UNIT:- 1

UNIT I: BASICS OF ANIMAL CLASSIFICATION

SEM-I ZOOA-CCI-I-TH;
Five Kingdom Concept of Classification of Whittaker,1969:
Whittaker’s Five Kingdom Classification brings evolutionary changes in
classification system of organisms. Since the centuries, biologists are trying to
classify organisms in different ways. Even, Greek philosopher and polymath
Aristotle tried to classify organisms on the basis of their habitats, such as
whether they lived on land, water, or air.
Then Carolus Linnaeus proposed a two-kingdom classification that contains
only two kingdoms such as, Plantae and kingdom Animalia. This
classification system did not last too long because this two-kingdom
classification has many Limitations .
This two Kingdom classification can not differentiate between unicellular and
multicellular, eukaryotes and prokaryotes, autotroph and heterotroph etc.
It’s hard to keep each group together because each group has different variations.
Such as, monera and protista contain both walled and wall-less organisms,
photosynthetic and non-photosynthetic organisms, unicellular and filamentous
or mycelial organisms.
All these confusions help in the development of a new mode of
classification called the five-kingdom

Classification or Whittaker’s Five Kingdom Classification

Whittaker’s Five Kingdom Classification:

 The five-kingdom classification was proposed by

R.H. Whittaker in 1969 and was built on the work of two-kingdom
classification.
 In Five Kingdom Classification, the organisms are classified based on
several characteristics such as mode of nutrition, thallus organization, cell
structure, phylogenetic relationships, and reproduction.
 It is the most common classification system of grouping organisms based
on their simple distinctive characteristics.
 Whittaker’s Five Kingdom was divided into five groups; Kingdom
Animalia, Kingdom Plantae, Kingdom Fungi, Kingdom Protista,
Kingdom Monera (Bacteria).
 Kingdoms are divided into various subgroups such as
Kingdom →
 Phylum → Class → Order → Family
→ Genus → Species.

Characteristics of the 5 Kingdoms:

1. Whittaker classified this five kingdom basis on their cell structure, mode of
nutrition, mode of reproduction.

2. Mycoplasma, bacteria, actinomycetes and cyanobacteria, or blue-green

algae comes under Kingdom Monera.
3. Protozoans, phytoplanktons, zooplanktons comes under Kingdom Monera
Protista.
4. Molds, mushroom, and yeast comes under Kingdom Fungi.
5. Algae, Bryophytes, ferns, gymnosperms, Multicelled eukaryotes comes
under Kingdom Plantae.
6. Sponges, Invertebrates, vertebrates ,Multicelled eukaryotes comes under
Kingdom Animalia.

Five Kingdom Classification Chart:

The five kingdoms are Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia, and Monera, which are classified based on their cell
structure, mode of nutrition, mode of reproduction and body organization. All these five Kingdoms are shown
in bellow chart;

Whittaker’s Five Kingdom Classification – Five Kingdom Classification Chart

Criteria for Five Kingdom Classification

1. Cell structure Complexity: prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

2. The complexity of body structure or structural organization: unicellular
and multicellular.
3. Nutrition Mode: photo-autotrophy (Plantae), absorptive heterotrophy
(fungi), and ingestive heterotrophy (Animalia).
 4. Ecological lifestyle: producers (plantae), decomposers (fungi) and
consumers (animalia).
5. Phylogenetic relationships: prokaryotes to eukaryotes, unicellular to
multicellular organisms.

Whittaker’s Five Kingdom Classification:

 Kingdom Monera
The kingdom Monera includes all prokaryotes— mycoplasma, bacteria,
actinomycetes and cyanobacteria, or blue-green algae.

Characteristics
Cell Structure:

 These are unicelled Prokaryotes and possess a cell wall.

 The cell wall is consist of amino acids and polysaccharides.
 These cells contain an envelope type of organization (the whole protoplast
is covered by plasma membrane but internal compartmentalization is
absent).
 These are Microscopic cells (0.1 to a few microns in length).
 In monera, the genetic material is not organized into a nucleus.
 They contain nake DNA (not associated with histone proteins).
 They don’t have Mitotic spindle.
 Membrane-bound cell organelles are absent.

Movement:

 They use flagella (tubulin) for their movement.

 Flagella is formed of flagellin protein.

Mode of Nutrition:

 They are heterotrophic and autotrophic.

 Most of the heterotrophs are parasitic or saprophytic and the autotrophs are
chemosynthetic or photosynthetic (include both aerobes and anaerobes).
 Some of them have the ability to convert di-nitrogen into ammonia state.
Reproduction: They reproduced by Asexually.
Examples of Monera include Archaea and Bacteria.
  Kingdom of Protista
The kingdom Protista includes all eukaryotic cells –
protozoans, phytoplanktons, zooplanktons.
Characteristics

Cell Structure:

 They are unicellular eukaryotic cells.

 They have well organized Genetic material in the form of nucleus.
 The DNA is associated with histone proteins
 Their cellular organization is of two envelope types, such as besides the
plasma membrane, internal membranes occur around certain organelles.
Movement:
 They use flagella, cilia for their movement.
 Flagella are 11 stranded with a 9 + 2 organization of microtubules that
consist of a protein called tubulin.
Mode of Nutrition:

 Their mode of nutrition is absorption and photosynthesis.

 Euglena-like organisms have a dual mode of nutrition, holophytic or
photosynthetic in light and holozoic in absence of light or presence of
abundant organic matter.
Reproduction:

 They reproduced by both Asexually and sexually.

 They lack the embryo stage.
 The tissue system is absent in Protista kingdom.
Examples of protists include the organism known as Plasmodium (which causes
malaria), Amoeba, and Euglena.
Protista Subgroups:
The Protista kingdom is subdivided into several groups such as:
Protozoans
These are heterotrophs in nature and live as parasites or predators.
Dinoflagellates

 These are photosynthetic in nature and marine.

  They are responsible for the formations of red, blue, brown, green, or
yellow color in marine.
 These colors are formed by their pigments in cells. Euglenoids

 They are mostly found in freshwater habitation in motionless water.

 They contain a protein-rich layer called pellicle, instead of cell wall
Chrysophytes

 They are mainly found in marine and freshwater habitats.

 The Chrysophytes include the golden algae (desmids) and diatoms.
Slime Moulds

 They are saprophytic in nature.

 These are moves along putrefying leaves and twigs.
 They get their nutrients from organic material.
 These are form an accumulation Under a favorable environment, which is
called Plasmodial slime molds.
The Kingdom Protista does not seem to be a natural group due to:

 Dinoflagellates are referred to as mesokaryotic, they are not eukaryotes.

 Among all Protista kingdoms, Slime molds are quite distinct.
 The Kingdom Protista has several evolutionary
lines.
 Protists have different modes of form, structure, and life.
 A distinction of unicellular protist algae and green algae included in
Volvocales is not valid.

 Kingdom Fungi
The molds, mushroom, and yeast, etc fall under this kingdom.
Characteristics Cell
Structure:
 They are multicelled eukaryotes.
 They contain a chitinous cell wall and non-cellulosic polysaccharides.
Sometimes Cellulose also occurs.
 Their body is filamentous and is called mycelium.
  They have uniticellular or multinucleate Hyphae.
 They contain a small nuclei and show intranuclear spindles.
 Golgi bodies are unicisternal (In most cases).
 Their cellular organisation is two envelope types.
Movement:
 They are non-motile.
 Mode of Nutrition:
 Most of them are heterotrophic, absorptive, saprobic.

Reproduction:
 They reproduced by both asexually and sexually.
 They lack the Tissue differentiation.
 They store their food in glycogen and fat. Example:
Example of a useful fungus is Penicillium.

 Kingdom Plantae

 The Kingdom Plantae includes Algae, Bryophytes, ferns,

gymnosperms, Multicelled eukaryotes.
 Plants are restricted to land, sea-shores and fresh water reservoirs,
and some of them are fixed or free floating.
Characteristics Cell
Structure:
 They are multicellular eukaryotic cell.
 Their body form is less regular
 They contain cellulosic cell walls.
 They have plastids.
Movement:

 They are non-motile.

 Mode of Nutrition:
 They are autotrophic.
 Reproduction:
 They reproduced by both asexually and sexually.
 Spores are present in lower plants.
 The embryo stage is absent in the algal
 Their food reserve is usually starch and fat. Example:
Examples of plants are mosses, ferns, conifers and
flowering plants.
 Kingdom Animalia
The Kingdom Animalia includes Sponges, Invertebrates, vertebrates ,Multicelled
eukaryotes.
Characteristics Cell
Structure:

 These are multicellular eukaryotes.

 They lack cell walls.
 Plastid is absent.
 Their Body form is regular.
 They have internal organs.
 Centrioles present in the cells.
Movement:

 They are highly-motile.

