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Chapter

Bio-inspired Optimization:
Algorithm, Analysis and Scope of
Application
G. Devika and Asha Gowda Karegowda

Abstract

In the last few years, bio-inspired optimization techniques have been widely
adopted in fields such as computer science, mathematics, and biology in order to
optimize solutions. Bio inspired optimization problems are usually nonlinear and
restricted to multiple nonlinear constraints to tackle the problems of the traditional
optimization algorithms, the recent trends tend to apply bio-inspired optimization
algorithms which represent a promising approach for solving complex optimiza-
tion problems. This work comprises state-of-art of ten recent bio-inspired algo-
rithms, gap analysis, and its applications namely; Particle swarm optimization
(PSO), Genetic Bee Colony (GBC) Algorithm, Fish Swarm Algorithm (FSA), Cat
Swarm Optimization (CSO), Whale Optimization Algorithm (WOA), Artificial
Algae Algorithm (AAA), Elephant Search Algorithm (ESA), Cuckoo Search Opti-
mization Algorithm (CSOA), Moth flame optimization (MFO), and Grey Wolf
Optimization (GWO) algorithm. The previous related works collected from Scopus
databases are presented. Also, we explore some key issues in optimization and
some applications for further research. We also analyze in-depth discussions on
the essence of these algorithms and their connections to self-organization and their
applications in different areas of research are presented. As a result, the proposed
analysis of these algorithms leads to some key problems that have to be addressed
in the future.

Keywords: particle swarm optimization, genetic bee colony algorithms, Fish swarm
algorithm, artificial algae algorithm, Chicken swarm optimization, Grey wolf
algorithm, Cat swarm optimization

1. Introduction

Bio-inspired algorithms nowadays resolve application problems in decision-

making, information handling, and optimization purposes from different domains of
science and engineering. Many techniques developed fields expected to next few years
intelligent optimization algorithms more effective in solving different problems for

1
Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances and Current Applications

anomaly and failure detection areas [1]. Optimization plays a major role in more single
or multi-objective problems with deterministic or stochastic algorithms [2]. The focus
of NP-hard problem-based deterministic or stochastic algorithms to intensification
and diversification of meta-heuristic optimization algorithm. Compared to conven-
tional methods, bio-inspired algorithms are intelligent, improved, easy to test, and
flexible [3].
In computer networks, security, mechanical problems, electronics image
processing, electrical, robotics, production engineering, management, planetary and
others are applying bio-inspired algorithms in new era to solve problems easily
[4, 5]. Hence it is an emerging field, authors aim to review the discussion and future
scope of bio-inspired algorithms. Bio-inspired algorithms concern definitions, prin-
ciples models, processing steps, merits and demerits reviewed for the most fre-
quently applied bio-inspired algorithms in this chapter. The study discusses bio-
inspired algorithms which are purely inspired by identifiable or special behaviour of
biological organisms. This chapter covers both emerging and well-known tech-
niques. Ten bio-inspired algorithms: Particle swarm optimization (PSO), Genetic
Bee Colony (GBC) Algorithm, Fish Swarm Algorithm (FSA), Cat Swarm Optimiza-
tion (CSO), Whale Optimization Algorithm (WOA), Artificial Algae Algorithm
(AAA), Elephant Search Algorithm (ESA), cuckoo Search Optimization Algorithm
(CSOA), Moth flame optimization (MFO), and Grey Wolf Optimization (GWO)
algorithm are analysed deeply in this work along with their future scope. Authors
have restricted to ten potential algorithms few more potential bio-inspired algo-
rithms is dealt in detail for authors other publications [6, 7]. The work carried on in
two phases, in initial phase aims in recognizing algorithms and second phase in
depth study of identified algorithms is performed. The chapter noticeably aid in
identification of significant bio-inspired solutions for various problems. In section 1,
overview of optimization technique and types are presented. Section 2 covers core
part of authors work which gives in-depth information on ten bio-inspired algo-
rithms. Section 3 focus on current observation of algorithms and in next section
further scope and conclusion are briefed.

2. Overview of optimization

Optimization methods execute and compare iteratively to find solutions for the
optimum solutions to be searched. Optimization is part of all problems in all fields.
Common types of optimization methods adopted to find solutions are briefed.

2.1 Stochastic optimization

Stochastic optimization (SO) computation involves more vagueness and impre-

ciseness because of randomness in function of minimization or maximization to lend
for real-life scenarios. The involved unpredictability exists in form of noise in process
of search by Monte Carlo randomness [8]. Stochastic annealing, approximation, pro-
gramming, swarm-based algorithms are common involved techniques of SO. They
include high non-linearity system noise and dimensional models. These models are
present to analyze, solve, derive, and numerical extraction of information in resolving
decision-making problems. Major investment of SO is in specific applications oriented
towards long and short programs. Aircrafts, missile, drug design, and network traffic
control applications are getting advantage of SO. Stochastic application tool can be
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Bio-inspired Optimization: Algorithm, Analysis and Scope of Application
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106014

applied as a powerful modelling tool in a few applications, but estimation of real-life

problems is another major uncertainity where solving through SO involves practical
limitations. Another problem of SO is complete dependency on data available and
modelling of it [3, 9].

2.2 Robust optimization

The optimization model is robust based to deal with data to regulate

uncertainty. Key features are deterministic, easy computational tractability and set
based. Model includes global or local or non- probabilistic or probabilistic models.
Any given problem will get involve all the features of robust optimization in order to
search for a solution. The technique is also known as the min-max or worst-case
approach. Provide a guarantee for solutions to problem application which
involves more uncertainty in data. The parameters involved in process of estimation
are to resolve estimation errors. One improved model for definition and interpreta-
tion is setting more robust constraints [10]. Engineering optimization design
results mainly in reliability optimization and feasible input possible values to
robust solution structure. Robust optimization gives same weight and values for
parametric values in collection of uncertain data. Problems will be resolved with
the formulation of cost savings and stability, qualitative and quantitative.
Complex problems considered for optimization may extend complexity to a more
significant level [6, 7].

2.3 Dynamic optimization

Dynamic programming is another name for dynamic optimization which processes

optimal profile of more than one parameter of a system used to find possible solutions
for a problem given. Variations of dynamic optimization with optimization discrete
time, calculus variation and extended static optimization. The implementation
includes a system controller to perform criteria with algorithm to execute control.
Dynamic optimization involves a system controller performing optimal substructure
and overlapping sub-problems [8]. Dynamic optimization characterizes structure,
recursively defines value, computes value and constructs an optimal solution for
computation. Dynamic programming optimizes problems and recursively divide
problem into sub-problems which can solve either bottom-up or top-down approach.
The logic used is general and supple. It solves computation time and storage space [9].
Classification optimization based on different factors is summarized in Table 1.

3. Bio inspired optimization algorithms

This section is brief on bio-inspired algorithms detailed. Concept advantage

algorithm, flowchart and applications are briefed.

