Criminal Behavior
a. To describe behavior whether normal or it is abnormal.

b. To identify factors that can predict behavior.

c. To control and change behavior as a result of a problem.

Origins of Criminal Behavior
1. Biological Factor – heredity factor implies that criminal acts are unavoidable due to bad seed or
bad blood. (Born Criminal by Cesare Lombroso).
2. Personality Disorder Factor – violation of the rights of others that begins in childhood or early
adolescence and continuous to adulthood such as Anti-Social Personality Disorder.
3. Learning Factor – criminal behavior is learned primarily from environment.

C. THE PSYCHOLOGY OF CRIMINAL BEHAVIOUR: THEORIES FROM PAST TO PRESENT

PSYCHOLOGY- is the totality or sum of all actions, attitudes, thoughts, mental states of a person or group
of persons; it is a science dealing with the mind of human being including animal behavior.
Individual Differences:
1. No two people are alike.
2. Men differ from women.
3. People differ from day-to-day activities
Nature of Differences:
1. Personality
2. Intelligence
The Psychology of Crime
 In explaining the birth of a criminal act or criminal behavior, we must thus consider
three factors: Criminal Tendencies (T); The Total Situation (S); and the Persons Mental
 and Emotional Resistance to Temptation (R). These factors then can be put into a
formula as:
C=T+S
R
Where C - Crime/Criminal Behavior (the act) T - Criminal Tendency (desire/intent) S -
Total Situation (opportunity)
R - Resistance to Temptation (Control)

FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY- A field of psychology that deals with all aspects of human behavior as it
relates to the law or legal system.
HUGO MUNSTERBERG- (1863–1916) is often referred to as the founding father of forensic psychology. a
German- American psychologist, he was the first to pioneer the application of criminal psychology in
research and theories. His research extended to witness memory, false confessions, and the role of
hypnosis in court.
D. NORMAL AND ABNORMAL BEHAVIOURS WHO IS A NORMAL PERSON?

 A normal person is one who behaves according to the norms and standards of society.
Characteristics of a Normal Person
a. Free expression of personality

b. Adequate security feeling

c. Efficient contact with reality

d. Adaptability to group norms

e. Emotional knowledge

f. Integrated and consistent personality

WHO IS AN ABNORMAL PERSON?
 Those persons whose behavior deviates too far from the norms and standards of society.
Symptoms of Abnormal Behavior
a. Long periods of discomfort – worrying about things or grieving the death of a loved one.

b. Impaired Functioning – passing period of inefficiency and prolonged inefficiency which

seems unexplainable.
c. Bizarre Behavior – individual is confused (no rational basis).
d. Disruptive behavior – uncontrollable behavior that disrupts lives of other.

E. DISTURBANCE OF MENTALITY

Insanity – the persistent inability of the individual through mental cause to adapt himself to his ordinary
environment. It is not a psychological or psychiatric term but a legal term. A person is insane if he/she is not
able to judge between right and wrong.
Mental Retardation – condition of limited ability in which an individual has a low IQ usually below 70 on a
traditional intelligence test, and has difficulty adapting to everyday life.
Categories of Mental Retardation:
a. Mild Retardation (IQ 50-70) – able to care their selves; could finish basic education, holds
semi-skilled jobs, can be married and serve as adequate parents.
 b. Moderate Retardation (IQ 35-49) – maybe trained to care their selves; reach primary level
of education’ holds menial jobs often sheltered workshops, difficulty in maintaining social
relationships, rarely marry.
c. Severe Retardation (IQ 20-34) – may learn sedimentary language and work skills, unable to
care for themselves.
d. Profound Retardation (IQ 20 Below) – spend their lives in institutions that provide custodial
care, not capable of true interaction.
Mental Deficiency – is the condition of incomplete development of the mind existing before the age of 18
years old, whether arising from inherent causes or induced by disease or injury.
a. Idiot – has mental intelligence compared to that of a two-year-old. It is a mental defect which
unable a person against common physical danger.
b. Imbecile – mental development similar to 2–7 years old.

c. Morally Defective – devoid of moral sense.

d. Feeble-minded persons – mental defectiveness which though not amounting to imbecility,

yet they require care, supervision and control for their own or for the protection of others, or
in the case of children, they appear to be permanently incapable receiving proper benefit
ordinary school.
WHAT IS MENTAL DISORDER?
 are diseases that affect cognition, emotion, and behavioral control and substantially interfere
both with the ability of children to learn and with the ability of adults to function in their
families, at work, and in the broader society.
 Refers to the significant impairment in psychological functioning;
 The following are the types of mental disorder:
a.Psychosis – severe mental disorder characterized by a retreat from reality, hallucinations and delusions,
and by social withdrawal
b.Organic Mental Disorder – mental or emotional problem caused by brain injuries of diseases
c.Substance-related Disorder – an abuse or dependence on a mood-or behavior-altering drug
d.Mood Disorder – disturbance in mood or emotion, such as depression or mania
e. Anxiety Disorder – disruptive feeling of fear, apprehension, or anxiety, or a distortion in behavioral
anxiety
f. Somatoform Disorder – a physical symptom that mimics a disease or an injury for which there is no
identifiable physical cause
g. Dissociative Disorder – involves a sudden loss of memory or change in identity
h. Personality Disorder – maladaptive personality pattern; resulted from personalities that developed
improperly during childhood
i. Sexual and Gender Identity Disorder – difficulties with sexual identity, deviant sexual behavior, or
sexual adjustment
j. Neurosis – anxiety disorders, somatoform disorders and some forms of depression.
PSYCHOTIC BEHAVIORS
 The psychotic behaviors refer to the groups of disorders involving gross structural
defects in the brain tissue, severe disorientation of the mind this it involves loss of
contact with reality.
Psychosis – from word “psyche” – mind/soul and “osis” – abnormal condition. Means abnormal condition
of the mind and is a generic psychiatric term for a mental state often describe as involving a “loss of contact
with reality”.
Psychotic – people suffering from psychosis.
Types of Psychotic Behaviors
1. Organic Mental Disorders- Mental disorder that occurs when the normal brain has been
damage resulted from any interference of the functioning of the brain.
Types of Organic Mental Disorders
a.Acute Brain Disorder – caused by a diffuse impairment of the brain function. Its symptoms range from
mild mood changes to acute delirium.
b.Chronic brain disorder – the brain disorder that result from injuries, diseases, drugs, and a variety of
other conditions. Its symptoms include impairment of orientation (time, place, and person), impairment of
memory, learning, comprehension and judgment, emotion and self-control.
Groups of Organic Mental Disorders
a.Amnestic Syndrome – the inability to remember ongoing events more than a few minutes after they
have been taken place.
b.General Paresis – also called “dementia paralytica”, a syphilitic infection of the brain and involving
impairment of the CNS.
c. Hallucinosis – the persistent occurrence of hallucinations, the false perception that arise in full
wakefulness state. This includes hallucinations on visual and hearing or both.
d.Delirium – the severe impairment of information processing in the brain affecting the basic process of
attention, perception, memory and thinking.
e. Dementia – deterioration in intellectual functioning after completing brain maturation. The defect in the
process of acquiring knowledge or skill, problem solving, and judgment.
 Senile Dementia – mental disorder that accompanied by brain
degeneration due to old age.
 Presenile Dementia – mental disorder associated with earlier degeneration
of the brain.
f. Organic Affective Syndrome – the extreme/severe manic or depressive state with the impairment of the
cerebral function.
g.Organic Delusional Syndrome – the false belief arising in a setting of known or suspected brain
damage.
h. Organic Personality Syndrome- the general personality changes following brain damage.
2. Disorders Involving Brain Tumor- A tumor is a new growth involving abnormal
enlargement of body tissue. Brain tumor can cause a variety of personality alteration, and it
may lead to any neurotic behavior and consequently to psychotic behavior.
3. Disorders Involving Head Injury – Injury to the head as a result of falls, blows, and
accidents causing sensory and motor disorders; and mental disorders.
a. Retrograde Amnesia – the inability to recall events immediately preceding the injury.

