Encoding and Modulating

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Table of Contents

Multiline Transmission: MLT-3

1 Digital to Digital Conversion 3 Analog to Digital Conversion
Data Rate and Signal Rate Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
Line Encoding Requirements Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
2 Line Coding Schemes Nyquist Theorem
Unipolar - NRZ 4 Digital to Analog Conversion
Polar - NRZ Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
Polar RZ Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
Manchester and Differential Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Manchester Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
Bipolar - AMI and Pseudoternary (QAM)
Bipolar Characteristics 5 Analog to Digital Conversion
Multilevel Schemes Amplitude Modulation
2B1Q Scheme Frequency Modulation
8B6T Scheme Phase Modulation

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 Digital to Digital Conversion

Digital to Digital Conversion

∝ The technique that we will see for digital to digital conversion is called Line coding.

∝ Converting a string of 1’s and 0’s (digital data) into a sequence of signals that denote
the 1’s and 0’s.
∝ For example a high voltage level (+V) could represent a “1” and a low voltage level
(0 or -V) could represent a “0”.

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 Digital to Digital Conversion

Mapping Data symbols onto Signal levels

∝ A data symbol (or element) can consist of a number of data bits:

X 1, 0 or
X 11, 10, 01, ...
∝ A data symbol can be coded into a single signal element or multiple signal elements:
X 1 → +V, 0 → -V
X 1 → +V and -V, 0 → -V and +V
∝ The ratio ‘r’ is the number of data elements carried by a signal element.

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 Digital to Digital Conversion Data Rate and Signal Rate

Data Rate and Signal Rate

∝ The data rate defines the number of bits sent per sec (bps). It is often referred to the
bit rate.
∝ The signal rate is the number of signal elements sent in a second and is measured in
bauds. It is also referred to as the modulation rate.
∝ Goal is to increase the data rate whilst reducing the baud rate.
X Increasing data rate increases rate of transmission
X Decreasing baud rate decrease the bandwidth requirement

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 Digital to Digital Conversion Data Rate and Signal Rate

Data Rate and Signal Rate

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 Digital to Digital Conversion Line Encoding Requirements

Baseline Wandering

∝ Baseline wandering: A receiver will evaluate the average power of the received signal
(called the baseline) and use that to determine the value of the incoming data
elements.
∝ If the incoming signal does not vary over a long period of time, the baseline will drift
and thus cause errors in detection of incoming data elements.
∝ A good line encoding scheme will prevent long runs of fixed amplitude.

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 Digital to Digital Conversion Line Encoding Requirements

DC Components

∝ DC Components: When the voltage level remains constant for long periods of time,
the spectrum creates very low frequencies. These frequencies around 0 is called DC
component.
∝ Many channels may not support the low frequencies.

∝ E.g. telephone line cannot pass frequencies below 200 Hz.

∝ This will require the removal of the DC component of a transmitted signal.

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 Digital to Digital Conversion Line Encoding Requirements

Self Synchronization
∝ Self Synchronization: The clocks at the sender and the receiver must have the same
bit interval.
∝ If the receiver clock is faster or slower it will misinterpret the incoming bit stream.

Figure: Effect of lack of synchronization

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 Digital to Digital Conversion Line Encoding Requirements

Self Synchronization

∝ Problem: In a digital transmission, the receiver clock is 0.1 percent faster than the
sender clock. How many extra bits per second does the receiver receive if the data
rate is 1 kbps? How many if the data rate is 1 Mbps?
∝ Solution: At 1 kbps, the receiver receives 1001 bps instead of 1000 bps.

1000 bits sent 1001 bits received 1 extra bit

∝ At 1 Mbps, the receiver receives 1,001,000 bps instead of 1,000,000 bps.

1,000,000 bits sent 1,001,000 bits received 1000 extra bits

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 Digital to Digital Conversion Line Encoding Requirements

Other Line Encoding Requirements

∝ Error detection: Errors occur during transmission due to line impairments.

∝ Noise and interference: There are line encoding techniques that make the transmitted
signal “immune” to noise and interference.
∝ Complexity: The more robust and resilient the code, the more complex it is to
implement and the price is often paid in baud rate or required bandwidth.

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 Line Coding Schemes

Line Coding Schemes

∝ Line coding schemes can be roughly divided into 5 broad categories

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 Line Coding Schemes Unipolar - NRZ

Unipolar - NRZ

∝ All signal levels are on one side of the time axis: either above or below

∝ NRZ: Non Return to Zero scheme is an example of this code. The signal level does
not return to zero during a symbol transmission.
∝ Scheme is prone to baseline wandering and DC components. It has no synchronization
or any error detection.
∝ It is simple.