3.1 Particle swarm optimization (PSO)

In proposed particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm inspired by intelligent

behaviour of birds [11], Craig Reynolds simulated flock social birds behaviour for the
first time and later studied by Frank Heppner [12]. PSO search for optimal solution
similar to flyting birds with specific velocities determined from previous results and
3
Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances and Current Applications

Optimization Factor Taxonomy

1 Stochastic Constraints Unconstrained

Constrained

Nature of equation Non-Linear

Polynomial
Linear
Quadratic

2 Robust Physical structure Optimal control

Non-optimal control

Decision variable permissible value Integer programming

Real-valued programming

3 Dynamic Variable type Deterministic

Non-deterministic

Function splitting Separable

Non-separable

Objective function Single objective

Multi-objective

Table 1.
Classification of optimization.

neighbours in identified search areas [13]. Given a problem identified in search space
represent solution in different n-dimension as result in PSO as n particles. The particle
moves in n dimension solution space with different velocities. Particles move and
store previous behaviours of it and share experiences to store search space. The key
merit of POS is its experience to share particle communicate to part or complete
swarm to lead motion to detect search space [14]. Each particle will compare the
current fitness value with previous optimized results and neighbours in every itera-
tion. Entire particles’ global and local algorithm is considered. Each particle best global
value is stored as a local value. The entire search space particles’ best result is stored as
the global best optimal solution. In further iterations value will be adjusted to best
optimal if current is best when compared to previous results.

3.1.1 PSO concept

Each particle is running in PSO to identify a feasible solution to the optimization

problem in a given search space. The behaviour of flight of particles is considered as
search of individual particle. Velocity of particles is dynamically updated based on
position of particle and optimal swarm population. The swarm population is
composed of M particles in D dimensional space and historical optimal position of the
ith particle is represented by pi, iϵ {1,2,3 … M} and optimal position of swarm
population is denoted by pg. In every step velocity and position of each particle are
updated dynamically tracking its corresponding previous positions and optimal
position of swarm population. The detailed equations are expressed as follows,



V tþ1
ij ¼ wV tþ1
ij þ c t
1 1 pbestij
r X tij þ c2 rt2 gbestj X tij (1)

X tþ1
ij ¼ X tij þ V tþ1
ij (2)

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Bio-inspired Optimization: Algorithm, Analysis and Scope of Application
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106014

In Eqs. (1) and (2) t indicates iteration number , d ϵ {1, 2, 3, … .. D} indicates

dimension, xi,d(t) is the dth dimension variable of the ith particle in the tth iteration,
and variables vi,d(t), pg,d(t), and pi,d(t) have the similar meanings in turn. ? is inertial
weight, and c1 and c2 denote acceleration coefficients, r1 and r2 are random numbers
uniformly distributed in interval [0, 1]. The objective function to be set, and resultant
objective values of each particle correspond to fitness values. These fitness values are
used to measure position of particles, historical optimal position of particles and the
optimal position of swarm population.
The main concept of PSO is clear from the particle velocity equation that a con-
stant balance between three distinct forces hauling on each particle: (i) particles
previous velocity (inertia), (ii) Distance from the individual particles’ best-known
position (cognitive force) and (iii) Distance from the swarms best known position
(social force). These forces are dependent on c1 and c2 weight constants and ran-
domly concerned by r1 and r2 constants. Three forces are shown in vector form as in
Figure 1a where weight values are specified in vector magnitude. The particles will
continue to explore as in search space similar to bird as shown in Figure 1b to
converge to best position.
PSO shows sufficient better performance on optimization related problems of
small scale. The original POS later on improved versions of PSO have been proposed
by many researchers. Few incremental works of PSO has been discussed in this sub
section which support for large scale and multiple optima [14].
Opposition based PSO discussed by Jabeen et al. [11]. Particle has been classified
into two class bad and good. Population of two class generated with fitness computa-
tion then original PSO applied. The opposite particle computed using equation

Popi ¼ a þ b pi (3)

Where in Eq. (3) D is the dimension and R is real number. Quasi-oppositional

comprehensive learning particle swarm optimizers (QCLPSO) proposed Chang et al.
[7]. Swarm initialization applied by qausi opposite number. The constriction factor
balance incremental approach to proposed by Clerc [8]. The equation with constric-
tion factor velocity updated equation is summarized in Eqs. (4)–(6),
h
 i
vij ðt þ 1Þ ¼ x vij ðt þ 1Þvij ðtÞ þ φ vij ðtÞ xij ðtÞ þ φ yij ðtÞ xij ðtÞ
 
(4)
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
x ¼ 2=∣ 4 φ 2φ 4φ∣ (5)
φ ¼ c1 þ c2,φ1 ¼ c1r1 (6)

Figure 1.
(a) Exploration of PSO (b) search of new position [4].

5
Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances and Current Applications

Figure 2.
PSO algorithm & flowchart.

A random value is distributed between [0, 1] for particles by Zhang et al. [13]. The
dependency inertia weight to maximize number of iterations to another one is applied
to avoid problems in original PSO to search local ability to end. Speed- and
accumulation-based inertia weight computation is proposed in Wei et al. [15]. A
Cauchy mutation an improved PSO proposed by Wang et al. [14]. The original fitness
of particle is selected to mutate the particle to distribute with increase in parameter
scale t = 1. It is defined between test function to choose randomly to assign velocity
and pop size for particles in swarm. A variation in computation of power distribution
among particles applies global best value with power mutation function. The fitness
calculation for both particles select appropriate one in Wu et al. [13]. Power mutation
function based another opposition-based power mutation function applied for PSO by
Imran et al. [15]. Two times mutation being applied on opposite swarms and global
best particle power mutation. Global selection for best mutation avoids stagnation.
Still improved PSO presented by Imran et al. [16] with student T mutation. Global
best particle T student particle identified to work over adaptive and Cauchy mutation
(Figure 2).

3.1.2 Merits of PSO

• Communication capability: particles can communicate efficiently each other as

positions of best particle of all previous iterations are stored.

• Faster Convergence: accelerates more towards optimal solution in optimization

• Simplicity: Updation of velocity and position equations are simple to calculate

• Adaptable to environment: have ability to choose best optimal solutions in

changing environment.

3.1.3 Demerits of PSO

• PSO fails to resolve problem which lack in storage and not able to may clear
distinction between previous and next particle positions.
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Bio-inspired Optimization: Algorithm, Analysis and Scope of Application
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106014

• Assume all particles are same hence inertial and velocity also remain same

• PSO do not identify multiple optima.

• Convergence is harder with varied inertia weight

3.1.4 Applications

PSO has been applied in most domains to optimize solutions from agriculture to
industry. PSO has been extensively applied in different geotechnical engineering
aspects such as slope stability analysis, pile and foundation engineering, rock and soil
mechanics, and tunnelling and underground space design [17]. PSO has been widely
used in various kinds of planning problems, especially in the area of substation
locating and sizing [14]. But in the area of heating supply, PSO is mainly applied in
heating load forecasting [18–20], but rarely used in Heat System Planning. PSO can be
applied for various optimization problems, for example, Energy-Storage Optimiza-
tion. PSO can simulate the movement of a particle swarm and can be applied in visual
effects like those special effects in Hollywood film.