b. Intra Cerebral Hemorrhage – gross bleeding at the site of damage.

c. Petechial Hemorrhage – small spots of bleeding at the site of damage.

These injuries may also impair language and other related sensory motor functioning and may
result to brain damage.
a. Alexia – loss of ability to read.

b. Agraphia – loss of ability to express thoughts in writing.

c. Apraxia – loss of ability to perform simple voluntary acts.

d. Auditory Asphasia – loss of ability to understand spoken words.

 e. Expressive Asphasia – loss of ability to speak required words.

f. Nominal Asphasia – loss of ability to recall names of objects.

4. Schizophrenia- The most common psychotic disorder is schizophrenia; was introduced into
the medical language by the Swiss psychiatrist Bleuler by combining two Greek words
“schizein” meaning to split and “phren” meaning mind;
 It refers to a major mental disorder, or group of disorders, whose causes are still largely
unknown and which involves a complex set of disturbances of thinking, perception,
affect and social behaviour.
 characterized by gross distortions of reality, withdrawal of social interaction,
disorganization and fragmentation of perception, thoughts and emotion. It also refers to
terms such as “mental deterioration”, “dementia praecox”, or “split mind”.
 Emil Kraepelin first identified the illness in 1896 and he called it dementia praecox.
SCHIZOPHRENIC HALLUCINATIONS: broken down into the following categories
1. Tactile (Touch): sensation that there are things crawling across their skin

2. Visual (Sight): causes the person to see things that are not really there

3. Auditory (Hearing): hear voices and sounds that others cannot hear

4. Olfactory (Smell): olfactory hallucination

5. Command (Hearing): voice commands the person to do something he/she would

not ordinarily do
Types of Schizophrenia
1. Catatonic Schizophrenia – It is the altering period of extreme withdrawal and extreme
excitement. The individual may talk or shout incoherently and engage in uninhibited,
impulsive behavior. The person may be dangerous.
2. Hebephrenic Schizophrenia (Disorganized Type) – there is emotional distortion
manifested in inappropriate laughter, peculiar mannerism and bizarre behavior.
3. Paranoid Schizophrenia – it is the illogical, changeable delusions frequently accompanied
by vivid hallucinations, with a resulting impairment of critical judgment, unpredictable and
occasionally dangerous behavior.
4. Simple Schizophrenia (Undifferentiated Type) – the schizophrenia in which symptoms
are rapidly changing mixture of all primary indicators of schizophrenia. The varying
combinations of delusions, hallucinations, thought disorders, and gross bizarreness.
PERSONALITY DISORDERS
 A personality disorder exists when the habits that constitute a personality are inflexible and
damaging.
 These are psychological disorders that are believed to result from personalities that developed
improperly during childhood.
 A personality disorder is identified by the pervasive pattern of experience and behavior that is
abnormal with respect to any two of the following: thinking, mood, personal relations and the control
of impulses.
 Most personality disorders begin as problems in personal development and character which peak
during adolescence and then defined as personality disorder.
Common Characteristics of Personality Disorders
a. All personality disorders begin early in life.

b. They are disturbing to the person or to the others.

c. They are difficult to treat.

Ten Distinct Personality Disorders
(Identified by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, published by the American
Psychiatric Association)
1. Antisocial Personality Disorder – lack of regard for the moral or legal standards in the local
culture, marked inability to get along with others or abide by societal rules. Sometimes
called psychopaths or sociopaths. Sociopath - It is a person who lacks any sense of social
or moral responsibility because of mental illness. Psychopath - It is a person having
disorder of personality, characterized by anti-social behavior, indifference to immorality and
abnormal changes in mood and activity.
2. Avoidant Personality Disorder – marked social inhibition, feelings of inadequacy and
extremely sensitive to criticism.
3. Borderline Personality Disorder – lack of one’s own identity, with rapid changes in mood,
intense unstable interpersonal relationships, marked impulsively, instability in affect and in
self-image.
4. Dependent Personality Disorder – Extreme need of other people, to a point where the
person is unable to make any decisions or take an independent stand on his own. Fear of
separation and submissive behavior. This is marked by lack of decisiveness and self-
confidence.
5. Histrionic Personality Disorder – exaggerated and often inappropriate displays of emotional
reactions, approaching theatricality, in everyday behavior. Sudden and rapidly shifting
emotion expressions; emotional excess and attention – seeking behaviors.
6. Narcissistic Personality Disorder – behavior or a fantasy of grandiosity, a lack of empathy,
a need to be admired by others, an inability to see the viewpoints of others, and
hypersensitive to the opinion of others.
7. Obsessive-compulsive Personality Disorder – characterized by perfectionism and
inflexibility, preoccupation with uncontrollable patterns of thought and action.
8. Paranoid Personality Disorder – marked distrust of others, including belief without reason
that others are exploiting, harming or trying to deceive him, belief of others betrayal; belief
in hidden meanings, unforgiving and grudge holding.
9. Schizoid Personality Disorder – primarily characterized by a very limited range of emotion,
both in expression of and experiencing; indifferent to social relationships; isolation from
social relationships and restricted emotional range in interpersonal settings.
10. Schizotypal Personality Disorder – peculiarities in thinking, odd beliefs, and eccentricities of
appearance, behavior, interpersonal style.
SEXUAL DEVIANCY
 any sexual behavior that is regarded as significantly different from the standards established by a
culture or subculture.
 Psychosexual Crisis – failure to assume one’s sex roles and identity as man and woman; the
person has an appropriate sex object faulty, inadequate and distorted expression of affection.
NORMAL SEXUALITY: Stages of Psychosexual Development
1. Oral Stage (Birth to 18 months). During the oral stage, the child if focused on oral pleasures
(sucking). Too much or too little gratification can result in an Oral Fixation or Oral Personality
which is evidenced by a preoccupation with oral activities. This type of personality may have a
stronger tendency to smoke, drink alcohol, over eat, or bite his or her nails. Personality wise,
these individuals may become overly dependent upon others, gullible, and perpetual followers.
On the other hand, they may also fight these urges and develop pessimism and aggression
toward others.
2. Anal Stage (18 months to three years). The child’s focus of pleasure in this stage is on
eliminating and retaining feces. Through society’s pressure, mainly via parents, the child has to
learn to control anal stimulation. In terms of personality, after effects of an anal fixation during
this stage can result in an obsession with cleanliness, perfection, and control (anal retentive). On
the opposite end of the spectrum, they may become messy and disorganized (anal expulsive).
3. Phallic Stage (ages three to six). The pleasure zone switches to the genitals. Freud believed
that during this stage boy develop unconscious sexual desires for their mother. Because of this,
 he becomes rivals with his father and sees him as competition for the mother’s affection. During
this time, boys also develop a fear that their father will punish them for these feelings, such as by
castrating them. This group of feelings is known as Oedipus Complex (after the Greek Mythology
figure who accidentally killed his father and married his mother).
4. Latency Stage (age six to puberty). It’s during this stage that sexual urges remain repressed
and children interact and play mostly with same sex peers.
5. Genital Stage (puberty on). The final stage of psychosexual development begins at the start of
puberty when sexual urges are once again awakened. Through the lessons learned during the
previous stages, adolescents direct their sexual urges onto opposite sex peers, with the primary
focus of pleasure is the genitals.
Major Categories of Sexual Disorder