 Mode of Nutrition.
 Their mode of nutrition is heterotrophic.
Reproduction:
 They reproduced by both asexually and sexually.
 Their food reserve is usually starch and fat.
 Their Response to stimuli is quick.
 They have Embryo stage.
Example:
Examples of Animalia are Porifera (sponges), Cnidaria (jellyfish), Nematoda (nematode
worms), Platyhelminthes (flatworms), Annelidas (segmented worms), Mollusca (Snails
and Squid), Echinodermata (starfish), Arthropoda (Insects and Crustaceans), Chordata
(includes all the vertebrates: fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals)
Advantage of Whittaker’s Five Kingdom:
1. The first and most important advantage is, this five- kingdom classification
differentiates the prokaryotes into a separate kingdom called monera. Because the
prokaryotes are differ from their genetic, cellular, reproductive, and physiological
organization.
2. Whittaker’s Five Kingdom classification separates the fungi into a separate
kingdom, which separates them from plants. The fungi has distinct biochemical,
physiological and structural organization.
3. There were present several unicellular eukaryotes that had been included both
amongst plants and animals, which creates a big problem. This classification
separates the unicellular eukaryotes into the kingdom Protista, this helps us to
distinguish them separately.
4. The 5 kingdom classification relies on ranges of organization and nutrition which
developed very early and have become established in later groups which might be
present in the present day.
 5. In five kingdom classification, the plant and animal and plant kingdoms are more
homogeneous as compared to two-kingdom classification.

6. The Whittaker’s Five Kingdom classification bring out the phylogenetic

relationships even between the primitive forms.
Limitations of Whittaker’s Five Kingdom:
1. This Five Kingdom classification can not differentiate between unicellular and
multicellular algae, because Whittaker doesn’t include the unicellular green algae
in the kingdom Protista.
2. Viruses are not included in this Five Kingdom classification.
3. Archaebacteria differ in their structure, composition, and physiology from bacteria.
4. It’s hard to keep each group together because each group has different variations.
Such as, monera and protista contain both walled and wall-less organisms,
photosynthetic and non-photosynthetic organisms, unicellular and filamentous or
mycelial organisms.
5. Mycoplasmas are placed along with prokaryotes, but they are different from
bacteria.
6. Some biologists do not agree that algae and protozoa belonged to the same kingdom.
7. This five kingdom classification does not include the symbiotic associations. For example,
lichens are a symbiotic association between fungi and algae.

Acoelomate Definition and Examples

Acoelomate Definition

An acoelomate is an animal which lack a coelom, or formal body cavity. True body cavities
form only in multicellular organisms with true tissues. Within this group, the eumetazoa,
there are the organisms like coral and jellyfish, which have only 2 basic tissues.
The triploblastic eumetazoa have 3 tissue types.

An acoelomate is the simplest form of animals which have 3 true tissues. These tissue are
the endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm, in that order from inside to out. In an acoelomate,
these tissues touch back-to-back, without any space in between. The organs form within it,
and are surrounded by the mesoderm. The ectoderm is the skin, while endoderm forms the
digestive tract.

While pseudocoelomates and coelomates have a cavity between these tissues, an

acoelomate does not. An acoelomate, such as in the examples below, is solid except for the
digestive tract itself.
Examples of an Acoelomate

Platyhelminthes

The phylum Platyhelminthes, otherwise known as the flatworms, is a large and diverse
phylum, containing many an acoelomate flatworm. Flatworms are parasitic or free-living,
unsegmented worms. They have an incomplete gut, with one opening through which food
is both ingested and excreted. However, they have a high degree of cephalization,
meaning they have a centralized nervous system toward their head. Below is an example
of a large turbellarian, a type of free-living flatworm.

Turbellarian

These acoelomate creatures also take on a number of parasitic forms, such as flukes
and tapeworms. Both of these parasitic forms live within the gut of their host, feeding
on whatever the host feeds on. Regardless of whether the acoelomate is free-living or
parasitic, it exchanges gas the same way. Flatworms are typically so thin that gas-
exchange can be accomplished across the skin, without the need for lungs, gills, or
other complex organs.
Entoprocta

Entoprocts are tiny, filter feeding organisms found in fresh and salt water. They are
usually sessile, and are usually acoelomate. Like the flatworms, they lack a coelom,
but have 3 distinct basic tissues. Unlike the flatworms, the entoprocts have a
complete gut, which is ―U‖ shaped. This allows one side of their body to attach to the
substrate, while the other side filters food from the water column.

Gnathostomulida

Like the flatworms, the Gnathostomulida are a phylum of worm-like animals, which
live mostly in marine environments. The word ―gnatho‖ refers to ―jaws‖ as these tiny
little creatures have some of the tiniest jaws in the animal kingdom. These tiny jaws
can be seen in the image below, near the head of the creature. Like the other
acoelomate phyla, these animals have no body cavity. The space between their skin
and intestines is packed with muscles and filler cells. This make a circulatory system,
heart, and lungs unnecessary. All that can be seen in the image below is the jaw and
intestine of the animal.

Gnathostomula paradoxa

Gastrotricha

Like some other phyla not mentioned here, the Gastrotricha are supposedly
acoelomate. However, this may simply be because the gastrotricha are hard to study.
These tiny animals (most are only 1 mm), are commonly thought to be related to
other, non-acoelomate groups. For this reason, some scientists don‘t always classify
them as acoelomates. However, any body cavity they have is filled with mesenchyme
cells and muscle, effectively making them acoelomates.
The gastrotricha symbolize a number of problems scientists have with identifying and
classifying organisms. First off, the gastrotricha are microscopic. The largest is only 3
mm in length. Look at one in the image below.

Chaetonotidae

It is hard for scientists to tell exactly what is happening on the inside of the organism.
Is there a cavity, or can you just see right through the layers of skin to the other
side? While the gastrotricha is recognized by its peculiar mouth and spines, its
acoelomate condition is often debated.

Why does being Acoelomate Matter?

In classifying animals, scientists tend to use a variety of common features to identify
which groups are most closely related. While DNA evidence has added vast
knowledge to this field, it is also only one piece of the puzzle. The development of a
body cavity is one characteristic which scientists have tracked for ages as a standard
delineator between different phyla.

As the Gastrotricha and other phyla show, this is not always easy. While it is easy to
distinguish a coelom in a large animal, it may be nearly impossible in a microscopic
animal. Thus, an acoelomate may look exactly the same as a microscopic coelomate,
because the actual body cavity is so small. Further, animals like those in the
Gastrotricha did not stop evolving millions of years ago. While they may be
acoelomate, they have also developed many advanced features like organs, spines,
and complicated intestines.
Sometimes, people tend to associate an acoelomate with primitive evolution, and
somehow think that a coelom is the more ―advanced‖ form. Having or not having a
body cavity are simple different strategies for surviving on this world. Flatworms have
been around far longer than humans, and will probably outlive us too. The
acoelomate body plan is simple, yet very effective.

Pseudocoelomate Definition
A pseudocoelomate is an organism with body cavity that is not derived from the
mesoderm, as in a true coelom, or body cavity. A pseudocoelomate is also known as
a blastocoelomate, as the body cavity is derived from the blastocoel, or cavity within
the embryo. A true coelom is lined with a peritoneum which serves to separate the
fluid from the body cavity. In a pseudocoelomate, the body fluids bath the organs,
and receive their nutrients and oxygen from the fluid in the cavity.

The presence of the blastocoel in the embryo is a condition universal to all metazoan.
In most metazoans, the mesoderm becomes the lining of the body cavity, creating
the true coelom. Some pseudocoelomates represent the primitive form of coelomates,
and their ancestors never had a true coelom. Other organisms have lost the
peritoneum and have regressed to the pseudocoelomate condition. The larval form of
some coelomates start as pseudocoelomates. A pseudocoelomate is often a small
animal, which relies mostly on diffusion to distribute oxygen and nutrients to its cells.
These organisms typically have no circulatory system, or an open circulatory system
which circulates a blood-like substance known as hemolymph within the body cavities
of these animals. Because of this, the cavity is referred to as the hemocoel and the
organism as a hemocoelomate.

Examples of Pseudocoelomate
Rotifers

Rotifers are extremely small multicellular organisms which exist by attaching to a

substrate and filter feeding out of the water. Rotifers have a characteristic head
region with hundreds of cilia, which work in unison to create currents of water that
direct food particles to the mouth. Like other metazoans, the rotifers possess three
distinct tissues, or are triploblastic. The embryo of a rotifer forms a blastula, much
like a human embryo. The blastocoel inside the embryo develops into a cavity which
is not covered in peritoneum. The internal organs are bathed in fluid, and oxygen in
diffused directly through the outer layers of the small animal. This is the typical form
of a pseudocoelomate, and is advantageous for the small organism because it does
need a separate circulatory system to circulate oxygen. These tiny organisms can be
seen below.