3.2 Genetic bee colony (GBC) algorithm

Bee food identification and collection intelligent swarm technique is defined in

artificial bee colony. The best bee for the required problem is selected through
parameters communication link, task allocation, reproduction, dance, placement
mating and movement. GBC is optimised towards solution iteratively in an attempt to
increase efficiency for any critical problem. Bee swarm is categorized as employee,
onlooker and scouts. The employee bee identifies fresh sources of food. Scout bees job
is to assign fitness quotient to entrust job of random search for employee bee identi-
fied spots. The assignment is random-based. If freshly identified food is better than
earlier findings then, bees will collect from fresh location. Constantly employee bees
look for best site for food collection. The onlooker bee is responsible to identify the
best food source considering quantitative factor of food availability [21, 22].

3.2.1 Concept

The ABC algorithm consists of four main steps: initialization, employed bee phase,
onlooker bee phase, and scout bee phase. After the initialization step, the other three
main steps of the algorithm are carried out repeatedly in a loop until the termination
condition is met. The main steps of the ABC algorithm are as follows.
Step 1 (initialization). In the initialization step, the ABC generates a randomly
distributed population of SN solutions (food sources), where SN also denotes the
number of employed or onlooker bees. Let φ represent the ith food source, where is
the problem size. Each food source is generated within the limited range of ith index
by whereφ ¼ 1,2, … SN,j ¼ 1,2, … :D,φi,j , is a uniformly distributed random real
number in , xmin and xmax and are the lower and upper bounds for the dimension ,
respectively. Moreover, a trial counter for each food source is initialized as in Eq. (7).


xi,j ¼ xjmin þ φi,j xjmax xjmin (7)

7
Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances and Current Applications

Step 2 (employed bee phase). In the employed bee phase, each employed bee visits a
food source and generates a neighboring food source in the vicinity of the selected
food source. Employed bees search a new solution, by performing a local search
around each food source as follows: where is a randomly selected index and is a
randomly chosen food source that is not equal to; that is, is a random number within
the range generated specifically for each and combination. A greedy selection is
applied between and by selecting the better one as in Eq. (8).

vi,j ¼ xi,j þ Ø xi,j xr1,j


(8)

Step 3 (onlooker bee phase). Unlike the employed bees, onlooker bees select a food
source depending on the probability value, which is determined by nectar amount
associated with that food source. The value is calculated for the food source as
follows considering Eqs. (9) and (10): where the fitness value of solution and
calculated as in (4) for minimization problems. Different fitness functions are
employed for maximization problems. By using this type of roulette wheel based
probabilistic selection, better food sources will more likely be visited by onlooker
bees. Therefore, onlooker bees try to find new candidate food sources around good
solutions. Once the onlooker bee chooses the food source, it generates a new solution
using (2). Similar to the employed bee phase, a greedy selection is carried out
between.

fit
pi ¼ PSN i (9)
j¼1 fiti

< i
8
fi ≥ 0
fiti ¼ 1 þ fiti (10)
1 þ absðfiÞ fi < 0
:

Step 4 (scout bee phase). A trial counter is associated with each food source, which
depicts the number of tries that the food source cannot be improved. If a food source
cannot be improved for a predetermined number of tries (limit) during the onlooker
and employed bee phases, then the employed bee associated with that food source
becomes a scout bee. Then, the scout bee finds a new food source using (1). By
implementing the scout bee phase, the ABC algorithm easily escapes from minimums
and improves its diversification performance.
It should be noted that, in the employed bee phase, a local search is applied to each
food source, whereas in the onlooker bee phase better food sources will more likely be
updated. Therefore, in ABC algorithm, the employed bee phase is responsible for
diversification whereas the onlooker bee phase is responsible of intensification. The
flow chart of the ABC is given in Figure 3.

3.2.2 Merits of GBC

The ABC algorithm is a population-based algorithm with the advantages of finding

global optimization solution, being simple and flexible, and using very few control
parameters. The ABC algorithm has been applied to many real-world applications, for
example, function optimization, real-parameter optimization, digital filter design,
clustering, and neural network training. ABC algorithm-based applications are easy to

8
Bio-inspired Optimization: Algorithm, Analysis and Scope of Application
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106014

Figure 3.
GBC flowchart.

build, robust, converge fast, flexible and time efficient. Compared to PSO ACO
parameters considered in ABC is less.

3.2.3 Demerits of GBC

Inspite of mentioned advantage GBC has few problems also. GBC are slow
convergent speed in large computations and accuracy is less. GBC may face premature
convergence problem for more duration application. The population size is fixed, and
size is variations or non-autonomous. Individuals can extend the searching space and

9
Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances and Current Applications

increase the probability of finding global optimization solution; however, it costs

much time in each generation; oppositely, it may obtain a local minimum.

3.2.4 Applications of artificial bee colony (ABC) algorithm

GBC are more affine towards single-objective numerical optimization problems

but not limited and can be extended to multi-parametric. Decision making, time
schedule, assignment, search, inception, boundary setting, and network issued are
other more applied fields of GBC [21]. GBC is capable to handle constrained and
unconstrained, continuous and discrete, differential and non-differential oriented
problems [22]. GBC is not specific in domain, applicable from agriculture to industry,
and rural area to military field.

3.3 Fish swarm algorithm (FSA)

Fish swarm algorithm inspired by the behaviour of movement of aquatic fish in

liquid medium. The target is picked randomly and moves toward in an iterative
manner. Visually shorter distance considered an initial step, influences on final step.
Initial values remain constant and considered along parameters. Suitable initial value
selection leads toward the best optimum solution. Fishes are capable of venturing into
bigger steps in search of a larger environment where they exist. So, fish is capable of
escaping from unfavourable circumstances at any stage. But some deficiencies in large
values may cause low steadiness. Global search is potential factor in generating local
search with a larger visual position of FSA. Better fitness can be found for better
fitness to search for parameters to make the algorithm steady and accurate. Fish are
capable of moving quickly towards the target and can get passed from local best
search results. FSA algorithm design has undergone many changes in design in order
to fulfil the needs of different types of problems. The variation in algorithm can be
grouped into solutions of FSA for continuous and discrete, combinatorial and binary,
multi-parametric and hybrid FSA. Fei et al. [23] selected nine search positions to
initialize the Afs for motion estimation. Zhu et al. [24] and Gao et al. [25] used the
chaotic transformation [26] method to generate a more stable and uniform popula-
tion. Kang et al. [27] used a uniform initialization method to initialize the population,
while Liu et al. [28] initialized the
Afs based on the optimization problem in hand. The MSAFSA [29] model intro-
duced both the leaping and swallow behaviors to escape from the local optima and
reduce, Yazdani et al. [30, 31] introduced mNAFSA for optimization in dynamic
environments.

3.3.1 Concept

Fish Swarm algorithm and background is discussed. Notations used are X, V, S, Xv

indicate current position of fish, distance, step, position, respectively. N visual fishes
are indicated as X1, X2, X3 … … .. Xn. Y = f(X) denotes the food concentration of the
AF at the current position, di;j =||Xi – Xj ||. The FSM involves four key operations:
preying behaviour, swarming behaviour, following behaviour and random behaviour.
Preying is fish behaviour to move itself towards high concentration of food. It is
represented mathematically as in Eq. (11) considering with in visual distance ith fish.
The fish preying will continue to try number of times if not satisfied within, then

10
Bio-inspired Optimization: Algorithm, Analysis and Scope of Application
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106014

Xn
1

Xn
Xn

Figure 4.
FSA visual.

randomly computed using Eq. (12). Fishes group among themselves to from any
danger situations against them. Mathematically, central position in fish swarm is
computed as in Eq. (13). Fish when a locates good concentration of food. The preying
movement for fish in step movement is represented in Eq. (14). Few fishes randomly
move freely if lie in sparely concentrated food. This behaviour is modeled as in
Eq. (15) (Figure 4).