1. Sexual Dysfunctions
2. Paraphilia
3. Gender Identity Disorders
4.
CATEGORY 1: SEXUAL DYSFUNCTION
 A persistent or recurrent problem that causes marked distress and interpersonal difficulty and
that may involve: sexual arousal or the pleasure associated with sex or orgasm.
 any pattern of behavior including a habitual, preferred, and compelling need for sexual
gratification by a technique, other than willing coitus between man and woman and involving
actions that are directly results in genital excite; is an impairment of either the desire for
sexual gratification or in the ability to achieve it.
 It is a disturbance in any phase of the Human Sexual Response Cycle.
What is the HUMAN SEXUAL RESPONSE CYCLE?
 A four-stage model of physiological responses during sexual stimulation
 Coined by William H. Masters and Virginia E. Johnson in their 1966 book “Human Sexual
Response
FOUR PHASES
1. EXCITEMENT PHASE: also known as the arousal phase or initial excitement phase; it occurs
as a result of any erotic physical or mental stimulation; characterized by an erection in males
and a swelling of the clitoris and vaginal lubrication in females.
2. PLATEAU PHASE: period of sexual excitement prior to orgasm; the body further increases in
circulation and hear rate that occur in both sexes, sexual pleasure increases with increased
stimulation, and muscle tension increases further.
3. ORGASMIC PHASE: Conclusion of the plateau phase and is experienced by both sexes;
accompanied by quick cycles of muscle contraction in the lower pelvic muscles; in men,
orgasm is usually associated with ejaculation.
4. RESOLUTION PHASE: also known as Refractory Period; allows the muscles to relax, blood
pressure to drop and the body to slow down from its excited phase.
TYPES OF SEXUAL DYSFUNCTIONS
A. DYSFUNCTIONS OF SEXUAL DESIRE (OCCURS DURING THE EXCITEMENT PHASE)

1. Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder: marked by lack or no sexual drive or interest in sexual
activity; characterized by a persistent, upsetting loss of sexual desire.
2. Sexual Aversion Disorder: characterized by a desire to avoid genital contact with a sexual
partner; refers to a persistent feeling of fear, anxiety or disgust about engaging in sex.
B. DYSFUNCTIONS OF SEXUAL AROUSAL (OCCURS DURING THE AROUSAL/ PLATEAU
PHASE)
 1. Male Erectile Disorder: previously called impotence; refers to the inability to maintain or
achieve an erection
2. Female Sexual Arousal Disorder: previously called frigidity; non-responsiveness to erotic
stimulation both physically and emotional.
C. DYSFUNCTIONS OF ORGASM

Those affecting Males

1. Erectile Insufficiency (Impotency) – inability to achieve or maintain erection for successful
intercourse.
2. Premature Ejaculation: unsatisfactory brief period between the beginning or sexual
stimulation and the occurrence of ejaculation
3. Retarded Ejaculation: inability to ejaculate during sexual intercourse

Those affecting Women

1. Arousal Insufficiency (Frigidity) – the counterpart of impotence.

2. Female Orgasmic Disorder: difficulty in achieving orgasm, either manually or during sexual
intercourse
D. SEXUAL PAINS

1. Vaginismus: involuntary muscle spam at the entrance to the vagina that prevents
penetration and sexual intercourse
2. Dyspareunia: painful coitus that may have either an organic or psychological basis.

E. HYPER SEXUALITY

1. Nymphomania (or furor uterinus): strong sexual feeling of women, excessive sexual
urge in women.
2. Satyriasis: excessive (sexual urge) desire of men to intercourse.