Nematodes

Like the rotifers, the nematodes are small pseudocoelomates which have a modified
body cavity. While the pseudocoelomate condition is sometimes thought of as
ancestral, many organisms like the nematodes have advanced body parts. Nematodes
reproduce sexual, produce games, and have advanced organs for reproduction and
finding food, as seen in the following image. These organisms can be free-living in
the soil or water, or can be parasitic. Because of their advanced reproductive
systems, these small organisms have adapted to nearly every environment on the
planet.
Related Biology Terms
 Acoelomate – An organism which lacks a coelom completely, either due to
lack of body tissues or a derived state where the body cavity has become
filled in with cells.
 Eucoelomate – Also called a coelomate, this is the condition of a ―true‖
body cavity which is lined with peritoneum and mesentery and separates the
organs from the cavity and body.
 Blastocoel – The hollow cavity in the blastula, which eventually develops
into the blastocoelom or gets filled in by cells.

Coelom Definition
The coelom is a body cavity found in metazoans (animals that develop from an
embryo with three tissue layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm). The cells in
each tissue layer become differentiated during development, becoming different
tissues, organs, and a digestive tract. Derived from the mesoderm, the coelom is
found between the intestinal canal and the body wall, lined with mesodermal
epithelium. The mesodermal tissue also goes on to form the blood, bones, digestive
tract, gonads, kidneys, and other organs. Organisms that possess a true coelom are
called (true) coelomates.

True coelomates are often grouped into two categories: protostomes and
deuterostomes. This distinction is based on patterns of cell division, coelom
formation, and the fate of the blastopore. In protostomes, the blastopore becomes
the mouth. In deuterostomes, the blastopore becomes the anus.
Organisms that possess a body cavity that is not fully lined with mesodermal
epithelium are called pseudocoelomates, while organisms that lack a body cavity are
called acoelomates.

Functions of a Coelom and its Importance

Absorb Shock

The coelomic cavity is filled with a fluid known as coelomic fluid, which serves to
separate the organs from the outer body, and ultimately works to protect the organs
from mechanical shock or trauma. The disconnect between the organs and the outer
body also allows for greater ranges of movement and flexibility, as the organs are
unperturbed by minor displacement as the body bends or stretches.

Hydrostatic Skeleton

In soft bodied animals, such as earthworms and many other invertebrates, the fluid
filled coelom can act as a hydrostatic skeleton. A hydrostatic skeleton is a type of
structure that functions like a skeleton, but is supported by fluid pressure rather than
bones. This allows movement in soft bodied animals.

Immune System Support

Coelomocytes play a key role in the immune system of most invertebrates. They are
macrophage-like cells that are involved in important functions, such as phagocytosis,
inflammation, and the secretion of humoral factors that impart humoral immunity.

Circulatory System

The coelomic fluid also facilitates the transport of gases, nutrients, and waste
products between different parts of the body. Nutrients absorbed in the coelomic fluid
are distributed to all parts of the body in a manner similar to that of a circular system,
and any un-needed substances left after metabolic processing are excreted via the
coelomic fluid. In fact, the emergence of the coelom in organisms has allowed for the
evolution of larger body sizes because of this facilitated transport of materials.
Evolution and Development of the Coelom
The evolutionary history of the coelom is uncertain. There are two contending
theories about the emergence of the coelom: the acoelomate theory and the
enterocoel theory. The acoelomate posits that the coelom evolved from an
acoelomate ancestor, while the enterocoel theory posits that the coelom evolved from
gastric pouches of a cnidarian ancestor. While neither have been proven false, there
is more research supporting the enteroceol theory.

The development of the coelom begins in the gastrula stage, and can be formed by
one of two processes: schizocoely or enterocoely.

In schizocoely, a blind pouch called the archenteron forms as the embryo‘s digestive
tube beings to develop. The mesoderm splits into two layers, one attaching to the
ectoderm (which becomes the parietal layer) and the other surrounding the
endoderm (which becomes the visceral layer). The space between these two layers
becomes the coelom of the organism.

In enterocoely, the mesoderm buds from the walls of the archenteron then hollows
out to form the coelomic cavity.

Examples of Coelomates
Mollusks, Annelids, and Some Arthropods

Clams, snails, slugs, octopuses, earthworms, and are protostome coelomates,

meaning they are formed from head to foot (or mouth to foot). The mouth first
develops from the blastopore, which is the first developmental opening. Protostomes
undergo spiral and determinate cleavage in the early embryonic stages, and the
coelom is formed through the process of schizocoely.
Echinoderms and Chordates

Sea stars, sea urchins, fish, and humans are deuterostome coelomates, meaning they
are formed from anus to head. The blastopore becomes the anus, and the mouth is
formed later. Deuterostomes undergo radical and indeterminate cleavage in the early
embryonic stages; the coelom is formed through the process of enterocoely.

Protostome Definition
Protostomes are a clade of animals that undergo protostomy during their embryonic
development.

The protostomes, together with the Deuterostomes and the Xenacoelomorpha, make
up a major group of animals called the Bilateria. These are triploblast animals that
display bilateral symmetry.

Protostomy
In embryo development, two gametes—a sperm and an egg—fuse to form a zygote.
The zygote is divided on an axis into two ―poles‖: the top ―animal pole‖ and the
bottom ―vegetal pole‖.

The mass of the zygote then divides up in a process called cleavage, resulting in a
dense ball of blastomere cells, called the morula. The pattern of cleavage is one of
the fundamental developmental distinctions between protostomes and
deuterostomes; protostomes divide with spiral cleavage. In this process, rather than
dividing on a plane parallel to the poles (as occurs in radial cleavage), the cleavage
takes place on an angle, so that the blastomeres are arranged in a spiral shape.

As more cells are produced, a layer of cells called the blastoderm, surrounds a fluid-
or yolk-filled cavity called the blastocoel to form the blastula. At this
point, gastrulation begins, leading to formation of the germ layers—the embryonic
cells which give rise to an organism‘s tissues and organs. In triploblastic organisms
there are three layers.
Gastrulation begins when an indentation develops in the blastula called
the blastopore. Cells of the blastopore migrate inward until they reach the opposite
side of the blastula, creating an inner tube called the endoderm, which gives rise to
the digestive system. On the outside is the ectoderm, which gives rise to the
epidermis (skin and hair) and the nervous system. The mesoderm, which ends up as
connective tissue and muscles, lies in-between.

The important distinction between protostomes and deuterostomes is at the point of

the blastopore. In protostomes, the blastopore develops into the mouth, and the
opposite cavity develops into the anus. In deuterostomes (the group that includes
vertebrates and echinoderms), the blastopore develops into the anus.

It is useful to remember that the word comes from the Greek proto- meaning ―first‖
and stoma meaning ―mouth‖. Protostomes develop a ―first mouth‖.

Protostomes vs deuterostomes

Types of Protostomes
The protostomes are split into two taxonomic groups.

Lophotrocozoa

This group includes the annelid worms, brachiopods, bryozoa and mollusks, as well as
sometimes the Platyhelminthes and rotifers.
  The Lophotrocozoa grow their bodies incrementally, by extending the size of
their skeletons. For example, mollusks grow larger by adding calcium
carbonate to the edges of their shells.
 Some have a ‗lophophore‘: a specialized ring-like structure around their
mouths. This allows suspension (filter) feeding by pulling in water and food
particles into the mouth and to the gut.
Some commons examples of lophotrocozoa:

 Bivalve mollusks (clams, oysters, mussels, scallops)

 Leeches
 Earthworms
 Squid
 Octopus
 Snails and slugs

Ecdysozoa

This group includes the arthropods, nematodes and tardigrades.

 The ecdysozoa have a three-layered cuticle, with a soft interior and a hard
exterior called an exoskeleton.
 They grow periodically by shedding or ‗molting‘, and then re-growing their
exoskeleton through a process called ecdysis.
 During embryonic development, the ecdysozoa do not undergo spiral
cleavage, as in other protostomes.
Some common examples of ecdysozoa:

 Insects (beetles, ants, flies, crickets, butterflies, fleas, cicadas, bees)

 Crustaceans (crabs, lobsters, crayfish, woodlice, barnacles)
 Roundworms
 Velvet worms
 Spiders
 Centipedes and Millipedes

Protostome Body Plans

The protostomes can generally be classified into three different body plans all of
which are bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic.
Worm-like

The majority of worm-like protostomes have a well-developed coelom, a cavity inside

the body which provides space for fluids to circulate. The coelom acts as
a hydrostatic skeleton, which uses fluid pressure to allow movement.

Although they have similar body plans, they are differentiated according to their
specialized feeding systems.

 Echiura (spoon worms) are a small group of marine, segmented worms.

They acquire food (and move) using a proboscis—a structure that extends in
front of the mouth—which traps food particles in mucus and passes them
through to the mouth with cilia.
 Pripulida (penis worms) are marine worms that have a toothed throat that
they turn inside out to extend, grab prey and then retract back into the body
for consumption.
 Nemertea (ribbon worms) have a proboscis with a barbed tip that lies inside
the body just above the gut. To feed, Nemertea extend the proboscis
outside the mouth and capture prey using venom and entangling.