ðtÞ
X j ¼ X i þ V ∗ randðÞ (11)
ðtþ1Þ ðtÞ
Xi ¼ X i þ V ∗ randðÞ (12)
Pnf
j¼1 xjd
xcd ¼ (13)
nf
ðtÞ
!
ðtþ1Þ ðtÞ Xj Xi
Xi ¼ Xi þ S ∗ randðÞ ∗ ðtÞ
(14)
kX j X i jðtÞj
ðtþ1Þ ðtÞ
Xi ¼ X i þ V ∗ randðÞ (15)

3.3.2 Algorithm and flowchart

FSA perform record one if new. This search continues until end is not met follow-
ing four operational steps as mentioned in previous section. The algorithm FSA is
shown in briefed in Figure 5.

11
Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances and Current Applications

Figure 5.
FSA algorithm & flowchart.

3.3.3 Merits

FSA similar to GBC has got increased convergence power and flexible. In addition,
it exhibits fault to tolerant and accuracy feature. Global search ability, tolerance of
parameter setting and robustness are other merits of FSA. It solves nonlinear and
multi modal problems.

3.3.4 Demerits

FSA exhibits high complexity, lack of balance among one is ineffective if lack
balance between local search. Not suitable for global convergence problem. The
information transfer if experience low search rate. As good robustness, global search
ability, tolerance of parameter setting, and it is also proved to be insensitive to initial
values

3.3.5 Applications

FSA has been applied for network related problems, control of resources, image
processing related problems. In order to increase evolutionary capabilities of FSA, in
few swarm solutions hybrid to FSA.
FSA incorporate to solutions in wireless sensor networks [30, 32, 33], tracking
[34], medical estimations [35–37], segmentation [32], clustering [33], regression
[38], image processing [39, 40], calibration [35], localization [41], power systems
[36, 42].
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Bio-inspired Optimization: Algorithm, Analysis and Scope of Application
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106014

3.4 Cat swarm optimization (CSO)

Chu et al. introduced cat swarm optimization technique to solve most of engineer-
ing problems inspired by the movement of cats. The process is carried on in two
different modes seeking and tracing modes. Nodes virtually move in fixed areas as
cats to determine optimal solution. Number of virtual cats are fixed in both modes and
predefined in few cases ratio known as MR. the N virtual cats is placed randomly.
Processed and unprocessed cats are identified for each dimension based on its value of
MR set either to 0 or 1 for tracing or seeking in coming rounds. Every cat compute
fitness function in evaluation then among the existing best will be chosen initially
existing is compared if It best retained for fitness function otherwise coordinates will
be changed to new best cat. The movement of cat adjusted towards solution space
identified as identified in initially. Choose for unprocessed cats in tracing mode
through permutation. Tracing mode ends if no more cats are left. Traced coordinate
nodes will be selected as best solution at end. In seeking mode, cats’ movement will be
slow and conformist. Essential parameters of seeking mode are seeking memory pool,
Ra range of identified dimension, counts of dimensions to change and self-position.
Improved CSO algorithm proposed by Tsai et al. supports parallel information
exchange in tracing mode. The parallelizing of virtual agents is adopted in PCSO
[43, 44]. PCSO finds application in parallel processing inspired by colonies of cats
tracing for food.

3.4.1 Concept

CSO identification of optimized solution is described in this sub section step by

step. The seeking feature of cats carried in five processing steps. In first step, j copies
of cat generated is recognized applying Eq. (16). Addition or decrement of SRD value
on selected search space defined by Eqs. (17)–(19) in step two. In next step, fitness
value for all candidates is selected. In step four, calculation of probability of cat
performed by Eq (20). Sort and select best solution by roulette wheel selection in last
step. In tracking mode cats imitate movement of prey during tracing. This process can
be discrete into three operational steps. In first step, velocity of each cat is updated as
in equation 6 for given search space. The random value for cat adjusted in range 0-1.
In step 2, the valued are rearranged based on velocities of cat. Velocities are set to
maximum velocity value. Position of cat is updated selecting by Eq. (7) in last step.

SMP SPC ¼ ” true”

(
j¼ (16)
SMP 1 SPC ¼ ” false”
M ¼ Modify ∪ ð1 ModifyÞ (17)

jModifyj ¼ CDC ∗ M (18)

xjd d ∄ Modify
(
xjd ¼ (19)
ð1 þ rand ∗ SRDÞ ∗ xjd d ∈ Modify

<1 when FS max ¼ FS min

8

pi ¼ ∣FSi FSb ∣ (20)

: , whare 0 < i < j, otherwise
FS max FS min

13
Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances and Current Applications

vk,d ¼ vk,d þ r:c:ðxbest,d xk,d Þ,d ¼ 1,2 … ::M (21)

xk,d ¼ xk,d þ vk,d (22)

3.4.2 Algorithm and flowchart

The algorithms and flow of operations of CSO is summarized in Figure 6.

3.4.3 Merits

COA is Simple to construct and have minimal parameters to adjust. COA has got
ability to execute in parallel system. The design is robust. Can converge fast, find
global solution, overlap and mutate. Have computational time less. Find accurate
mathematical models. Discover good and rapid solutions. Adapt changes in new
system and dependent on random decisions.

3.4.4 Demerits

Definition of initial parameters is time consuming. COA does not work better for
scattering problems and can converge at faster rate if trapped in complex problems.
The time to converge and towards convergence for multi objective and larger sized
problem is more.

Figure 6.
COA algorithm & flowchart.

14
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3.4.5 Applications

CSO optimization is being incorporated in media for information hiding [44],

aircraft scheduling recovery in limited processing time [45]. Voltage stability, eco-
nomically dispatch in transmission system, hybrid generation systems, task allocation,
data mining, project scheduling, optimal contract capacity, global numeric optimiza-
tion problems. Applied for clustering technique in green expression classification,
travelling salesman problem, data hiding, graph coloring, SVM, K means. CAO even
find its application in stock market and supply chain in currency exchange rate
analysis and stock prediction. COA is applied in image processing for machinery fault
detection, plant modeling, image edge enhancement, water marking and single bit
map. COA extended application in electronics for cognitive radio engine cooperative,
spectrum sensing, linear antenna array synthesis, aircraft maintenance, routing for
wireless sensor network.

3.5 Whale optimization algorithm (WOA)

Whale optimization algorithm proposed by Mirjalili et al. WOA is also based on

population of whale. It simulates bubble-net attacking method of humpback whales
when hunting their preys. Whales are intelligent due to the spindle cells in their brain.
They live in group and are able to develop their own dialect. Whale optimization
algorithm consists of two modes of operation. The two modes of operation named as
exploitation and exploration. In first prey encircling and position update in spiral man-
ner carried on. Searching for prey randomly done in second phase [46–48]. WHO
exploitation phase for prey encircling is mathematically equalized as bubble net attack
system. Humpback characteristics of whales considered for phase one behaviour.
Whales encircle prey with identification of them in an undefined search space. Initial
solution of nearby prey or ideal assumed as best further best solution will be updated
once exploration begins. Distance between prey and whales calculated initially then,
updates for spiral positioned distance to it. WOA has modified and incorporated
improvements by many researchers [49–53]. Few notable changes included in
AWOA, IWOA, chaotic WOA, ILWOA, and MWOA research work. WOA hybridized
with other meta-heuristic algorithms PSO, BA, and others in order to improve local
search [34, 54–56].