CATEGORY 2: PARAPHILIAS
 Greek “para” meaning over and “philia” meaning friendship.
 Used to indicate sexual arousal in response to sexual objects or situations that are not part of
societal normative arousal/ activity patters, or which may interfere with the capacity for
reciprocal affectionate sexual activity.
 Characterized by a 6-month period of recurrent, intense, sexually arousing fantasies or
sexual urges involving a specific act, depending on the paraphilia.
COMMON FORMS OF PARAPHILIA
A. EXHIBITIONISM: also known as flashing; involves the exposure of private parts of his/her body to
another person in a situation when they would not normally be exposed; it may be called
apodysophilia or a Lady Govia Syndrome
Types of Exposure:
 Flashing: display of bare breasts and/or buttocks by a woman with an up-and-down lifting of
the shirt and/or bra or a person exposing and/or stroking his or her genitals
 Mooning: display of bare buttocks while bending down
 Anasyrma: lifting up the skirt when not wearing underwear
 Martymachlia: having others watch the execution of a sexual act
B. FETISHISM: experience sexual urges and behavior which are associated with non-living objects; it
was described as such by Sigmund Freud Types.
  Sexual Transvestic Fetishism (Transvestism): begins in adolescence usually around the
onset of puberty where most practitioners are male who are aroused by wearing, fondling, or
seeing female clothing
 Foot Fetishism: viewing, handling, licking, tickling, sniffing or kissing the feet or toes of
another person or vice versa
 Tickling Fetishism: tickling a sex partner or being subjected to tickling themselves
 Wet and Messy Fetish: aroused by substances applied on the body like mud, shaving foam,
custard pudding, etc.; it could also involve wet clothes
 Pygmalionism: sexual desire for statutes
 Incendiarism: pleasure from setting fire
C. FROTTEURISM (FROTTAGE): obtaining sexual arousal and gratification by rubbing one’s genitals
against others in public places or crowds or sexual urges are related to the touching or rubbing of
their body against a non-consenting, unfamiliar woman.
D. PEDOPHILIA (Pedophilic Behavior): child sexual abuse; from the Greek word “pais” which means
child and “philia” which means friendship
E. MASOCHISM: infliction of pain to one self to achieve sexual pleasure; a person derives sexual
excitement from being humiliated, beaten, bound, or otherwise abused
F. SADISM: attaining sexual pleasure or gratification by the infliction of pain and suffering upon
another person; derived from the name of the Marquis de Sade, a profilic French writer of sadistic
novels.
G. VOYEURISM (Peeping Tom): from the French “voyeur” meaning “one who looks”; reaching sexual
pleasure or gratification by watching or observing the subject with the use of peep-holes, two-way
mirrors, hidden cameras, etc.
H. SCATOLOGIA (Coprolalia): compulsive use of obscene language; performing obscene or forbidden
gestures (copropraxia); making obscene writings or drawings (coprographia); obscene telephone calls
(telephone scatologia)
I. NECROPHILIA (Thanatophilia or Necrolagnia): sexual attraction to corpses; from Ancient Greek
“nekros” meaning corpse or dead and “philia” meaning friendship
J. COPROPHILIA (Scatophilia or Scat): from Greek “kopros” meaning excrement and “filia” meaning
liking fondness; sexual pleasure from feces
K. ZOOPHILIA (Bestiality, Bestosexual or Zoosexuality): sex between humans and animals
L. UROPHILIA (Urolagnia): from Greek word “ouron” meaning urine; being urinated or swallowing urine
M. GERONTOPHILIA: sexual inclination towards the elderly
N. MYSOPHILIA: obtaining sexual arousal and gratification by filth or filthy surrounding; getting horny from
smelling, chewing or rubbing against dirty underwear; from Greek work “myos” meaning uncleanness
O. HYPOXYPHILIA: desire to achieve an altered state of consciousness as an enhancement to the
experience of orgasm; may use a drug such as nitrous oxide
CATEGORY 3: GENDER IDENTITY DISORDER (TRANS-SEXUALISM)
Person experiences confusion, vagueness, or conflict in his/her feelings about his/her own sexual identity.
Individual feels trapped in a body of the wrong sex.
CATEGORY OF SEXUAL ABNORMALITIES
A. AS TO THE CHOICE OF SEXUAL PARTNER
a. Heterosexual – sexual desire towards the opposite sex. This is a normal sexual behavior, socially and
medically acceptable.
b. Homosexuality – sexual attraction and relationship with the person of the same sex. Causes include
faulty childhood, training, cross identification, environmental factors and traumatic experience.
Overt Homosexual – persons who are conscious of their homosexual cravings and who make no attempts
to disguise their intention. They make advances towards members of their own sex.
Latent Homosexual – persons who may or may not be aware of the tendency in the direction but are
inclined to repress the urge to give way to their homosexual yearning.
Tribadism (Lesbianism) – a special name for female homosexuals wherein woman has the desire to have
sexual intercourse with another woman; the “masculine” woman may be the active subject during the
sexual act; most lesbians have antipathy towards men
c. Infantosexual – sexual desire towards an immature person.
 Pedophilia – a form of sexual perversion wherein a person has the compulsive desire to have
sexual intercourse with a child of either sex. Usually committed by homosexual.
d. Bestosexual – sexual desire towards animals
 Bestiality (zoophilia) – sexual activity with animals
e. Autosexual (self-gratification or masturbation) – it is a form of “solitary vice” carried without the
cooperation of another person; achievement of orgasm by manual or mechanical stimulation.
Types of Masturbation:
a. Conscious Type: person deliberately resorts to some mechanical means of producing sexual
excitement with or without orgasm.
In Male: by manual manipulation to the point of emission or rubbing his sex organ against some part of the
female body without use of hand (frottage)
In Female: manual manipulation of clitoris or introduction of penis-substitute
b. Unconscious Type: release of sexual tension may come about via the mechanism of nocturnal
stimulation with or without emission.
f. Gerontophilia – sexual desire with elder person.
g. Necrophilia – a sexual perversion characterized by erotic desire or actual sexual intercourse with a
corpse.
h. Incest – sexual relations between persons who by reasons of blood relationship cannot legally marry.
B. AS TO INSTINCTUAL STRENGTH OF SEXUAL URGE
1. Over sex
a. Satyriasis – excessive sexual feeling of men to sexual intercourse.
b. Nymphomania – strong sexual feeling of women. They are commonly called “hot” or “fighter”. Both
satyriasis and nymphomania are general expression of compulsive neurosis.
2. Under sex
a. Sexual anesthesia – absence of sexual desire or arousal during sexual act in women.
b. Impotence – failure to have erection or coitus for men
c. Frigidity – inability to have sexual arousal and enjoy coitus
d. Premature ejaculation – absence of voluntary control over ejaculation reflex after the man attains
heightened sexual arousal. It is ejaculating too “quickly” or to “early”
e. Vaginismus – vagina contracts involuntary so that penis insertion is not possible and not difficult and
painful
f. Dyspareunia – painful intercourse
C. AS TO THE MODE OF SEXUAL EXPRESSION OR WAY OF SEXUAL SATISFACTION
1. Oralism – use of mouth as a way of sexual gratification
a. Fellatio (Irrumation): friction with the lips and tongue coupled with the act of sucking the organ
b. Cunnilingus: licking or sucking the external female genitalia
c. Anilism (Anilingus): licking the anus of another person of either sex
2. Sado-masochism (Algolagnia) – cruel or painful act as a factor for gratification.
a. Flagellation – a sexual deviation associated specifically with the act of whipping or being whipped.
b. Sadism (Active Algolagnia) – a form of sexual perversion in which the infliction of pain on another is
necessary or sometime the sole factor in sexual enjoyment.
c. Masochism (Passive Algolagnia) – the pain and humiliation from the opposite sex is the primary factor
for sexual gratification.
3. Fetishism – a form of sexual perversion wherein the real or fantasized presence of an object or bodily
part is necessary for sexual stimulation and/or gratification.
a. Anatomic – where particular portions of the anatomy, such as the breast, or buttocks are the target or
interest for sexual stimulation.
b. Clothing – the deviate may have interest centered on shoes, handkerchief, undergarments, either on a
sexual partner or stolen from a neighborhood washline.
c. Odor (Ospresiophilia) – fetish whose stimulation is pleasant or foul odor for sexual stimulation or
gratification.
d. Narcissism – a person has extreme admiration and love of one’s self. Sexual gratification is attained by
looking at the mirror and appreciating his or her own self.
D. AS TO THE PART OF THE BODY
1. Sodomy – sexual act through the anus of another human being
2. Uranism – sexual gratification attained by fingering, fondling with the breast, licking part of the body, etc.
3. Frottage – a form of sexual gratification characterized by the compulsive desire of a person to rub his
sex organ against some body parts of another. They generally achieve their erotic gratification by rubbing
or pressing their organs against the buttocks of women is crowded subways, buses, theaters, or streetcars.
The frotteur pretends that the rubbing is accidental.
4. Partialism – a form of sexual deviation wherein a person has special affinity to certain parts of the
female body. Sexual libido may develop in the breast, buttock, foot, legs, etc. of women. Usually, sexual
intercourse is merely secondary to satisfy the sexual needs. A person may prefer rubbing his penis against
the woman’s breast or may prefer his partner to lie prone and hold or kiss the buttocks.
Frottage differs from partialism in the sense that the former, there must be rubbing at certain part to arouse
stimulation, while in the latter, the act may not only be rubbing but actual sexual intercourse.
E. As to Visual Stimulation
1. Voyeurism – “peeping test” obtains sexual pleasure is some degree from observing other bodies or
sexual acts without the observed person’s consent. It is something compulsive on their part.
2. Mixoscopia (Scoptophilia) – a perversion wherein sexual pleasure is attained by watching couple
undress or during their sex intimacies.
F. As to Number
1. Triolism – a form of sexual perversion in which three persons are participating is the sexual orgies. The
combination may consist of two men and a woman or two women and a man.
2. Pluralism – a form of sexual perversion in which a group of persons participate in the sexual orgies. Two
or more couples may perform sexual act in a room and they may even agree to exchange partner for
“variety sake” during the “sexual festival”.
G. As to Sexual Reversal
1. Transvestism – a form of deviation wherein a male individual derives pleasure from wearing female
apparel or females who desire to dress themselves in male attire
2.Transexualism – some person identifies themselves with the opposite sex as completely as possible to
discard forever their anatomical sex
3. Intersexuality – an individual show intermingling, in varying degrees, or the characteristics of both sexes
including physical form, reproductive organs, and sexual behavior
Classification of Intersexuality
a. Gonadal Agenesis: the sex organs have never developed
b. Gonadal Dysgenesis: the external sexual structures are present but at puberty, the testes or the
ovaries fail to develop True Hermaphroditism: having both ovaries and testicles; nuclear sex is usually
female
c. Pseudohermaphrodite: sex organ in anatomically of one sex but the sex character is that of the
opposite sex.
HANDLING DEVIANT SEXUAL BEHAVIOR
1. Adequate and healthy sex information.
2. Positive and constructive attitude towards sex.
3. Assuming appropriate sex roles and responsibilities.
Characteristics:
1. Often emotionally detached and distant
2. Sexual sadist may return home calmly and display little if any distress or guilt
3. Their crimes are almost always carefully planned
4. They generally don’t know their victims
5. the victim is approached under a pretext, others prefer the “blitz” method (ambush style)
6. Prefer strangers as victims
7. Usually kill by strangulation
8. Offender usually keeps personal items belonging to their victims
9. Sexual sadists keep records of their crimes.
D. ANXIETY DISORDERS
 involves excessive levels of negative emotions, such as nervousness, tension, worry, fight, and
anxiety
What is the Difference between Anxiety and Fear?
Anxiety is the unpleasant emotional state for which the cause is either not readily identified or
perceived to be uncontrollable or unavailable; Fear is an emotional and psychological response to a
recognized external threat or a response to a real danger or threat.
TYPES OF ANXIETY DISORDERS
1. Generalized Anxiety Disorder: excessive, unrealistic worry and tension, even if there is little or nothing to
provoke the anxiety.
2. Obsessive- Compulsive Disorder: disturbing thoughts are called obsessions (anxiety-provoking thoughts
that will not go away) while the rituals are called compulsions (irresistible urge to engage in behaviors).
3. Panic Disorder: keeps recurring attacks to a person of intense fear or panic, often with feelings of
impending doom of death.
4. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: developed after a traumatic and/or terrifying event.
5. Specific Phobias: intense fear of a specific object or situation (examples: fear of heights – acrophobia;
fear of books – biblophobia; fear of water – aquaphobia).
6. Social Anxiety Disorder: also called social phobia; involves overwhelming worry and self-consciousness
about everyday social situations.
E. DELUSIONAL DISORDERS: False Belief
 sometimes referred to as paranoia; delusions are false, sometimes even preposterous;
TYPES OF DELUSIONAL DISORDER
1. Persecutory Type (Delusion of Persecution): person believes that he or she is being threatened or
mistreated by others
2. Grandiose Type (Delusion of Grandeur): believe that they are extraordinarily important people or are
possessed with extraordinary power, knowledge and ability
3. Jealous Type: centers on the suspected unfaithfulness of a spouse or sexual partner
4. Erotomanic Type: person has erotic delusion that he or she is loved by another person, especially by
some famous or of higher status
5. Somatic Type: person suffering from delusional physical abnormality believes his/her body is under
attack
6. Guilt Delusion: believes he/she has done something terrible or wrong
F. MOOD DISORDERS
 Characterized by extreme and unwanted disturbances in feeling or mood.
 Otherwise known as Affective Disorder.
TYPES OF MOOD DISORDER
1. Bipolar Disorder (formerly known as manic-depression): swings in mood from elation to depression
with no discernable external cause
Two Phases:
a. Manic Phase: patient may show excessive, unwanted excitement or silliness, carrying jokes too far
b. Depressive Episode: often sleep more than usual and are lethargic.
2. Depressive Disorder: when a person experience extended, unexplainable periods of sadness
Three Types:
a. Major Depressive Disorder: depressed mood for most of the day, nearly every day or has lost interest or
pleasure in all, or almost all activities for a period of at least two weeks.
b. Single Episode: strikes in one dramatic episode.
c. Recurrent: extendable pattern of depressed episode
G. SOMATOFORM DISORDERS
 Complaints of bodily symptoms that suggest the presence of physical problems, but no organic
basis can be found. The individual is preoccupied with his state of health or diseases.