Arthropod Body Plans

The main distinguishing feature of the arthropods is their segmented bodies, which
are split into three distinct sections: the head, the thorax and the abdomen. This
group includes all insects, crustaceans, arachnids and myriapods. They are the most
numerous of all living creatures, making up over 80% of all described species.

They have jointed limbs (hence the name from the Greek arthro- ―joint‖, and pod
―foot‖), and a tough exoskeleton made from chitin, often hardened
with sclerotin proteins. Rather than moving using a hydrostatic skeleton, arthropod
muscles are directly attached to the exoskeleton. Without the need for hydrostatic
movement, the coelom is reduced to a cavity that transfers fluids and provides space
for the internal organs.
Mollusk Body Plan

The mollusks are mainly marine animals and include the Bivalves (clams, muscles,
scallops), Cephalopods (squid, octopus, cuttlefish, nautilus), the Chitons, and the
Gastropods, of which some are terrestrial snails and slugs.

The mollusk body plan is based on three main components:

 The foot: a large muscle at the base of the animal, usually used for
movement.
 The visceral mass: the region that contains the internal organs and the
external gill. Together with the foot, the visceral mass fulfills the function
that is performed by the coelom in other protostomes.
 The mantle: the layer of tissue that covers the visceral mass. In many
mollusk species the mantle secretes the calcium carbonate used to form the
shell or exoskeleton.

Related Biology Terms

 Deuterosomes – A taxonomic group, which displays radial cleavage and
secondary development of the mouth in embryonic development.
 Bilateral Symmetry – The property of being entirely symmetrical along
the sagittal plane.
 Embryogenesis – The formation and development of an embryo.
 Radial Symmetry – A body plan which displays symmetry on a central
axis, as in a jellyfish.

Deuterostome Definition
The Deuterostomes are a clade of animals that undergo deuterostomy during their
embryonic development. They are a sister-clade of the Protostomes, and the two
together with the Xenacoelomorpha form the major group of animals called
the Bilateria—a major group animals which display bilateral symmetry and are
mostly triploblastic.
Deuterostomy
During embryonic development, the fused gametes from the male and female—the
sperm and the egg—form the zygote.

In order to develop, the zygote undergoes a process called cleavage. Cleavage

involves splitting into multiple cells called blastomeres, and results in a dense ball of
these cells called a morula. In deuterostomy, radial cleavage occurs, whereby the
blastomeres are arranged along a central axis and is characterized by several tiers of
cells stacked on top of each other. Radial cleavage is one of the defining features of
the deuterostome development, contrasting the spiral cleavage that is typical of the
protostomes. Additionally, most of the deuterostomes display indeterminate cleavage,
in which the developmental fate of each cell is not predetermined in the embryo and
therefore each cell has the ability to develop into a complete embryo if isolated.

The image shows the defining differences between deuterostome and protostome
embryonic development.

The blastula is the resulting structure, consisting of at least 128 cells surrounding a
cavity of mainly empty space, called the blastocoel. Through a process
called gastrulation, the cells of the blastula are reorganized to form the three primary
germ layers of the gastrula that are present in all triploblastic organisms. Gastrulation
begins with a small indentation in the blastula called the blastopore, the cells of which
migrate to the opposite end of the embryonic structure, establishing
the endoderm layer; the endoderm eventually gives rise to the digestive system.

In deuterostomes, the first cavity formed by the blastopore ends up as the organism‘s
anus, while the mouth is formed secondarily on the opposite side. This is the next
major distinction between deuterostomes and protostomes; the protostomes form the
mouth from the primary cavity and the anus second.

It is useful to note that the two names are derived from the Greek proto- ―first‖
and deutero- ―second‖, and stoma meaning ―mouth‖. The deuterostomes develop a
―second-mouth‖.

In many egg-laying deuterostomes the peripheral layer of cells in the gastrula forms
the ectoderm, which ultimately gives rise to the epidermis (the skin and hair) and the
nervous system. In between the endoderm and the ectoderm is the mesoderm, which
ends up as connective tissues, skeletal system, blood, the heart and kidneys and
muscle.

In mammal development the outer layer of the blastula equivalent—the blastocyst—

becomes the placenta and the inner cells give rise to the three primary germ layers.

Types of Deuterostome
The Deuterostomes can be taxonomically grouped into three clades.

Echinodermata

The echinoderms are a group of marine animals, which although are radially
symmetrical in adult life, display bilateral symmetry in their larval stage and are thus
classed within the Bilateria.

The echinoderms have anendoskeleton just below the skin made from calcium
carbonate which provides rigidity and protection. Additionally, they have a hydrostatic
skeleton—a fluid filled cavity present in many developed animals called the coelom,
supported by hydrostatic pressure to allow movement.

Many echinoderms have structures called ‗tube feet‘, which they use to grasp
substrate in order to move, as well as for feeding and respiration. Predatory species
use the tube feet to pry open bivalves and then feed by extruding the stomach out of
the mouth to digest the prey. Non-predatory species use the tube feet for suspension
feeding, whereby they flick food to their cilia, which then pass the food into the
mouth.

The Echinoderms are separated into six taxonomic classes.

 Crinoidea—Feather stars and sea lilies

 Asteroidea—Sea stars
 Ophiuroidea—Brittle stars
 Echinoidea—Sea urchins and sand dollars
 Holothuroidea & Concentricycloidea—Sea cucumbers & Sea Daisies

The image above shows an illustrative example of echinoderms from each taxonomic
class.

Chordates

The chordates are a phylum of animals within the deuterostomes, which have the
following common similarities:
  A notochord. A flexible, supportive rod, made from material similar to cartilage.
In the vertebrates this is replaced by the vertebral column during development.
 A hollow dorsal nerve chord—This is formed from the ectoderm and runs the
length of the body. In vertebrates, this makes up the central nervous system.
 A post-anal tail. A tail that extends beyond the anus in at least some point of
their development.
 Pharyngeal gill slits in at least some point of their development. These are
openings within the throat that allow the animal to breathe underwater. In
marine organisms these become functioning gills, and in terrestrial animals
they are modified for alternative functions.
Note that: All vertebrates are chordates—not all chordates are vertebrates.

The chordates can be separated into 3 subphyla:

The Cephalochordata

These cephalochordates are small invertebrate marine animals known as lancelets.

They are simple fish-like organisms, which live with their tails buried in the sand and
employ a filter feeding system. They are most likely the closest link between the
chordates and other simple organisms.

The Urochordata

The urochordata includes the tunicates—also known as ‗sea squirts‘. These

invertebrate organisms are usually sessile and possess a U-shapes gut and two
siphons, which allows them to take in food. The gills slits are modified in the adult
form to allow filter feeding.

The image shows sea squirts, members of the urochordata which intake food and
through their siphons (the visible holes).
The Vertebrata

The vertebrata is the largest subphylum within the chordates and the most
morphologically complex. In addition to the typical characteristics of chordates, the
vertebrates all posses a skull or cranium, which encases the brain and a backbone
or vertebral column, which protects the dorsal nerve chord and internal organs as
well as providing support.

They are also notable for the following evolutionary developments:

 A hinged jaw, which allows the animal to capture food in a highly effective
way.
 The amniotic egg, containing a protective inner membrane through which
gases and nutrients can be transferred to the embryo during development.
 Limbs, either as fins or evolved into legs for improved movement ability.
 The evolution of the pharyngeal gills into lungs.
The vertebrates are separated into seven extant taxonomic classes:

 Agnatha—The hagfish and lampreys. Although they have a skull and basic
vertebrae, these lack a jaw and vertebral column.
 Condrichthyes—The sharks, skates, rays and sawfish. These have gills and an
endoskeleton made from cartilage.
 Osteichthyes—The bony fish. These have gills, an endoskeleton made from
bone, and a ‗swim bladder‘, which helps with depth control.
The ‗tetrapods‘ are four-limbed vertebrates within the chordates:

 Amphibia—Frogs, toads and salamanders. These are both marine and

terrestrial organisms. Although in the adult form most of them have lungs, they
can also breathe through their skin.
 Reptilia—Turtles, snakes, crocodiles, lizards. These are ectothermic animals
with scales and lungs.
 Aves—Birds. These are endothermic animals with feathers and beaks.
 Mammalia—These are endothermic amniotes with the defining characteristics
of: 1) hair, which aids in insulation 2) mammary glands for producing
milk 3) a neocortex, which allows complex brain function 4) three middle ear
bones for enhanced hearing sensitivity 5) internal fertilization
Within the mammalia are the Eutherians or ‗placental mammals‘; a group which
includes the primates, such as monkeys and humans, cetaceans (whales and
dolphins), rodents, cats, dogs and most other animals that are familiar to us.

The class Mammalia also includes the marsupials such as kangaroos, wombats and
opossums, in which the offspring are born under-developed and complete
development within a maternal pouch on the mother‘s stomach.

Further included are the Monotremes, of which only the duck billed platypus and
echidna species are extant. The monotremes are mammals that lay hard shelled
eggs, additionally they lack nipples, so secrete milk through specialized hair follicles.