3.5.1 Concept

Whale has a special hunting mechanism which is called bubble-net feeding method.
This foraging behaviour is done by creating special bubbles in a spiral shape or nine
shape path. Humpback whales know the location of prey and encircle them. They
consider the current best candidate solution is best obtained solution and near the
optimal solution. After assigning the best candidate, the other agents try to update
their positions towards the best search agent as computed by Eq. (23). In Eqs. (23) and
(24), t is the current iteration, A and C are coefficients vectors, X* is the position vector
of the best solution. The vector A and C are calculated using Eqs. (25) and (26). In
Eqs. (25) and (26) a are linearly decreased from 2 to 0 over the course of iterations and
r is random vector in [0, 1]. The humpback whales attack the prey with the bubble-net
mechanism in exploitation phase. In shrinking encircling mechanism, the value of A is
a random value in interval [-a, a] and the value of a is decreased from 2 to 0 over the
course of iterations. Spiral updating position mechanism calculate the distance between
15
Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances and Current Applications

the whale location and the prey location is calculated then the helix-shaped movement
of humpback is created using Eq. (28). D’ = |X*(t) – X(t)| is distance between the prey
and the ith whale, be is a constant, l is random number in [ 1, 1]. Whale selectively
applies swim around prey techniques suitably. The mathematical model of these two
mechanisms assumes to choose between these two mechanisms to update the position
of whale as in Eq. (29). In steady exploitation phase the humpback whales search for
prey and change their position of whale. The force the search away from reference
whale the mathematical model of exploration is computed as in Eqs. (29) and (30).

X ∗ ð tÞ A > D if < 0:5


X ðt þ 1 Þ ¼ t bl
(23)
D :e : cos ð2πlÞ þ X ∗ ðtÞ if p ≥ 0:5
D ¼ ∣C:X ∗ ðtÞ X ðtÞ∣ (24)

X ðt þ 1Þ ¼ X ∗ ðtÞ A:D (25)

A ¼ 2a:r:a (26)
C ¼ 2:r (27)

Xðt þ 1Þ ¼ Dt ebl : cos ð2πlÞ þ X ∗ ðlÞ (28)

D ¼ ∣c:X rand:X ∣ (29)

X ðt þ 1Þ ¼ X rand A:D (30)

3.5.2 Algorithm and flowchart

The detailed workflow and algorithms is presented in Figure 7.

Figure 7.
WOA algorithm & flowchart.

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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106014

3.5.3 Merits

Whale optimisation avoid problem of local optima have got ability to compute
local and global optima for any constrained or unconstrained optimization applica-
tions. During the process, it even does not require any structural are parametric
rearrangement or alteration in value. The exploration for best solution computed
simply and easily at faster rate. Improve quality of generated population and converge
at faster rate.

3.5.4 Demerits

WOA is not suitable for larger spaced problem incurs more time to explore and
converge. The accuracy of solution is questionable. The optimal solution cannot be
recognized for optimization of problems to solve high dimensional problem. Ran-
domization technique of core WOA solution is complex. Balance among process of
exploration and exploitation is lacking. The encircle mechanism slows WOA to jump
from one local optima to another yielding low performance. Application problems of
classification and dimensional reduction problem

3.5.5 Applications

WOA has ability to incorporate in dynamic applications. Most of researchers

applied WOA for electrical, mechanical and management problems. WOA has been
used to solve problem in engineering, multi objective, binary, identification classifi-
cation and scheduling. WOA has found problems Power plants and systems schedul-
ing [57] has confirmed to standard radial systems. Verify test system in execution of
IEEE 30-bus [58, 59]. Size of pillars and optimization to increase efficiency of building
is analysed [60]. Energy rise of solar energy to get importance in design of photovol-
taic cells. WOA benefit solar cell and photovoltaic cells [61] by calculating internal
parameters automatically. The partially cloudy atmosphere traced to get highest
power region by a modified artificial killer whale optimization algorithm MAKWO
[62]. Medical image analysis for classification and diagnose liver and cluster based
abdominal to avoid intensity values to overlap [63]. WOA incorporated in economic
and emission dispatch [64], vehicle fuel consumption [65], mobile robot path plan-
ning [66], optimal allocation of an ameliorative of water resource [67], design prob-
lem [68], heat and power economic dispatch [69].

3.6 Artificial Algae Algorithm (AAA)

Artificial Algae Algorithm initially proposed in 2015 by Uymaz et al. is also a

meta-heuristic bio inspired algorithm. Microalgae growth and reproduction in
presence of sunlight behaviour are considered in algorithm AAA. Algae swim towards
presence of sunlight for food production following process as photosynthesis. The
movement of algae towards sunlight will be in helical manner. They live in groups as
algae colonies. The algae identify best sunlight presence to carry on photosynthesis
itself considering largest size and reproduce algae’s with highest energy. In case
sunlight presence is less, then size of algal colony and energy level is less and starts for
high starvation level. If sunlight is less algae colony tries to adopt itself in environment
for its survival otherwise algae cells die because of starvation. The adaptation of algae
17
Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances and Current Applications

cells in unsupportive environment is known as evolution [70]. Uymaz et al. developed

AAA then they modified to perform better [71]. From then many researchers con-
tributed for AAA by incorporating AAA in different fields. Multi-objective optimiza-
tion for AAA designed by Babalık et al. [72]. Binary version presented by Zhang et al.
[73]. AAA applied in various fields from processing to manufacturing and in applica-
tions ranging from agriculture to home [74]. Few researcher improved AAA through
hybridization [75].

3.6.1 Concept

AAA proposed for first by Uymaz et al. deals with considering advantages of
research area of the properties found in algae. Algae moves from helically towards
lighter sources. Algae adopt in nature to adapt and reproduce forming colonies which
represent a solution. Colony of algae consists set of cells which dwell together. The
colony exposed to external forces. The algae are divided into group and each become
new colony as can move jointly, under in appropriate circumstance to from new
colony. AAA process incorporated by three parts: Evolutionary, adaptation and helical
movement. In evolutionary process, algae colony grows and flourish to get sufficient
light, and benefit conditions. The algae undergo mitosis to result in two new algae. If
not algae will perish under less nutrition and lighter conditions. In few scenarios if
algae cannot grow in an environment due to lack of supporting factors. In such
environments algae adapt by itself to environment in order to survive as other species.
Finally, algae if it could not adapt then moves toward large grouped algae. If starva-
tion occurs algae stop to adopt. Algaes move in helical movement by swim. In order to
live they try to remain close to surface of water to get light. The search capacity will
not remain same. Algae growth is more in region where frictional surface is more. The
chance of algae movement is more in fluid. Helical motion supports to move algae at
higher rate. The energy in different surfaces is not constant and is directly propor-
tional to quantity of food and type of nutrient available in the environment. Capability
and survival of algae existence depend on its adaptation and movement. The algae
survival process mathematically applied in functional parts. Initially fix size of algae
by Eq. (31). Evaluate fitness value of algae and size of colony by Eq. (32). Adaptation
of algae is through growth of algae and use of nutrients by Eq. (33). The energy of
algae computation inclusion of frictional force is computed applying Eqs. (33) and
(34). During adaptation process algae build itself under non favorable or movement to
nearby stronger and larger algae colony part. The optimization for given problem can
be computed by Eqs. (35)–(38). The three subgroups of algae considered for adapta-
tion. Identification of starvation be Eqs. (39) and (40). Section of best solution is
selected by Eq. (41).