 Characterized by physical symptoms that mimic physical disease or injury for which there is no
identifiable physical cause.
SIX MAJOR TYPES
1. Conversion Disorder (Hysteria): patient displays neurological symptoms such as numbness, paralysis,
etc.
2. Hypochondriasis: convinced that they have some serious disorder despite reassurance from doctors to
the contrary
3. Somatization Disorder (Briquet’s Disorder): patients chronically and persistently complain of varied
physical symptoms that have no identifiable physical origin
4. Pain Disorder: experiences chronic pain in one or more areas and is thought to be caused by
psychological stress
5. Body Dysmorphic Disorder: previously known as dysmorphobia or body dysmorphia; person is
excessively concerned about and preoccupied by a perceived defect in his/her physical features
6. Undifferentiated Somatoform Disorder: only one unexplained symptom is required for at least 6
months; included among these disorders are false pregnancy, psychogenic urinary retention, etc.
H. DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS
 One loses the integration of consciousness, identity, and memories of important personal events
VARIETIES OF DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS
1. Psychogenic Amnesia: also known as Dissociative Amnesia; temporary or permanent loss of a part or
all of the memory’ often associated with catastrophic events
Sub-Categories:
a. Localized Amnesia: unable to recall the details of a traumatic event
b. Selective Amnesia: memory retained is very selective
c. Generalized and Continuous Amnesia: person either forgets the details of his/her entire lifetime,
including the present.
2. Psychogenic Fugue: also known as Dissociative Fugue; person may create entirely new life
3. Multiple Personality Disorder: also known as Dissociative Identity Disorder; occurrence of two or more
personalities within the same individual
4. Depersonalization Disorder: presence of feelings that the person is not himself/herself or that he/she
can’t control his/her actions
I. OTHER DISORDERS
1. Alcoholism or Problem Drinking – is an additive source of human disorders. Alcoholism is defined as
the compulsive and habitual consumption of alcohol accompanied by varying degrees of deterioration,
especially of the nervous system and digestive system. It is evident by its general effects as follows: It
serves as a depressant; It numbs the higher brain center; it impairs judgment and other rational; It lowers
self-control; Deterioration of perception.
2. Drug Abuse – or the inappropriate/ misuse of drugs is a threat to normal behavior. It is an addictive
disorder, the fact that causes both physical and psychological dependency to the drug.
3. Extreme Obesity – also known as “habitual over eating” is an addictive form of disorder. It is a life-
threatening disorder, resulting in such conditions as diabetes, high blood pressure and other cardiovascular
diseases that can place an individual at high risk of heart attack. Obesity is defined as an excessive
accumulation of fat in the body.
4. Pathological Gambling – is an addictive form of disorder, which does not involve chemically addictive.
Gambling is defined as to risk or bet something of value on the outcome of an event, “a game of chance”.
J. SERIAL KILLING
 one of a series of murders, typically having similar characteristics, that are committed by the same
person.
TERRIBLE TRIADS
 These are the three characteristics that are present in almost all serial killers during their childhood.
These characteristics known to be as the terrible triads.
1. Bed-wetting – at least 60% of serial killers were wetting the bed past the age of 12.
2. Fire Starting (Fascination of Fire) – an early manifestation of their obsession with destruction.
3. Animal Torture (Cruelty to Animals) – many serial killers, before moving to human victims, start with
small animals.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SERIAL KILLER
a. Serial killers enjoy extending the suffering of their victims. They get a lot of power by determining
whether their victim will live or die. They may torture their victim for several days to obtain much pleasure
as possible.
b. Victims of serial killers have no profile. Most victims are chosen at random, just being at the wrong place
at the wrong time. Some serial killers have preference of their victims, choosing to eliminate a certain group
of people.
c. Serial killers select the victim. The killer will fantasize about the murder until the fantasy is no longer
enough to bring about the pleasure, and he must commit the crime. The serial killer will survey the location,
and take every precaution not to get caught. Then they seek out their victim and murder them.
TWO TYPES OF SERIAL KILLERS BASED ON THE SERIAL KILLER’S MOTIVE
1. Act-Focused – doesn’t kill for the psychological gratification of the kill, making the act itself their primary
emphasis; kill quickly, with little pomp and circumstance
Sub-Types:
a. Visionary: receives a vision or hears a voice telling him to kill
b. Missionary: killer is on mission to eradicate a specific group of people, such as prostitutes, white collared
bankers, etc.
2. Process-Focused – they kill for the enjoyment of it, and usually get a perverse sexual thrill out of it; they
take their time and go very slowly (hedonism)
Sub-Types:
a.Gain: for profit or personal gain
b.Thrill: killing gives these people a rush on high
c. Power: pleasure comes from manipulating and dominating
d.Lust: sexual pleasure
FOUR PHASES OF LUST KILLERS:
I. Fantasy: use of pornographic material; may last for years
II. The Hunt: focus on the right type of victim or may focus on the right type of location; he may stalk (hunt)
for a long time memorizing their schedule down to the minute
III. The Kill: killer makes real on his fantasy
IV. Post-Kill: killer will likely feel empty or depressed; killer would write confession to the police or media.