Hemichordata

The hemichordates are marine deuterostomes, which are characterized by a body

that is comprised of three distinct sections: The anterior (front) prosome, the
middle mesosome and the posterior (back end) metasome.

These are generally worm-like filter feeders, deposit feeders and detritivores and are
considered to be the closest existing relatives to the vertebrates. Like other chordate
deuterostomes, the hemichordates have pharyngeal gill slits and most have a dorsal
nerve chord, although they lack the notochord.

They are divided into two classes:

 Enteropneusta — The acorn worms. These can reproduce both through sexual
and a-sexual reproduction.
 Pterobranchia

Related Biology Terms

 Protostomes – A clade of animals in which spiral cleavage occurs during
embryonic development and the blastopore develops into the mouth.
 Coelom – The fluid filled cavity present in most animals, which surrounds
the digestive tracts and other organs.
  Phylogenetic Tree – A diagram representing the evolutionary relationships
between living organisms.
 Bilateral Symmetry – A characteristic of the Bilateria Clade, in which the
two sides of the body are mirror images of each other.

Radiata
Organisms that show radial symmetry such that they can be divided into several identical
parts when cut through the central axis are referred to as radiata or radiates. These animals
do not have a left or right side to their body but do exhibit a top and a bottom or a front and a
back. They are diploblastic in nature, meaning they possess two germ layers: endoderm and
ectoderm. Animals belonging to the phylum Cnidaria show radial symmetry. Examples
include jellyfish and sea anemone which follow a sessile lifestyle. The phylum
Echinodermata, which shows triploblastic arrangement are radially symmetrical in their adult
stage as can be seen in starfish.

Bilateria

Bilateria or bilaterians are animals that show biradial symmetry,meaning they have a left and
right side of body that are mirror images of each other. All of the higher animals excluding
sponges, ctenophores, cnidarians and placozoans are bilaterians. They are triploblastic in
nature, having three germ layers: endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm. They possess
complete digestive tracts with a separate mouth and anus. In terms of body cavities, they can
either be coelomates, pseudocoelomates or acoelomates.

Radiata vs Bilateria
Radiata Bilateria
Definition

The animals that can be divided into The animals that can be divided into
several identical halves when cut two identical halves along a single axis
along the central axis are referred to only are referred to as bilateria.
as radiata.
Type of Symmetry

Radial symmetry Bilateral symmetry

Number of Germ Layers

Two Three
Organisation of the Animal

Diploblastic Triploblastic
Organisms
Coelenterates and Echinoderms All of the higher organisms
Sides of the Body

Do not have a left and right side of the They have an identical left and right
body. side of body.
Coelom

They do not have coelom. They can be either coelomates,

pseudocoelomates or acoelomates.

Status of Parazoa
Parazoa status Introduction

Sponges were initially treated as plants because they are sedentary and grow
asymmetrically by budding and branching. Moreover in Mediterranean region, bath
sponges are cultivated like plants by planting their cuttings. Sponges also show no
response to touching or other stimuli. They have no superficial food catching organs
like other animals.
But Aristotle documented them as animals. Carolus Linnaeus, classified sponges into
Phylum Coelenterata in his book ‘Systema Naturae’. Sponges are sedentary,
diploblastic animals with central cavity known as spongocoel (similar to
coelenteron of cnidarians). Their life cycle includes a free swimming ciliated
amphiblastula larva (similar to planula larva of Coelenteron).

Phylum Porifera
Robert Grant established a di stinct group for sponges called as Porifera.
According to him the water flows into and out of the sponge body through minute
pores.
Protozoan characters of Porifer a

 Cellular independence (as in colonial protozoans)

 Totipotent nature of the cells

 Absence of organ-level or tissue-level organization

 Absence of gonads

 Intracellular digestion through the process of endophagy

 Presence of amoeboid cells and collar cells (as in Choanoflagellates)

Metazoan characters of Porifer a

 Reproduction through budding and bran ching (as in cnidarians)

 Development includes free -swimming ciliated amphiblastula, parenchymula and stomoblastula

larva

 Zygote develops by cleavage to enter blastula and gastrula stages

 Presence of water vascular system (as in Jellyfish)

 Spongocoel is comparable to the coelenteron of cnidarians

 Multicellular and diploblastic nature with non -cellular mesoglea between ectoderm and

endoderm.

Groups related to Porifera

Phylum Mesozoa: Van Beneden considered Mesozoans as missing link between Protozoa and
Metazoa. Mesozoans are ciliated, worm -like multicellular animals. They live as parasites on
marine invertebrates like Platyhelminthes, annelids, molluscs and echinoderms. They are very
tiny animals with slender, vermiform body composed of 20 -30 cells arranged in two layers
(comparable to ectoderm and endoderm of metazoans). They have complex trematode -like life
cycle with a ciliated larva. They are considered to be probably descended dire ctly from
Protozoa and are related to ciliates.
There are two classes in Mesozoa,

 Rhombozoa (parasites in kidneys of cephalopods)

 Orthonectida (parasites in polychaetes, molluscs and echinoderms)

Phylum Placozoa: Phylum placozoa was suggested by K.G. Grell to include a single marine
species, Trichoplax adhaerens. Trichoplax adhaerens was discovered in a seawater aquarium
in Europe. This organism has a flat, plate -like asymmetrical body which constantly changes
shape. It is diploblastic in nature. A gelatino us matrix acts as intermediate layer. This layer
consists of fiber cells and vacuoles. There are no organs, nerves or muscles in its body. This
animal slides over food with the help of cilia. Mode of nutrition is saprophagy; it secretes
digestive enzymes o ver its food and absorbs the product. It possesses microvilli to increase
the absorptive surface.
Placozoans are closely related to poriferans and are classified as an independent phylum
under subkingdom Parazoa. It is supposed that during early stages ev olution Mesozoa,
Porifera and placozoa must have evolved from a common unicellular ancestor. Out of these
three, Placozoa and Porifera are more closely related, while mesozoa has undergone
tremendous transformation due to its parasitic mode of life.

Subkingdom Parazoa
Huxley and Sollas created a separate Subkingdom Parazoa to include sponges. They kept
parazoans separate from other metazoans. Parazoans are different from metazoans due to the
absence of body organs, nervous tissue, cellular differentiatio n and cell specialization.
Parazoans also lack a true mouth and possess peculiar collar cells. The digestion in parazoans
is intracellular.
The origin of sponges and other metazoans can be well explained with the help of following
two theories:
Syncytial ciliate hypothesis: This hypothesis assumes that poriferans originated from
multinucleated ciliates by the division of cytoplasm. This is proved by the fact that sponges
and their closest relatives, mesozoans and placozoans all have multicellular bodies wit h
ciliated cells.

Colonial flagellate hypothesis: This hypothesis assumes that poriferans originated from
colonial choanoflagellate ancestors similar to Proterospongia. Proterospongia had choanocytes
and amoebocytes embedded in a gelatinous matrix. Later, as the colony became more and more
complex, the cells became specialised. As the animals became sessile due to availability of
plenty of planktonic food, the external flagellated cells migrated inside the body to line a
central cavity. Gradually a complete water canal system developed. Similarities in cellular
organization of Porifera, Mesozoa and Placozoa also support this hypothesis.
Sponges have diverged early in evolution from the main metazoan lineage and have not
evolved into any other kind of organis m since then. Sponges have maintained their
distinctness and remained unchanged since Palaeozoic. They still maintain their isolated
phylogenetic position and hence it is placed in a separate subkingdom Parazoa.
Placozoans (represented by a single species, Trichoplax adhaerens), appear to be the closest
relatives of sponges. Hence placozoans are also included in Parazoa but as a separate phylum.
The phylogenetic position of mesozoans is not certain as they are parasitic animals. Though
parasitic mesozoans are very simple may be due to their primitiveness. Hence mesozoans are
placed in a separate phylum but much close to Parazoa.

Origin of Metazoa
Metazoans possess organ grade of body organization in which tissues develop to form organs.
These organs perform various functions in the body. There are three theories which explain
the origin of Metazoa.

Colonial theory: Butschli, Lankester & Haeckel and Hyman proposed this theory. According to
this theory, metazoans have evolved from colonial flagellate ancestor similar to volvox.
Haeckel said that the hollow flagellate spherical colony of Volvox appears like blastula or
gastrula of metazoans. Some protozoans like Gonium, Synura and Pandorina form morula -like
solid colonies that superficially resemble metazoans.

Syncytial theory: Hanson and Hadze propose this theory. According to this theory,
multinucleate ciliates are the ancestors of metazoan s. Ciliates possess high grade of organelle
development and body organization among protozoans. By partitioning the multinucleated
cytoplasm with cell membranes the ciliate body could have become multicellular to give rise to
Metazoa.

Polyphyletic theory: Greenberg and Preston proposed this theory. According to this theory,
metazoans originated from many types of protozoan ancestors in different lineages.
 Onychophora
 The Onychophora are a small phylum of about 70 species of quite fascinating animals, often
referred to by the common name of Velvet Worms, Walking Worms or Peripatus.
 Onychophorans are soft-bodied, worm-like invertebrates that have been considered an
intermediate link between annelids and arthropods, although it appears they are more closely
related to arthropods.