X ij ¼ LBj þ UBj LBj :RAND i ¼ 1,2,3 … ::N; j ¼ 1,2,3 … :D

 
(31)
S
μi ¼ (32)
Ks þ S
Gitþ1 ¼ μti Gti i ¼ 1,2,3, … … :N (33)
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi2
3 3Gi
τðxi Þ ¼ 2π (34)
4π

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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106014


tþ1 t 2
GE ¼ norm ðrankðG ÞÞ (35)


X tþ1
im ¼ X tim þ X tjk X tik ð∆ τt ðX i ÞÞP (36)


X tþ1
ik ¼ X t
ik þ X tjk X tik ð∆ τt ðX i ÞÞ cos α (37)


X tþ1
il ¼ X t
il þ X tjl X til ð∆ τt ðX i ÞÞ sin β (38)

Starving t ¼ maxAti i ¼ 1,2,3, … … :N (39)

Starving tþ1 ¼ Starving t þ ðBiggestt Starving t Þ:rand (40)

biggestt ¼ maxAti i ¼ 1,2,3 … … … :N (41)

3.6.2 Algorithm and flowchart

The algorithm and flow of operation of AAA is shown in Figure 8.

3.6.3 Merits

AAA exhibits accuracy for identified colonies. Converge faster towards local and
global solution compared to ACO or PSO. Algorithm is convenient and efficient. The
method helps find efficient and high accurate result. Produce robust algorithm for
real-time optimization problems. Main benefit for gradient-based problems provide
by an efficient optimize in few steps and simple to generate.

Figure 8.
AAA algorithm & flowchart.

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Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances and Current Applications

3.6.4 Demerits

Major problem of AAA is its expensive apparatus, consumption of time and spe-
cialized operator. If data and input size increases accuracy will be minimized. They
tend to stick to local optima, increased dependency. AAA apply randomness by this
methodology is simple but result accuracy is questionable. Hence applications
involved in AAA are complex and provide unstable result.

3.6.5 Applications

In optimal placement distributed power flow controller (DPFC) with MCFC,

optimal coverage, routing and selection of cluster head in wireless sensor network.

3.7 Elephant search algorithm (ESA)

Elephant search algorithm developed by Adams et al. is inspired by elephant search

for water. Normally elephants search for water in drought within swarm. Elephant
swarm together search water source. Each elephant swarm consists of leader respon-
sible to make decision regarding movement of whole group. Elephant is identified by
its particular position and velocity in each group very similar to other swarm tech-
niques. Leader elephant informs rest of elephants in group in case best water source is
identified. The communication is through chemical, tactile, acoustic or visual means.
The fitness function is computed considering water source quality and quantity. The
elephants’ group can move from one water source to another and visits previous also if
necessary as they got good memory. Group visit previous water source in case older
identified is best solution in compassion to new water source. Elephants search for
best solution locally and globally then best solution will be identified in given solution
space following long and short distance communication. Switching probability is key
controller in considering water search either local or global.

3.7.1 Concept

EHO is meta-heuristic simulated behaviour in herds of elephants [24] introduced

by Wang. Optimize solution for global optimization tasks [5]. Each solution I in each
clan ci is updated considering current information such as position and matriarch. The
generations are updated by algorithm execution through separating operators. Each
individual in heard represent vectors in 2D. The dimensions in unknown population
are included. The population is divided into n clans. Updating operator is modeled by
increment or decrement each solution i in the clan by ci by influence of ci to identify
best fitness value in generation. Fitness update solution in each clan ci represented in
Eq. (42). New and old position in clan, incremental factor based on influence of
matriarch are parameters included of Eq. (43). In 2D the central clan is computed
through Eq. (44). It updates individual value of elephants in heard. The total search
space indicates number of solutions in clan. The separating search space and nci
indicates number of solutions in clan in ci. The separate operator is applied at each
generation for execution on worst individual in population. Choose random popula-
tion [0-1] be uniform distribution range within lower and upper limits of the position
of the individual by Eq. (45).
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xnew,ci ,j ¼ xci,j þ α: xbest,ci xci ,j :r

 
(42)
xnew,ci,j ¼ β:xcenter,ci (43)
d
1 X
xcenter,ci,d ¼ : xc j,d (44)
nci j¼1 i

xworst,ci ¼ x min þ x max x min þ 1Þ ∗ rand (45)

3.7.2 Algorithm and flowchart

The detailed algorithms and flow of operation of EHOA is presented in Figures 9

and 10.

3.7.3 Merits

EHOA is more performance stable than other meta-heuristic algorithms such as

PSO. Convergence is faster because they are in herd. Have ability to search a popula-
tion in parallel. Rapidly discover good solutions similarly adapt to changes such as
distance. The computation is simple. EHOA is efficient in solving problem which are
difficult to find accurate mathematical models. Computational time is less and overlap
is avoided.

3.7.4 Demerits

Probability can change for each iteration, theoretical analysis is difficult, and
sequence of random decisions are major hindering factors of EHOA. Time require-
ment for convergence is uncertain.

Figure 9.
EHOA algorithm & flowchart.

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Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances and Current Applications

Figure 10.
CSO algorithm & flowchart.

3.7.5 Applications

EHO applied to optimize training artificial neural network, selection structure and
weight for neural networks, training neural netwosk, optimizing underwater sensor
networks, unmanned aerial vehicle path planning, clustering, support vector machine,
control problem.

3.8 Cuckoo search optimization algorithm (CSOA)

Yang and Deb introduced cuckoo optimization in 2009 a meta-heuristic algorithm.

Later Gandomi, Yang, and Alavi and Yang and Deb extended to solve single or multi-
objective problems involved in any constraints or complexity. The solution is capable
to resolve potential solutions of any randomly selected population in habitants of
cuckoo. The function of CSOA is global optimality, real-world problems are NP-hard
for problem used in any problem. Construct workable solution required to be globally
optimal solution replicating behaviour of cuckoos. They lay eggs in nest of other birds
and obliterate eggs of birds to guarantee hatching of its breed. Cuckoos brood para-
sitism is simulated in three different ways: Intra-specific brood parasitism, nest take
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over and co-operative breed. The basic cuckoo search algorithm has undergone
changes convergence speed of cuckoo search algorithm is increased in modified
cuckoo search [74] by avoiding cross overs. Binary version of cuckoo search algorithm
is presented in [75] to increase accuracy by reducing problem to binary coordinated
feature. In [76] improves cuckoo search by resetting position and random vector value
of eggs rather considering as static parameter value.