CHAPTER IV
VICTIMOLOGY
What is Victimology?
 According to Benjamin Mendelsohn, often referred to as the father of victimology, describes the field
as the science of victims and victimity.
  A subfield of criminology that specializes in studying the victims of crime.
 Criminal victims could be key actors in the criminal justice process, but more often they are kept at
the discussion. The victim of crime often becomes the FORGOTTEN PERSON of the criminal
justice system while the criminal is the celebrity. Victims are only valued for their capacity to report
crimes and to appear in court as witnesses.

Victimologists study the series of events that typically lead to victimization acts of various kinds in
attempts to:
1. arrive at general theories of victimization; and
2. try to arrive at insights relevant to how victimization can be avoided.

Victimize - make into a victim; to cause somebody to become an injured party.

Victimless Crime - crime without a victim; an illegal act such as prostitution or drug use in which there is
no obvious injured party.
Victimization – a situation that arises when people become a target of criminal offenders.

Consequence of Victimization
1. Some victims suffer lifelong pain from wounds, and some suffer permanent disability, but for the
majority of the victims, the worst consequences are psychological.
2. With victimization come stressful feelings of shock, personal vulnerability, anger, fear of further
victimization and suspicion of others.
3. It produces feelings of depression, guilt, self-blame, and lowered self-esteem and self-efficacy.
 Rape trauma syndrome: A syndrome sometimes suffered by rape victims that is similar to
post-traumatic stress syndrome (re-experiencing the event via “flashbacks”, avoiding
anything at all associated with the event, and a general numbness of effect).

Finkelhor (1984) developed a risk factor checklist for the likelihood of girl’s victimization containing
the following predictors.
1. Living with a stepfather
2. Living without a biological mother
3. Not close to mother
4. Mother never finished high school
5. Sex-punitive mother
6. No physical attention from biological father
7. Family income
8. Two friends or fewer in childhood

 Domestic Violence: any abusive act physical, sexual, or psychological that occurs within the
family setting. Intimate partner violence is the most common form.