Important features
 Their worm-like body is not obviously segmented like annelids.
 However, their head is composed of three segments with a pair of antennae and usually a pair
of eyes on the first segment along with a pair of ducts, called oral papillae, that secrete a sticky
substance which dries on contact with air and is used for prey capture and to deter predators.
 The second head segment has a mouth with paired, toothed, sickle-shaped jaws. Unlike
arthropods, onychophorans do not have a stiff exoskeleton.
 Their thin, flexible cuticle is covered in minute tubercles that give them a velvety appearance
and their common name - velvet worms.
 The tubercles are also sensory and detect vibrations and scents.
 Onychophorans have many pairs of lobe-like, unsegmented, stumpy legs, which have a series
of pads towards the end and a pair of claws at the tip.
 Their tracheae are always open and as a result they require a humid environment to avoid
desiccation.
 They range in size from about 2-10 cm in length, and are generally blue-grey or brownish in
colour, often intricately patterned with stripes or spots.

Phylum characteristic
1. Bilaterally symmetrical and vermiform.
2. Body has more than two cell layers, tissues and organs.
3. Body cavity a true coelom.
4. Most possesses a through straight gut with an anus.
5. Body possesses 14 to 43 pairs of unjointed legs.
6. Nervous system includes a brain and a pair of ventral nerve chords.
7. Possesses serial sac-like excretory organs.
8. Possesses a simple respiratory system in the form of tracheae and spiracles.
9. Possesses a open circulatory system with a heart.
10. Reproduction normally sexual and gonochoristic.
11.All are terrestrial.
Onychophora-Anterior view
 External features
 It is a soft bodied, worm like animal.
 It grows up to 1 to 2" in length.
 The soft body shows deep black colour on the dorsal side and light
red colour on the ventral side. The integument exhibits large
number of superficial ring like constructions. The skin is soft and
bears many minute papillae and bristles along the mid-dorsal line
of the body. It produces slimy secretion which is protective and
helps in capturing the food organisms.
 The body is divisible into two parts.
 Head and trunk.

Head
 Head is composed of three fused segments.
 It has a pair of antennae.
 Each antenna shows a large number of segments.
 On the ventral side of the head mouth is seen.
 The mouth is surrounded by a lip which has ridges.
 A pair of jaws with teeth surrounds the mouth. A tongue is also
seen in the mouth
 A pair of oral papillae present
 Each oral papilla contains the openings of slime glands.
 On the dorsal side of the head a pair of simple eyes are present.

Anterior and posterior view

anterior end in ventral view

posterior end in ventral view

Trunk
 The trunk is devoid of exoskeletal coverings and its skin is thrown out into a number of ridges,
along which wart-like papillae are placed.
 The trunk possesses appendages or legs which vary in number from 14 to 43 pairs, depending
on the species and the sex.
 The legs are all alike and are placed at regular intervals
 UNIT:- 2
LOCOMOTION IN PROTOZOA
INTRODUCTION
 Moving ones body is an essential need of any organism. Some organism
are sessile while other moves at very high speed. Some organisms moves
very slowly such as amoeba or euglena where as other can move fastest
example leopard. There is a vast diversity of organism on the basis of
their locomotion. In class protozoa classification is done on the basis of
its locomotory organ only. Imagine if there is such a much difference in
one phylum how much difference must be present in whole animal
kingdom.
Some of the time locomotion is misunderstood with the term movement,
locomotion is define as movement of whole body of an organism from
one place to another hence it can said that locomotion is a kind of
movement in which whole body moves where as in movement it is not
necessary that whole body move only a single part can also move
example peristaltic movement of intestine.

FIGURE DEPICTING :- MOVEMENT OF AMOEBA

 AMOEBOID MOVEMENT
Amoebiod movement is shown by Amboeba by the formation of
pseudopodia which is finger like projection. These are broad with a round
tip and are called lobopodia. They are formed by the flow of cytoplasm in
forward direction.

Theories of amoeboid movement

How the pseudopodia is formed is still not very clear various theories are
put forward to explain same but there no sufficient evidence to proof any
hypothesis correct.

1. Contractile hydraulic theory

 It was proposed by Schultze in 1875. It states that ectoplasm also known
as plasmagel undergoes contraction at the posterior end and causes
protoplasmic current to flow forward, pushing the more fluid like
endoplasm also known as plasmasol forward. This results in the
formation of pseudopodium and pushing the body forward.

2. Surface tension theory

 It was proposed by Berthold in 1886. It states that there is difference in
the surface tension between the physical characteristics of the body and
substratum which results in amoeboid movement. In this theory
amoeboid movement is compared with movement of fluid globule
mercury droplet. A pseudopodium is formed by the outflow of
protoplasm also known as fountain streaming from external and internal
factors.
 This theory assume the liquid form of the body surface but in majority of
amoeboid form it is rigid and gelatinous.

3. Rolling movement theory

 This theory was given by Jennings in 1904. He did his studies on
Amoeba verrucosa. He compare amoeboid movement with rolling
movement of fluid filled sac on substratum.
 He observed that a carbon particle on amoebas upper surface first
passes forward and then turn downward on anterior tip, remains on
lower surface for a time as body rolls forward and then passes upwards
at the posterior end to repeat this cycle.
 His finding may be correct for Amoeba verrucosa which is devoid of
pseudopodia but it cannot applied to A. Proteus which is devoid of
pseudopodia.

4. Walking movement theory

 This theory was proposed by Dellinger in year 1906. He did his studies
on A. Proteus and conclude that there is presence of contractile
substances which are mainly responsible for amoeboid movement.
 According to this theory the extended pseudopodia attached to
substratum and pull itself back by contraction and moves its body
forward.

5. Sol gel theory

 This theory was given by Hyman in 1917 and later supported by Pantin
and Mast. It states that amoeboid movement is due change in
consistency of cytoplasm. It is most widely excepted theory till date.
 It is also known as change in viscosity theory. It involves 4 process for
amoeboid movement
 Plasamalemma is a outermost thin, elastic cell membrane become
adhere to substratum.
 There is a local partial liquefication of the plasmagel at the interior end.
That causes the central plasmasol under tension to flow forward against
this weaken area to produce a bulge, the beginning of pseudopodium. It
rapidly changes into plasmagel around periphery. Thus forming a
gelatinized tube within which the plasmagel continue to flow forward.
 Inner plasmagel interiorly undergo solation which allow to maintain
constant flow of plasmasol from behind in the direction of movement.
 Contraction of elastic plasmagel tube at which is located on outer side
moves from in front backward while main bulk of body moves forward.
The plasmagel thus exert squeezing motion from the side and near the
amoeba forcing the plasmasol ahead. At tip of pseudopodium the
endoplasm is changed to ectoplasm.

FIGURE DEPICTING :- AMOEBA MOVENT ACCORDING SOL AND GEL THEORY

6. Folding and unfolding theory

 This theory was proposed by Goldacre and Lorch folding and unfolding
of protein chain leads to contraction and relaxation of protein molecule.
They suggested that sol state of protoplasm is due to folding of protein
whereas gel state is to unfolding of protein. Folding leads to contraction
of end and amoeba progress on the other hand unfolding leads to
liquefied sol state which is forced by central endoplasm and pushed
forward. Considerable amount of ATP is invested in the form of energy
for folding and unfolding of protein.

7. Front and fountain zone contraction theory

 It was proposed by Allen in 1961. He compared amoeboid movement
with muscle movement where contraction takes place. Where protein
 contraction leads to endoplasm contraction anterior end so that amoeba
moves forward. The endoplasm is constantly converted to ectoplasm
anteriorly and ectoplasm to endoplasm posteriorly.

8. Reversible gel-sol transformation theory.

 Given by Yagi and Marsland this theory is most accepted theory
explanation of amoeboid movement. This theory suggest that solation at
anterior end occur into which endoplasm flows under pressure
generated by contraction of the cortical plasmagel at the posterior end.
This results in propulsion of amoeba

 FLAGELLAR MOVEMENT
Single long locomotory flagella is enough for euglena movement. During
swimming the flagella is directed obliquely backward toward the side
bearing stigma. It undergo spiral undulations with waves that are
transmitted from the base to the tip cuasing beating or sideway lashing. It
beats on an average of 12 beats per second. This beating of flagellum drives
the water backward and allow whole body to move forward. Each beat not
only allow the body to move forward but also to one side. Hence when the
body repeats one type of movement over and over the organism revolve in
circle or gyrates.

As it directed to the backward direction to the long axis of the body the
organism also rotate on its axis. It has been now calculated that euglena
rotate at 1 turn per second speed.