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 Line Coding Schemes Polar - NRZ

Polar - NRZ
∝ The voltages are on both sides of the time axis.

∝ Polar NRZ scheme can be implemented with two voltages. E.g. +V for 1 and -V for 0.
∝ There are two versions:
X NRZ - Level (NRZ-L) positive voltage for one symbol and negative for the other
X NRZ - Inversion (NRZ-I): the change or lack of change in polarity determines the value of
a symbol. E.g. a “1” symbol inverts the polarity a “0” does not.

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 Line Coding Schemes Polar - NRZ

Polar - NRZ-L & NRZ-I

∝ In NRZ-L the level of the voltage determines the value of the bit.

∝ In NRZ-I the inversion or the lack of inversion determines the value of the bit.

∝ NRZ-L and NRZ-I both have a DC component problem and baseline wandering, it is
worse for NRZ-L. Both have no self synchronization & no error detection. Both are
relatively simple to implement.

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 Line Coding Schemes Polar RZ

Polar RZ

∝ The Return to Zero (RZ) scheme uses three voltage values. +, 0, −.

∝ Each symbol has a transition in the middle. Either from high to zero or from low to
zero.

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 Line Coding Schemes Polar RZ

Polar RZ

∝ This scheme has more signal transitions (two per symbol) and therefore requires a
wider bandwidth.
∝ No DC components or baseline wandering.

∝ Self synchronization - transition indicates symbol value.

∝ More complex as it uses three voltage level.

∝ It has no error detection capability.

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 Line Coding Schemes Manchester and Differential Manchester

Polar - Biphase: Manchester and Differential Manchester

∝ Manchester coding consists of combining the NRZ-L and RZ schemes.

X Every symbol has a level transition in the middle: from high to low or low to high. Uses
only two voltage levels.
∝ Differential Manchester coding consists of combining the NRZ-I and RZ schemes.
X Every symbol has a level transition in the middle. But the level at the beginning of the
symbol is determined by the symbol value. One symbol causes a level change the other
does not.

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 Line Coding Schemes Manchester and Differential Manchester

Manchester and Differential Manchester

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 Line Coding Schemes Manchester and Differential Manchester

Manchester and Differential Manchester

∝ In Manchester and differential Manchester encoding, the transition at the middle of

the bit is used for synchronization.
∝ The minimum bandwidth of Manchester and differential Manchester is 2 times that of
NRZ.
∝ No DC component and no baseline wandering.

∝ None of these codes has error detection.

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 Line Coding Schemes Bipolar - AMI and Pseudoternary

Bipolar - AMI and Pseudoternary

∝ Code uses 3 voltage levels: +, 0, −, to represent the symbols (note not transitions to
zero as in RZ).
∝ Voltage level for one symbol is at “0” and the other alternates between + & −.

∝ Bipolar Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI): the “0” symbol is represented by zero
voltage and the “1” symbol alternates between +V and −V .
∝ Pseudoternary is the reverse of AMI.

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 Line Coding Schemes Bipolar - AMI and Pseudoternary

Bipolar - AMI and Pseudoternary

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 Line Coding Schemes Bipolar Characteristics

Bipolar Characteristics

∝ It is a better alternative to NRZ.

∝ Has no DC component.
X Long sequence of 1’s: the voltage alternates between +ve and -ve.
X Long sequence of 0’s: the voltage remains constant, but its amplitude is zero, which is
same as no DC component.
∝ Has no self synchronization because long runs of “0”s results in no signal transitions.

∝ No error detection.

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 Line Coding Schemes Multilevel Schemes

Multilevel Schemes
∝ In these schemes we increase the number of data bits per symbol thereby increasing
the bit rate.
∝ Since we are dealing with binary data we only have 2 types of data element 1 or 0.
We can combine the 2 data elements into a pattern of “m” elements to create 2m
symbols.
X Example: Total number of 8 bit patterns using 0 and 1 are 28 = 256
∝ If we’ve L signal levels, we can use “n” signal elements to create Ln signal elements.
X Example: If we have 3 signal levels (+, 0, −) and 6 signal elements... we can create
36 = 478 signal elements.

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 Line Coding Schemes Multilevel Schemes

Multilevel Schemes Characteristics

∝ Now we have 2m symbols and Ln signals.

∝ If 2m > Ln then we can not represent all data elements, we don’t have enough signals.

∝ If 2m = Ln then we have an exact mapping of one symbol on one signal.