A. EARLY PIONEERS OF VICTIMOLOGY

1. Benjamin Mendelsohn (1900-1998)
 Was an Israeli criminal law scholar who coined the word victimology in a paper presentation in
Bucharest, Romania, in 1947 and used it in a paper entitled “A New Branch of Bio-Psycho-Social
Science: Victimology” in 1946.
 Generally credited as the initiator of the word VICTIMOLOGY as well as the concept of PENAL
COUPLE. Penal couple is a term that describes the relationship between the victim and the criminal.
He also coined the term VICTIMAL to describe the victim counterpart of the criminal, and the word
VICTIMITY, which signified the opposite of criminality.
 Another class of victim is the ‘LOSER’ or one who is initially the attacker but later, the situation is
reversed. An example could be the case of a mugger or a bully who ends up injured or a swindler
becomes swindled.
 One of his lasting contributions to the field was the creation of victim typology.

Mendelsohn’s (1956) Victim Culpability Spectrum with Examples

Level of Victim Culpability Examples

1. Completely Innocent An individual killed while sleeping at home.

2. Victim with minor guilt An individual robber after displaying money.
3. Victim as guilty as the offender An individual killed during a drug transaction.
4. Victim more guilty than the offender An individual killed after initiating a physical altercation.
5. Most guilt victim An individual killed while committing a robbery.
6. Imaginary victim An individual who pretends that he/she was victimized.

2. Hans von Hentig (1887-1974)

 He began his career as an academic and scholar with a keen focus on the role of victims in criminal
activity.
 He was concerned about the interaction between victims and offenders and the exchanges that led
to criminal events.
 His interest resulted in one of the most influential works in the field, “The Criminal and His Victim
(1948)”, in which he identified several victim risks factors that were important for understanding the
genesis of crime.

Von Hentig’s Victim Risk Factors

Victim Characteristics Proneness to Crime Stems From

1. The young Emotional and physical vulnerability

2. Females Physical vulnerability
3. The old Mental and physical vulnerability; access to wealth
4.The mentally defective Vulnerability from defect or through substance use
or deranged
5. Immigrants Challenge in assimilation into a new culture
6. Minorities Discrimination and prejudice from inequality
7. Dull Normal Lack of awareness and general naiveté
8. The Depressed Failing to exercise due care
9. The Acquisitive Greed and recklessness
10. The Wanton Lack of appropriate sensibilities
11. The Lonesome and Heartbroken Desire for companionship and recklessness
12. Tormentor An abusive environment that often spans years
13. The Blocked, The inability to defend against attacks
Exempted, Fighting

3. Ezzat A. Fattah
 he began his career as a lawyer, thus he was able to witness inhumane treatment of incarcerated
offenders.
 It was through this position, and the reading of notable works like von Hentig’s The Criminal and His
Victim, that Fattah realized that systemic change in terms of crime prevention would occur only after
researchers developed holistic understanding of the origins of criminal activity.
 This holistic understanding required consideration of the interactions and relationships between
offenders and victims as well as the contributions of each to the criminal event itself.
 He attempted to construct a way of understanding victimization risks along a type of continuum.

Fattah’s Victim Classification Scheme

Victim Classes Characterized by

1. Non-Participating Victims A lack of contribution or participation in the crime

2. Latent or Predisposed Victims Presence of risk factors that increase the likelihood of crime
3. Provocative Victims Engaging in actions that lead to the genesis of a crime
4. Participating Victims Engaging in actions that facilitate the genesis of a
crime
5. False Victims The lack of actual victimization perpetrated by another
individual

4. Sarah Margery Fry (1874-1958)

 she advocated for improved treatment of offenders without de-emphasizing the harm victims
experienced in the aftermath of crime.
 Fry worked tirelessly in England to encourage the establishment of a compensation fund for crime
victims, which ultimately occurred in 1964.
  Additionally, her efforts led to the development of similar programs around the world-including in the
United States (Viano, 1983).
5. Koichi Miyazawa
 Due to his efforts it led to the founding of the Institute for Victimology at Keio University in Tokyo,
Japan.
 He also presented a theoretical framework for understanding victimization.

6. Stephen Schafer (1911-1976)

 He also began his career as a lawyer and pivoted toward academia after escaping persecution
during World War II.
 He spent considerable time parsing out the “functional responsibility” victims had in criminal events.
 Indeed, in his seminar work, Victimology: The Victim and His Criminal, criticized victimization
studies for the lack of attention placed on the criminal-victim relationship, which he emphasized
should be a central line of inquiry in the field.
 He also proposed a typology that sought to overcome some of the challenges associated with
previous frameworks accounted for both behavioural and social characteristics that contributed to
the genesis of crime.
 According to Schafer (1977), his ultimate goal in constructing this typology was to provide an
instrument by which the responsibility of both the offender and the victim could be assessed in the
criminal-victim relationship.

Schafer’s Victim Responsibility Typology

Type Responsibility Determination

1. Unrelated Victims Criminal is solely responsible; there is no relationship to the

victim.
2. Provocative Victims Shared responsibility between criminal and victim because of
Victim’s provocation.
3. Precipitative Victims Shared responsibility between criminal and victim because of
victim’s carelessness.
4. Biologically Weak Victims Shared responsibility between criminal and larger
society, which failed to protect the victim despite his/her
inherent vulnerabilities.
5. Socially Weak Victims Shared responsibility between criminal and larger society
which
failed to protect the victim despite his/her socially vulnerable
position.
6. Self-Victimizing Victims The victim is completely responsible and is considered a
criminal- Victim.
7. Political Victims Victim is not responsible, because of his/her lack of socio-
political Capital.