3.8.1 Concept

CS algorithm is based on the obligate brood parasitic behaviour of some cuckoo

species in combination with the levy flight behaviour of some birds and fruit flies.
Some species of Cuckoo birds lay their eggs in communal nests. If a host bird discovers
the eggs are not their own, they will either throw these alien eggs away or simply
abandon its nest and build a new nest elsewhere. CS, can be described using following
three idealized rules:

a. Each cuckoo lays one egg at a time, and dump its egg in randomly chosen nest;

b. The best nests with high quality of eggs will carry over to the next generations;

c. The number of available host nests is fixed, and the egg laid by a cuckoo is
discovered by the host birth a probability pa Є [0, 1].

3.8.2 Algorithm and flowchart

The algorithm and flow of operations of CSOA is presented in Figure 10.

3.8.3 Merits

A meta-heuristic method exhibits several advantages as easier for applications to

change parameters to meet requirement of applications. It is very easy fall for optima
of local solution to slow convergence rate. In addition, cuckoo search is simple and
easy to follow with real-world engineering applications. Cuckoo search algorithm easy
to implement in comparison to other population algorithms.

3.8.4 Demerit

CSA is about easy to fall into local optima solution due to its simplicity. Slow the
convergence rate randomness is still a problem. Self-adaptability may be limitation
under certain problems. Low efficiency, less accuracy can be experienced while deal-
ing with multi-peak function.

3.8.5 Applications

Cuckoo search optimization algorithm applied for different problems in various

domains. Power generations to minimise the cost of flues , n power with probability to
generate in different values, Cloud computing security frameworks are-Gathering
information, Network mapping, vulnerabilities exploration, audits and penetration
tests, vulnerabilities enumeration and categorization, technology selection for vulner-
ability remediation, security solutions implementation. The security technology is
23
Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances and Current Applications

used to decrease the vulnerability and costs are called Set covering problem [75] that is
the Distribution systems will have more power loss and poor voltage regulation and
voltage stability. VANET protocols design [76], electromagnetic and antenna arrays
[77], classification of IDS [78]. Self-adaptive algorithm for search accuracy of the CSA
[79], Compression factor to build [80], dynamic appropriate step-size [81]. CSA have
been applied in many researchers in different application problems such as multilevel
image thresholding, flood forecasting, wireless sensor networks, data fusion, cluster in
wireless networks, clustering, ground water expedition, supplier selection, load fore-
casting, surface roughness identification, DG allocation in network, BPNN neural
network, web service composition, speaker recognition, face recognition, training
neural networks [82–85].

3.9 Moth flame optimization (MFO)

Mirjalili proposed moth flame optimization algorithm a swarm algorithm inspired

by movement of moths in spiral path around light source. Moth flames randomly start
searching in solution space. The fitness value estimated based on position by each
moth in group. Falling category to best position flame by all is optimal solution.
The function category updates following spiral movement function to achieve better
division towards light source. The best position can be individual positions and
repeats updating moth’s distance and position generate new position to terminate
criteria to be met. The variations in moth flame design in oder to improve are for
multi-objective, binary and hybridization

3.9.1 Concept

Mirjalili proposed meta-heuristic algorithm based on population. MFO moths

randomly with in space recognize fitness value and identify position suitable without
flame. The movement is continuous and repeated to recognize better position. Update
position suitably until termination criteria is met. The process MFO is carried on in
three main steps. In first step, initialization of population and parameters are
assumed in hyper dimensional space. The difference in way updates and treats in
iterations. The position of each moth is stored. The selection of best moth is also
performed so that results are stored longer time. In second step, three main functions
converge to global result in Eq. (46). The identification to optimization is
implemented randomly. Movement is spiral in moths applying logarithmic spiral
function by Eq. (47). Moth and flame fixed position and indicate [ 1, 1] ranges. It
balances between exploitation and exploration to guarantee moths circulation in
search space guarantee in spiral motion. The fly of moth is traps of the local optima.
Moth positioned near flame represented in matrix. In step 3, number of flames is
updated; Moths locations search the exploitation in search space. Decrease and solve
issue based on Eq. (48).

Mði, jÞ ¼ ðubðiÞ lbðjÞ ∗ randðÞ þ lbðiÞÞ (46)

S Mi , Fj ¼ Di ebt : cos ð2πtÞ þ F j

 
(47)

N l
flamecount ¼ ∣N l∗ ∣ (48)
T

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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106014

3.9.2 Algorithm and flowchart

The algorithm and flow of operations of MFOA is presented in Figure 11.

3.9.3 Merits

MFO similar to most population-based algorithm flexible and robust. The local
opitma for individuals is avoided. Construction is easy and flexible in design. Moth has
been incorporated to solve many engineering problems.

3.9.4 Demerits

Convergence is major issue in MFO.

3.9.5 Applications

MFO advantages have been incorporated in many domains. Navigation approach

to solve the inequality and equality constrained optimization are real problem, to
optimize real function for constrained selected variables. Chemical identification to
improve single level production which can be extended to incorporate as include in
determination of optimal production portfolio in other industries, applied in agricul-
ture based to recognize problems of tomato [52]. Applied for medical field to improve
time consuming Alhemeris disease, detection and diagnosis of breast cancer, to train
networks RBFN [42], deployment of Wifi, determination of optimal solution in
placement, location problem solution.

Figure 11.
MFO algorithms & flowchart.

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Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances and Current Applications

3.10 Grey wolf optimization (GWO) algorithm

Grey wolf optimization, a meta-heuristic swarm technique, introduced for first

time by Simon Fong [86]. Hunting behaviour in pack of wolf inspired in design of
grey wolf optimization. Wolves in pack will not communicate physically during
hunting, each wolf identify and attack prey individually silently. They follow levy
flights model in search of food during hunting. Wolves unify to another pack of
wolves or to new location if they find new food location better and suitable compared
to their current dwelling place. A random hunter will be selected among pack to hunt
for prey. The hunter identifies potential position itself to catch prey from current line
of sight.

3.10.1 Concept

The social hierarchy consists of four levels in GWO. The level one called Alpha.
They are the leaders of the pack, and they are male and female. They are responsible
for making decisions about hunting time to walk, sleeping place and soon. The pack
members have to dictate the alpha decisions and they acknowledge the alpha by
holding their tails down. The alpha wolf is considered the dominant wolf in the pack
and all his/her orders should be followed by the pack members. Next level group is
labeled as Beta. The betas are subordinate wolves, which help the alpha in decision
making. They can be either male or females. If consider the best candidate to both
alpha when the alpha passes away or becomes very old. The beta reinforces the
alpha’s commands throughput the pack and gives the feedback to alpha. The third
group of wolves is called Delta. They are subordinates. They need to submit their
work report to alpha and beta. Scouts are responsible for watching boundaries of the
territory and warning the pack in case of any danger. Sentinels are responsible for
protecting the pack. Hunters are response got helping the alphas and beta involves
beta in hunting and provide food for the pack. They are not important individuals
in the pack, and they are allowed wolves were outwards. They are fighting i the case
of loss.
Wolf search has been used to select two relay nodes: inter and intra relay nodes.
Within a cluster, cluster members sense and transmit sensed data directly to the CH
irrespective of their distance from CH. Hence, the nodes far away from CH dissipate
more energy resulting in reduced network lifespan. To overcome this problem, the
Wolf search is used in order to identify intra relay nodes for every cluster. The cluster
member will send the sensed data to intra relay node and it in turm to CH. Similarly,
all CHs communicate directly to BS irrespective of distance between CHs and BS.
Hence, the CHs far away from BS dissipate more energy which leads to selection of
new CHs resulting in next iteration, resulting very low network lifespan. To overcome
this PEGASIS protocol introduced inter relay node as final node to communicate
with BS. In proposed work, Wolf search is used to identify the inter relay nodes.
The working principles of Wolf search for identification of inter and intra relay nodes
are described in this section. The pseudo code of Wolf search is described in
Algorithm 2.11.2.
ðX, Y Þ are the coordinates of unknown node/target node and xi , yi are the
 

coordinates of the ith anchor node in the neighbourhood. The computations of WS) for
encircling, and hunting process are shown below.