∝ If 2m < Ln then we have more signals than symbols and we can choose the signals
that are more distinct to represent the symbols and therefore have better noise
immunity and error detection as some signals are not valid.

In mBnL schemes, a pattern of m data elements is encoded as a pattern of n signal

elements in which 2m ≤ Ln .

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 Line Coding Schemes Multilevel Schemes

Representing Multilevel Codes

∝ The notation mBnL, where

X m is the length of the binary pattern,
X B represents binary data,
X n represents the length of the signal pattern and
X L the number of levels.
∝ L = B binary, L = T for 3 ternary, L = Q for 4 quaternary.

m = 2, n = 1, L = 4 m = 8, n = 6, L = 3

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 Line Coding Schemes 2B1Q Scheme

Multilevel 2B1Q Scheme

∝ 2B1Q scheme: m = 2, n = 1 and L = 4 (quaternary)

∝ No redundancy as 22 = 41 .

∝ Sends data twice faster than NRZ-L.

∝ But receiver has to discern four different threshold.

∝ Used in DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) technology to provide high speed connection to
the internet.

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 Line Coding Schemes 8B6T Scheme

Multilevel 8B6T Scheme

∝ Used in 100Base-4T cable.

∝ Encode 8 bits as a pattern of 6 signals, where the signal has three levels (ternary).

∝ 28 = 256 different data pattern.

∝ 36 = 478 different signal pattern.

∝ 478 − 256 = 222 redundant signal elements to provide:
X Synchronization.
X Error Detection.
X DC Balance.

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 Line Coding Schemes 8B6T Scheme

Multilevel 8B6T Scheme

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 Line Coding Schemes Multiline Transmission: MLT-3

Multiline Transmission: MLT-3

∝ If the next bit is 0, there is no transition
∝ If the next bit is 1 and the current level is not 0 −→ the next level is 0
∝ If the next bit is 1 and the current level is 0 −→ the next level is the opposite of he
last nonzero level.

∝ No self-synchronization for long 0’s.

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 Line Coding Schemes Multiline Transmission: MLT-3

Summary of line coding schemes

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 Analog to Digital Conversion

Analog to Digital Conversion

∝ To send human voice... we need to digitize it.

∝ This requires a reduction of potentially infinite number of values of an analog message

so that it can be represented as a digital stream with a minimum loss of information
∝ We need an analog-to-digital converter called codec (coder-decoder)

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 Analog to Digital Conversion Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

∝ The first step of analog-to-digital conversion is called Pulse Amplitude Modulation

(PAM).
∝ It takes an analog signal, samples it, and generates a series of pulses.

∝ Sampling means measuring the amplitude of the signal at equal intervals.

∝ PAM uses a technique called sample and hold. That is, at a given moment, the signal
level is read, then held briefly.

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 Analog to Digital Conversion Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

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 Analog to Digital Conversion Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

∝ PCM modifies the pulses created by PAM to create digital signal.
∝ PCM first quantizes the PAM pulses. That is, it assigns integral values in a specific
range to sampled instance.

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 Analog to Digital Conversion Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

Quantizing Using Sign and Magnitude

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 Analog to Digital Conversion Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

Pulse Code Modulation PCM

∝ The binary digits are then transformed into digital signals using one of the
digital-to-digital encoding techniques.
∝ PCM is actually has four separate processes:
X PAM
X Quantization
X Binary encoding
X Digital to digital encoding

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 Analog to Digital Conversion Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

From Analog to PCM

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 Analog to Digital Conversion Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

From Analog to PCM

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 Analog to Digital Conversion Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

From Analog to PCM

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 Analog to Digital Conversion Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

From Analog to PCM

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 Analog to Digital Conversion Nyquist Theorem

Nyquist Theorem

∝ The accuracy of analog-to-digital conversion depends on number of samples taken.

∝ So, how many samples are sufficient?

∝ According to Nyquist theorem, to ensure the accurate reproduction of an original

analog signal using PAM, the sampling rate must be at least twice the highest
frequency of the original signal.
∝ E.g. if we want to sample telephone voice with maximum frequency 4000 Hz, we need
a sampling rate of 8000 samples per second.