FIGURE DEPICITNG :- FLAGELLAR MOVEMENT

 CILLIARY MOVEMENT
Paramecium has streamlined body which enable it swim about in water
with a minimum amount of friction.
1. Cilliary beats
 During movement, a cilium oscillates like a pendulum. Each oscillation
comprises fast and effective stroke and a slow recovery stroke. During
effective stroke cilia becomes slight curve and rigid and strikes the water
like a oar, so that body is propelled in opposite direction of stroke.
 At the cilia of body do not move simultaneously and independently but
progressively in a characteristic wave like manner called metachronal
rhythm. The cilia in longitudinal row beat in characteristic wave
beginning at the anterior end. Cilia in longitudinal row beats one behind
other where as in transverse row move synchronously.

2. Mode of swimming
 They rotate spirally along the left handed helix.
 The body do not move directly backward but somehow how tilt to the
right
 Secondly the cilia of oral groove strike obliquely and more vigorously so
as to turn anterior end continuously away from the oral side and move in
circle. The combine action causes the movement of animal along the
fairly straight path rotating about its axis in an anti clockwise direction.
 In backward movement paramecium follow the straight path. This is due
to the fact that the effective stroke is carried out anteriorly.

FIGURE DEPICTING :- CILLIARY MOVEMENT [A] EFFECTIVE STROKE [B] RECOVERY STROKE

CONCLUSION
 There are large number of protozoans which moved with the help of or
more whipped like structure called flagella. The movement can also
takes place with help of cilia or with the help of pseudopodia in case of
amoeba. Most unicellular organisms are included in this catergory. The
flagellates are either plant like typically having chloroplast or animal like
with no chloroplast.
 Protozoa that moves with the help of cilia are refer as ciliates and are
included in subphylum cilliophora. Beside the character of these
locomotor organ all ciliates posses two nuclei macro and micro nuclei.
 Amoeba is most popular free living protozoa it is regarded as a lowest
form of animal as it body consist of mere spaces of protoplasm. It serves
as an interesting and suitable material for laboratory as it is easy to
obtain and very slow in locomotion. Amoeba perform locomotion with
the help of pseudopodia various theory are given to describe its motion.

NUTRITION IN PROTOZOA
INTRODUCTION

Nutrition in Protozoa involves various modes of feeding. Protozoa are a

diverse group of single-celled eukaryotic microorganisms that play
significant ecological roles and exhibit diverse nutritional strategies. They
can be found in various environments, including freshwater, marine
habitats, and soil. Understanding the nutritional requirements and
mechanisms of nutrient acquisition in protozoa is crucial for
comprehending their ecological interactions and overall ecosystem
functioning. This article provides a comprehensive overview of nutrition in
protozoa, highlighting their diverse feeding modes and strategies.
FEEDING MODES IN PROTOZOA

Protozoa exhibit various feeding modes based on their nutritional

requirements and ecological niches. These feeding modes can be broadly
categorized into three main groups: phagotrophy, osmotrophy, and
mixotrophy.

1. Phagotrophy:
Phagotrophic protozoa are heterotrophic organisms that engulf
particulate matter, such as bacteria, algae, other protozoa, or organic
debris. They employ structures like pseudopodia or cilia to capture and
ingest their prey. Examples of phagotrophic protozoa include amoebae,
ciliates, and some flagellates.
2. Osmotrophy:
Osmotrophic protozoa acquire nutrients through the absorption of
dissolved organic matter, such as sugars, amino acids, and organic acids,
from their surroundings. They possess specialized structures like
contractile vacuoles and transporters to regulate osmotic pressure and
uptake of solutes. Osmotrophic protozoa include many flagellates and
ciliates.
3. Mixotrophy:
Mixotrophic protozoa exhibit a combination of autotrophic and
heterotrophic modes of nutrition. They can perform photosynthesis to
synthesize their own organic compounds using sunlight and inorganic
nutrients or switch to heterotrophy when photosynthesis is inadequate.
Some mixotrophic protozoa have photosynthetic organelles called
chloroplasts obtained through symbiotic relationships with algae.

NUTRITION ACQUISITION AND UTILISATION

Protozoa have developed various mechanisms for acquiring and utilizing
essential nutrients, including carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and vitamins

1. Carbon:
Protozoa obtain carbon through organic compounds present in their
environment. Phagotrophic protozoa acquire carbon by digesting
organic matter in their prey, while osmotrophic protozoa take up
dissolved organic compounds. Mixotrophic protozoa can perform
photosynthesis to fix atmospheric carbon dioxide.
2. Nitrogen:
Protozoa require nitrogen for protein synthesis and other cellular
functions. They can acquire nitrogen through organic nitrogen
compounds, such as amino acids and proteins, found in their food
sources. Some protozoa can also take up ammonia or nitrate from their
environment.
3. Phosphorus:
Phosphorus is crucial for nucleic acid synthesis, energy transfer, and
cellular signaling. Protozoa acquire phosphorus primarily through the
uptake of organic and inorganic phosphate compounds present in their
surroundings. Phosphate ions are transported across their cell
membranes using specialized transporters.
4. Vitamins:
Protozoa, like other organisms, require vitamins as essential co-factors
for various enzymatic reactions. Some protozoa can synthesize certain
vitamins de novo, while others rely on their diet to obtain these
micronutrients.
CONCLUSION
Protozoa exhibit diverse nutritional strategies, reflecting their ecological
adaptations and interactions with their environment. The various feeding
modes of phagotrophy, osmotrophy, and mixotrophy allow them to exploit
different food sources, including particulate matter, dissolved organic
compounds, and even perform photosynthesis. Understanding the
nutritional requirements and mechanisms in protozoa is vital for studying
their ecological roles, interactions, and impacts on ecosystem functioning.
Further research in this field will enhance our understanding of these
fascinating microorganisms and their contributions to nutrient cycling and
energy flow in ecosystems.

Moreover, the study of protozoan nutrition has implications beyond

ecological research. Some pathogenic protozoa, such as Plasmodium (the
causative agent of malaria) and Trypanosoma (the causative agent of
African sleeping sickness), rely on specific nutrient acquisition pathways to
survive and propagate within their hosts. Understanding the nutritional
requirements of these protozoa can aid in the development of effective
treatments and prevention strategies for associated diseases.

In addition to their ecological and medical significance, protozoa also have

industrial applications. Certain species of protozoa are used in wastewater
treatment plants, where they play a crucial role in breaking down organic
matter and removing pollutants from water sources. Their ability to
efficiently acquire and utilize nutrients makes them valuable assets in
bioremediation efforts.
Reproduction in Protozoa:
A sexual reproduction
1. Binary fission:
cell divided into two cells. DNA of the nucleus of a mature cell divided first
and then the cell divided into two daughter cells of almost the same. Amoeba.

2. Multiple fission (Sporulation):

one of the cells enlarges and forms the sporangium. The nucleus divided
many times and then the daughter nuclei are surrounded with protoplasm bits to
form daughter cells called spores are covered with a thick wall called the cyst, on
maturation the sporangium bursts and releases the spores.

8
3. Budding:
in which a new individual develops from some generative anatomical point
of the parent organism, in some species buds may be produced from almost any
point of the body but in many cases budding is restricted to specialized areas.

4. Plasmotomy:
Division of a multinucleate cell into multinucleate daughter cells.
Cytoplasm divided into two or more masses.

9
Sexual reproduction:
1. Syngamy:
Is the complete and permanent fussion of the two sex cells gametes to form
zygote which gives rise to adult and distinguished into following types:

Hologamy : The form of sexual reproduction in which the gametes are of the same
size and structure as the somatic cells

Paedogamy : mutual fertilization of gametes ultimately derived from the same

parent cell or gametangium

Isogamy: the fusion of two gametes of similar form, as in certain algae

Anisogamy: Sexual reproduction involving two types of gametes that differ in

size

Macrogamy: syngamy between fully developed vegetative cells

Microgamy: syngamy between gametes much smaller than the vegetative cells

2. Conjugation:
Sexual process in which two lower organisms of the same species, such as
protozoans exchange nuclear material during a temporary union completely
transfer one or organism's contents to the other organism or fuse together to form
one organism, the forms may or may not resemble each other in size, shape or
mortality, they differ in some physiological or genetic characteristic
 Plasmogamy:
Fusion of two or more cells without fusion of nuclei. The purpose to kill the
big size prey like Paramecium (that method not kind of reproduction).
Euglena
1. Bi-flagellated, unicell, spindle shape.
2. Most species have photosynthesizing, chloroplast within the body of cell,
chloroplasts contain pyrenoid used in the synthesis of paramylon, a form of
starch energy storage.

10
3. Have two flagella rooted in basal bodies located in small reservoir at the front
of the cell, one of flagellum is very short while the other is long easily visible
with light microscopy.
4. Posses red eye spot (stigma) an organelle composed of carotenoid pigment
granules, the red spot itself is not through to be photosynthetic so that
paraflagellar body it filters the sun light located at base of flagellum.
5. Lake a cell wall instead it has pellicle, made of protein layer supported by
structure of microtubules arranged in strips spiriting around the cell, pellicle
give exception flexibility and contraclity, there is no cellulose.
6. Euglenoids are found in many freshwater habitat and are most abundant in
those.
7. Small and conspicuous contractile vacuole is located to one side of the
reservoir into which it discharges, it function is osmoregulatory.
8. Binary fission the type of asexual reproduction that start by divide the cell
(Euglena) longitudinally beginning at the front end of the cell with the
duplication of flagella processes, stigma cleavage from the anterior and (V)
shaped moves toward the posterior until the two halves are anterior separated,
sexual conjugation are rare.