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Eqs. (49)–(54) used in WSO are as follows.

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2
di ¼ ðX xi Þ2 þ Y yi

(49)
 
D ¼  C ∗ X p ð tÞ X ðtÞ (50)

C ¼ 2∗r (51)

A ¼ 2∗a∗r a (52)

X ðt þ 1Þ ¼ X p ðtÞ A∗D (53)

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
sin 2 x2 þ y2 0:5
r ¼ 0:5 þ (54)
ð1 þ 0:001X ðx2 þ y2 ÞÞ2

where t represents the current iteration, A and C are coefficient vectors, position
vector of the prey is represented X p, X the position vector, ∣ ∣ is the absolute value, and
is an element-by-element multiplication, a is linearly decreased from 2 to 0 in each
iteration and r is a random vector in ½0, 1Š.

3.10.2 Flowchart and algorithm

The algorithm and flow of operation of GWO is presented in Figure 12.

Figure 12.
GWO algorithm & flowchart.

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Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances and Current Applications

3.10.3 Merits

GWO experience alpha and beta experience is good for complex problems. More
heads identification and building are experienced wolves is built. The goodness is
identified better through GWO. It is not easy to apply local optima compared to meta-
heuristic has lesser parameters. It searches in local search space. The convergence is
faster. GWO is easy to implement in any platform. In more iteration avoids local
optima and provide higher performance in search problems.

3.10.4 Demerits

In short problem slow convergence and easy premature can be expected.

Piece-wise linear cost approximation and update of equation to build local
exploration ability are problem in GWO. The accuracy solving can be considered a
research challenge. Bad local search ability and slow velocity and falling optimum
behaviour and position update are required. Easy falling of velocity and fall into local
optimum.

3.10.5 Applications of wolf-based algorithm

GWO algorithm finds application adaption in different domains. Fault system

estimation and prediction, hydro-power optimal operation station, Optimization in
multi-layer perception. Electronics based domain to find optimal allocation to deter-
mine system power loss, link functional net construction by q-Gaussian radial basis,
Control operation of DC motors. Fault detection in power systems. Prioritization of
problem, selection problem, solve combined economic emission dispatch problem to
find optimum allocation. Multi-input and multi-output contingency management
problem. Multi-input multi-output contingency management problems and for
detection of faulty sections in power systems, to name a few.

4. Comparison of algorithms

Literature Survey reveals complex problems can be resolved in simple steps by

applying bio-inspired principles and rules effectively by giving importance to each
relationship. The discussed social and population based ten algorithms are involved in
processing stages they include,

i. Identification of natural behaviour and responses of biological organism

ii. Replica model to simulate behaviour of biological organism

iii. Translating developed model to mathematical model with certain required

assumptions

iv. Pseudocode generation for behaviours of biological organism

v. Experimenting practically and theoretically both models of biological

organism for guaranteed performance improvements in real-world problem.
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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106014

5. Issues, challenges and future direction

This section briefs on bio-inspired algorithm current challenges, issues and further
direction for next works to be carried in this direction.

5.1 Literary issues

The database identification was first challenge to identify supporting literature.

Scopus a largest database of academic articles was primary focus in collection of
articles from journals. The published articles on specific bio-inspired algorithm
searched for publication number from 2008 to 2020. During search process name was
considered as keyword. Obtained results were analysed for algorithm, document-wise
and subject wise. Documents are categories are article, conference paper, review,
book and others. More research publication in different categories can be found based
on bio-inspired algorithms PSO and GBA compared to other emerging algorithms
which is plotted in Figure 13. To have clear view of published article year wise plot
was plotted as shown in Figure 14. The evolution of algorithms is clearly shown in
Figure 14. More publications have established algorithm PSO and GBA and on other
remaining algorithms publications are comparatively low hence more research can be
carried on to identify suitable optimization position for this algorithms.

5.2 Challenges

Bio-inspired algorithms face challenges in design of competitive and interactive

component design. Biological systems have found lack in information exchange so
algorithm has to be developed in absence of data. Improve or develop bio-inspired
algorithms to design solution to adapt for any real-world problem. Performance of bio-
inspired algorithm is another issue which need to be sorted in working environment.

Figure 13.
List of publications on different bio-optimization.

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Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances and Current Applications

Figure 14.
Frequency of research articles published on various based algorithms till 2021 bio-inspired algorithms year wise.

5.3 Future scope

Bio-inspired algorithms brought revolutionary changes in different domains as

well got power to impact further generation computing. The application coverage area
is vast compared conventional methods includes modeling, algorithm, engineering
and computing. Generally, optimization techniques based on swarm search proce-
dures incorporate random changes and identification and still has capacity grow
which is attracting many young researchers. Bio-inspired algorithms still require
addressing new technologies along with it by exploring new ways to adopt algorithms.
In order to achieve they need to be collaborated with research communities like
computer science, biology, artificial intelligence, ecology, quantum and others. Cur-
rently, many bio-inspired algorithms exist, and application field is also extensive and
obviously work require further exploration,

• -solution for specific application suitability of selection of parameters

• optimization in range and value of parameters.

• theoretical analysis of convergence of algorithm

• new application of bio-inspired algorithms needs to be explored

• identify suitable hybridization of algorithms with function or algorithms either

convention or bio-inspired based.

6. Conclusion

Bio-inspired algorithms have got roots in both pure science and engineering
domains. Methods and related theories are mature got huge practical potential
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Bio-inspired Optimization: Algorithm, Analysis and Scope of Application
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106014

benefits to provide in different domain problems. To conclude ten bio-inspired algo-

rithms, FSA imitates food search behaviour of fish considering three parameters
distance, length, crowd factor among them first two influence function much. WOA
whale inspired algorithm has three operators applied to model search, encircle and
foraging behaviour of whales. CSO includes two key operations seeking and tracing in
computation of optimum solution. AAA control parameters influence whole func-
tionality. MFO accuracy is based on spiral movement towards artificial light. ESA is
based on exploration and exploitation in searching. GWO algorithm simulates wolves
by dividing into four group; alpha, beta, delta, and omega.

Author details

G. Devika1* and Asha Gowda Karegowda2

1 Government Engineering College, K. R. Pet, Karnataka, India

2 Siddaganga Institute of Technology, Tumkur, Karnataka, India

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of
the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0),
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided
the original work is properly cited.
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