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 Analog to Digital Conversion Nyquist Theorem

Nyquist Theorem

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 Digital to Analog Conversion

Digital to Analog Conversion

∝ For carrying digital data over analog line we need modem - modulation demodulation

∝ Used to connect a digital computer to an analog phone system

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 Digital to Analog Conversion

Digital to Analog Conversion

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 Digital to Analog Conversion Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

∝ ASK: Two binary numbers (0, 1) represented by two different amplitudes of the
carrier wave.
X Strength of carrier signal is varied to represent binary 1 or 0
X Both frequency & phase remain constant while amplitude changes

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 Digital to Analog Conversion Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

∝ Multilevel ASK
X There are more than two levels.
X We can use 4, 8, 16 or more amplitudes for the signals and modulate the data using 2, 3, 4
or more bits at a time.
∝ Advantage: simplicity

∝ Disadvantage: Susceptible to noise. Noise usually (only) affects the amplitude,

therefore ASK is the modulation technique most affected by noise
∝ Used to transmit digital data over optical fiber.

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 Digital to Analog Conversion Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

∝ The frequency of the carrier signal is varied to represent data.

∝ Both peak amplitude and phase remains constant.

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 Digital to Analog Conversion Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

∝ Multilevel FSK
X We can use four different frequencies to send 2 bits at a time.
∝ Less susceptible to error than ASK - receiver looks for specific frequency changes over
a number of intervals, so voltage (noise) spikes can be ignored
∝ Requires more bandwidth
X FSK spectrum is 2 times that of ASK spectrum

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 Digital to Analog Conversion Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

∝ The phase of the carrier is varied to represent two or more different signal elements.

∝ Both amplitude and frequency remains constant.

∝ PSK is more common than ASK and FSK.

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 Digital to Analog Conversion Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

PSK Constellation

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 Digital to Analog Conversion Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

∝ PSK is not susceptible to noise degradation as affects ASK

∝ Nor has the bandwidth limitations of FSK. This means that the small variations in the
signal can be detected reliably by the receiver.
∝ We can use 4 phase shifts to represent two bits.

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 Digital to Analog Conversion Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

4-PSK Constellation

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 Digital to Analog Conversion Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

8-PSK Constellation

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 Digital to Analog Conversion Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

∝ PSK is limited by the ability of the equipment to distinguish small differences in

phase. This limits potential bit rate.
∝ QAM combines ASK and PSK.

∝ The minimum bandwidth requirement for QAM is same as that for ASK and PSK.

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 Digital to Analog Conversion Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

4-QAM and 8-QAM Constellation

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 Digital to Analog Conversion Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

8-QAM Signal

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 Analog to Digital Conversion

Analog to Digital Conversion

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 Analog to Digital Conversion

Analog to Digital Conversion

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 Analog to Digital Conversion Amplitude Modulation

Amplitude Modulation
∝ In AM, the carrier signal is modulated so that its amplitude varies with the changing
amplitude of the modulating signal.
∝ The phase and the frequency remains the same.

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 Analog to Digital Conversion Amplitude Modulation

AM Bandwidth

∝ The bandwidth of an AM signal is twice the bandwidth of the modulating signal

∝ The bandwidth of an audio signal (speech & music) is usually 5kHz. Therefore an
AM radio station needs a minimum bandwidth of 10kHz
∝ AM stations are allowed carrier frequencies anywhere between 530kHz and 1700kHz.

∝ Each station’s carrier frequency must be separated by at least 10Hz to avoid

interference.

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 Analog to Digital Conversion Frequency Modulation

Frequency Modulation
∝ The frequency of the carrier signal is modulated to follow the changing voltage level
(amplitude) of the modulating signal.
∝ The peak amplitude and the phase of the carrier signal remain constant.

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 Analog to Digital Conversion Frequency Modulation

FM Bandwidth

∝ The bandwidth of an FM signal is equal to 10 times the bandwidth of the modulating

signal.
∝ The bandwidth of an audio signal broadcast (in stereo) is almost 15kHz. Thus, each
FM radio station needs a minimum bandwidth of 150kHz.
∝ The Federal Communication Commission (FCC) allows 200KHz for each station to
provide guard band.
∝ FM stations are allowed carrier frequencies anywhere between 88 and 108 MHz.

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 Analog to Digital Conversion Phase Modulation

Phase Modulation

∝ The phase of the carrier signal is modulated to follow the changing voltage level
(amplitude) of the modulating signal.
∝ The peak amplitude and frequency of the carrier signal remain constant.

∝ The bandwidth is higher than for AM.

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 Analog to Digital Conversion

Summary

∝ Digital-to-Digital Conversion :
X NRZ, NRZ-L, NRZ-I, RZ, Manchester, Differential Manchester, AMI and Pseudoternary,
2B1Q, 8B1Q, MLT-3
∝ Digital-to-Analog Conversion :
X PCM
∝ Analog-to-Digital Conversion :
X ASK, FSK, PSK, QAM
∝ Analog-to-Analog Conversion :
X AM, FM, PM

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