B. VICTIMIZATION THEORIES
1. Victim Precipitation Theory- was first presented by Von Hentig (1941) and apples only to violent
victimization. Its basic premise is that by acting in certain provocative ways, some individuals initiate a
chain of events that lead to their victimization. Most murder of spouses and boyfriends by women, for
example, are victim precipitated in that the “perpetrator” is defending herself from the victim (Mann, 1990).
2. Routine Activities/Lifestyle Theory- routine activities and lifestyle theories are separate entities, but in
victimology they are similar enough to warrant being merged into one (Doerner & Lab,2002).
 Routine activities theory: A neoclassical theory pointing to the routine activities in that society or
neighbourhood that invite or prevent crime. Routine activities are defined as “recurrent and
prevalent activities which provided for basic population and individual needs”. Crime is the result of
the following three variables:
a. the presence of motivated offenders;
b. the availability of suitable targets; and
c. the absence of capable guardians.
  Lifestyle theory is that there are certain lifestyles (routine activities) that disproportionately expose
some people to high risk for victimization. A theory stressing that crime is not just a behavior but a
general pattern of life. Lifestyles are the routine patterned activities that people engage in on a daily
basis, both obligatory (e.g., work-related) and optional (e.g., recreational). A high-risk lifestyle may
mean getting involve with deviant peer groups or drugs, just “hanging out,” or frequenting bars until
late into the night and drinking heavily.
C. AREAS OF VICTIMOLOGICAL THOUGHT
1. Penal Victimology
 It focuses on the understanding of victims as dynamic components of crime with varying degrees of
responsibility.
 Sometimes known as interactionist victimology, broadly describes studies that focus on the
interaction and relationship between offenders and victims within the confines of criminal law.
 This area led to the development of three important concepts meant to provide an understanding of
the victim’s role in criminal events:
a. Victim-precipitation: applied to those criminal homicides in which the victim is a direct, positive
precipitator in the crime; it refers to a victim’s actions or behaviors that prompted the crime itself. Also,
several characteristics that were important in the comparison of victim-precipitated homicides to non-
victim-precipitated homicides: biological sex, race, relationship status, substance abuse.
 Marvin Wolfgang was the first scholar to empirically evaluate the concept of victim-
precipitation in his study of homicides.
b. Victim-facilitation: is associated with the least culpability compared to victim-precipitation or victim
provocation. Victim facilitation describes situations in which a crime occurs because of victim
carelessness in safeguarding themselves or their property; Occurs when a victim unintentionally makes
it easier for an offender to commit a crime.
c. Victim-provocation: Occurs when a person does something that incites another person to commit
an illegal act. The greater culpability stems from the victim engaging in some provocation that leads to
the onset of crime (Daigle & Muftic, 2015).
2. General Victimology
 the study of victimity in the broadest sense, including those that have been harmed by
accidents, natural disasters, war, and so on.
 Mendelsohn (1976) envisioned that victimology was rightfully considered as separate area of
social science focused on victimization broadly and not as a subfield within criminology.
 Included in this broad field were harms that resulted from crime, but also environment,
technology, and social trends.
3. Critical Victimology
 relates the incidence of victimization with social groups in society and seeks to point out how some
social groups (such as women and the poor) are structurally more at risk of crime.
 Engages in a twofold task:
a. To cast light on the institutions and structural relations that favour specific images of
victimization at the expense of others (contextualization);
b. To draw attention to situations that, despite producing serious victimization, are not such
designated as such.
 Critical victimologists question how the wider societal structure influences our conception of
victimization and the conditions under which the label “victim” is applied.
D. DYNAMICS OF VICTIMIZATION
There are a number of procedural models which can be applied to the study of the victimization
process for the purpose of understanding the experience the victims.
1. “Victims of Crime Model” (by Bard and Sangrey). According to this model, there are three stages
involved in any victimization:
a. Stage of Impact & Disorganization – stage during and immediately following the criminal event
 b. Stage of Recoil – stage during which the victim formulates psychological defenses and deals with
conflicting emotions of guilt, anger, acceptance, and desire of revenge (said to last three to eight
months),
c. Reorganization Stage – stage during which the victim puts his or her life back to normal daily
living. Some victims, however may not successfully adopt the victimization experience and a
maladaptive reorganization stage may last for many years.
2. “Disaster Victim’s Model” – this model was developed to explain the coping behavior of victims of
natural disaster. According to this model, there are four stages of victimization:

a. Pre-impact - stage describe the victim’s condition prior to being victimized.

b. Impact - the stage at which victimization occur.
c. Post-impact - stage which entails the degree and duration of personal and social disorganization
following victimization.
d. Behavioral outcome – stage that describes the victim’s adjustment to the victimization
experience.

E. FACTORS OF VICTIMIZATION
1. Hedonism
2. Materialistic Culture
3. Sex Values
4. Decay of Discipline
5. Public Morality

F. VICTIMOLOGY & DAMAGES

“If there is a complainant, there must be a defendant.” Thus, there could never be a victim if there is
no offender, except in what is known as victimless crimes.
The only thing that does away with criminality is decriminalization. This is otherwise known as
LOGOMACY.
Logomacy is a statement that we have no crime if we had no criminal law, and that we could
eliminate all crime by abolishing all criminal laws.

Man has a juridical capacity and capacity to act. He is normally entitled to the following civil damages.

1. Moral Damages – the compensation awarded to a person’s physical suffering, mental anguish, fright,
serious anxiety, besmirched reputation, wounded feelings, moral shock, social humiliation, and similar
injury
2. Actual or Compensatory Damages – the compensation awarded to a person for such pecuniary loss
suffered by him as he has duly proved
3. Nominal Damages – amount awarded to a victim in order that his right that had been violated or
invaded maybe restored or recognized
4. Temperate Damages – moderate damages; the compensation that is more than nominal but less than
compensatory damages given to a person when the court finds that he has suffered some pecuniary loss,
but its amount cannot, from the nature of the case, be proved with certainty
5. Liquidated Damages – damages that agreed upon by the parties to a contract to be paid in case of
BREACH OF CONTRACT
6. Exemplary Damages – corrective damages; those that imposed by way of example or correction for the
public good, in addition to the moral, temperate, liquidated or compensatory damages.

Victim-Offender Reconciliation Programs (VORPs)

 Are integral component of the restorative justice philosophy. Central to the VORP process is the
bringing together of victim and offender in face-to-face meetings mediated by a person trained in
mediation theory and practice (Prince, 2005). Meetings are voluntary for offender and victim and are
designed to iron out ways in which the offender can make amends for the hurt and damage cause
to the victim.
 Mark Umbreit (1994) sums up the various satisfactions expressed by victims who participate in
VORPs:
1. Meeting offenders helped reduce their fear of being victimized.
2. They appreciated the opportunity to tell offenders how they felt.
3. Being personally involved in the justice process was satisfying to them.
 4. They gained insight into the crime and into the offender’s situation.
5. They received restitution.

However, VORPs do not suit all victims, especially those who feel that the wrong done to them cannot so
easily be “put right” and want the offender punished (Olson & Dzur, 2004).

References:

Clevenger, S.,Navarro, J.,Marcum, C., & Higgins, G., (2018).Understanding victimology: an active learning
approach.Routleddge, Taylor & Francis Group

Fabian, S., A Compilation: Human Behavior and Crisis Management. Unpublished Lud-ayen, C., A
Compilation: Human Behavior and Crisis Management. Unpublished

Mcleod, S. (1970, January 1). Theories of Personality. Retrieved from

https://www.simplypsychology.org/personality- theories.html

Moyao, W., A Compilation: Human Behavior and Crisis Management. Unpublished Sheldon's Personality
Theory - Psychology of Personality Period.(n.d). Retrieved from
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personality-theory

Walsh,A.(2012).Criminology: the essentials. Sage Public