11
Amoeba
1. They so tiny so need microscope to see them.
2. Living in water, including lakes, Ponds, Streams, Rivers. Some can live in the
bodies of animals.
3. Move by pseudopoda and they help Amoeba to eat.
4. 4- Reproduce by binary fission, it means that one Amoeba can split in half and
make two identical new Amoeba.
5. Cytoplasm devided into two parts (Endpolasm & Ectoplasm) both enclosed
within flexible plasma membrane.
6. Cell contain single granular nucleus containing DNA.
7. Contractile vacuole is used to maintain osmotic equilibrium by excreting
excess water from the cell.
8. Amoeba obtains its food by phagocytosis and particles of organic matter, Or
by Pincocytosis taking in dissolved nutrients through vesicles formed within
the cell membrane.

12
 UNIT:- 3
PORIFERA
 Phylum Porifera: Skeleton of Sponges,
Spongin fibers and Spicules
Like any other animals, sponges possess some sort of a skeleton that
gives their bodies shape and structure. All the sponges have a skeleton
embedded in the mesenchyme. Skeleton consists of separate spicules or
interlacing sponging fibers or both. Skeleton supports and protects the
soft body parts of the sponges. Skeleton also serves as the basis of
classification of the sponges into various classes like Calcarea,
Hexactanellida and Desmospongia.

SPONGIN FIBERS

Structure of spongin
Spongin is an organic, horny, elastic substance which resembles
silk in chemical composition. It is a scleroprotein containing
sulphur and chemically related to collagen. It is insoluble in water
and chemically resistant to protein digesting enzymes. Spongin
fibers are fine threads consisting of a soft granular axial core
externally surrounded by concentric layers of spongin.
Spongin contains large amounts of iodine. This is the reason that in
olden days the bath sponge was used a cure for croup, a throat
condition in children resulting from inflammation and partial
obstruction of larynx.
 In the class Desmospongia, spongin fiber occurs in various forms.
 It may occur as a cement connecting together siliceous spicules.
 It may be found in the form of branching fiber in which siliceous
spicules are embedded.
 In Keratosa, spicules are completely absent and spongin alone is
formed.
Development of spongin
Spongin fibers are secreted by flask-shaped mesenchyme cells
called as spongioblast cells. During the development the
spongioblast cells are arranged in the rows and the spongin rods
secreted by them are fused with the neighboring cells to form a
long fiber. Later the spongioblasts vacuolated and finally get
degenerated after secreting certain amount of spongin .

SPICULES

Structure and types

Spicules are microscopic crystalline structures which gives the
sponges their rigidity and form. Spicule consists of spines or r ays
that radiate from a point. These are secreted by special
mesenchymal amoebocytes called scleroblast cells.

The following are various types of spicules:

On basis of type of deposit on core organic matter: All kinds of

spicules have a core of organic material around which either
calcium carbonate or colloidal silica is deposited. Accordingly
spicules are of two types:
Calcareous spicules: The organic material in this type of spicules
is calcium carbonate or calcite. This is the characteristic of the
sponges of class Calcarea.
Siliceous spicules: The organics material in this type of spicules is
Colloidal silica or Silicon. These types of spicules are the
characteristic of the sponges of class Hexactanellida.

On the basis of size and function: Spicules can be of large size or

small size. Accordingly spicules can be of two types:
Megascleres: These are larger spicules constituting main skeleton
of sponge body.
Microscleres: These are the small spicules occurring interstitially.

On the basis of number of axes and rays: Spicules may occur in

several forms like the simple rod form or in the form of forks,
anchors, shovels, stars, plumes etc. The spicule forms depend on
the presence of number of axes and rays. Accordingly, they can be
divided into the following forms:
Monaxon: These kinds of spicules are formed by the growth along
one axis. They may be straight needle-like or rod like or may be
curved. Their ends may be pointed or hooked or knobbed.
Monaxons can be both calcareous and siliceous types.

These monaxon spicules are further divided into two kinds,

Monactinal- the growth of the spicule takes place onl y in one
direction
Diactinal- The growth of the spicule takes place in both the
directions.
Tetraxon: These spicules have four rays each pointing in different
direction. Usually one of the four rays is elongated giving the
appearance of a crown of 3 rays. Such spicules are called as
triaenes.
 Sometimes all the rays are equal, when all the rays are equal it is
termed as calthrops.
 When all the four rays persist it is called as tetraradiate or
quadriradiate.
 Sometimes one of the rays is lost and then it is known as triradiate.
These triradiate rays are characteristic of calcareous sp onges.
 If the elongated ray bears a disc at both ends, it is called as
amphidisc.
Triaxon: These spicules have three axes that cross one another at
right angles to produce six rays. Thus it is also called hexactinal
spicule. These triaxon spicules are characteristic of glass sponges
of the class Hexactanellida.
Polyaxon: These are the spicules with several equal rays radiating
from a central point. They may be grouped to give star -like
appearance. Polyaxon spicules are found along with microscleres.

Development of spicules
The calcareous spicules are secreted by special type of cells called
as sclerocytes. These sclerocytes are derived from binucleated
mesenchymal scleroblasts. A monaxon spicule or each ray of the
triradiate spicule is secreted by a group of two sclerocytes. Among
these two sclerocytes one acts as thickener cell and the other acts
as the founder cell.
The initiation of the formation of the spicule starts with the
deposition of a particle of calcium carbonate between the two
nuclei of the binucleated mesenchymal cells. This particle grows
drawing apart the two nuclei and then two sclerocytes are formed.
Now the thickener cell lays down additional layer of calcium
carbonate adding to the thickness of the spicule. When the spicule
is fully formed, both the cells i.e. thickener cell and the founder
cell wander into the mesenchyme. The scleroblast secreting a
calcareous spicule is called as calcoblast, while the scleroblast
secreting a siliceous spicule is called silicoblast.
  Phylum Porifera: Canal System in
Sponges, Types of Canal Systems in Sponges,
Functions of Water Current

Canal System Introduction

The water circulatory system of sponges also called as canal
system is the characteristic feature of the phylum Porifera. Canal
system is also known as aquiferous system. The canal system of
sponges helps in food acquisition, respiratory gas exchange and
also in excretion.
The numerous perforations on the body surface of the sponges for
ingression and egression of water current are the main
constituents of the canal system. Inside the body, the water
current flows through a certain system of spaces where by the food
is captured from the incoming water and the excretory material is
sent out into the outgoing water.

Functions of the water current

Water current plays the most vital role in the physiology of the
sponges. The body wall of the sponges consists of two epitheloid
layers the outer pinacoderm and the inner choanoderm.
Pinacoderm consists of porocytes cells which bear openings called
ostia. Choanoderm is composed of choanocytes or collar cells. The
choanocytes have collar of microvilli around the flagellum. The
water current is caused by beating of flagella of the collar cells.
The following are the functions of the water current which enters
the body of the sponges through the canal system:
 All exchanges between sponge body and external medium are
maintained by means of this current.
 Food and oxygen are brought into body through this water current
 Also the excreta are taken out of the body with the help of this
water current.
 The reproductive bodies are carried out and into the body of the
sponges by the water current.

Types of canal systems

Different sponges have different arrangement and grades of
complexity of internal channels and accordingly the canal system
is been divided into the following three types:

Ascon type of canal system

This canal system is the simples of all the three. It is found in
asconoid type of sponges like Leucosolenia and also in some of the
developmental stages of all the syconoid sponges.
The body surface of the asconoid type of sponges is pierced by a
large number of minute openings called as incurrent pores or ostia.
These pores are intracellular spaces within the tube like cells
called porocytes. These pores extend radially into mesenchyme
and open directly into the spongocoel.
The spongocoel is the single largest spacious cavity in the body of
the sponge. The spongocoel is lined by the flattened collar cells or
choanocytes. Spongocoel opens outside through a narrow circular
opening called as osculum located at the distal end and it is fringed
with large monaxon spicules.
The surrounding sea water enters the canal system through the
ostia. The flow of the water is maintained by the beating of the
flagella of the collar cells. The rate of water flow is slow as the
large spongocoel contains much water which cannot be pumped
out through a single osculum.
 Course of water current in Asconoid type canal system
Ingressing water Ostia Spongocoel Osculum outside

Sycon type of canal system

Sycon type of canal system is more complex compared to the ascon
type. This type of canal system is the characteristic of syconoid
sponges like Scypha. Theoretically this canal system can be derived
from asconoid type by horizontal folding of its walls. Al so
embryonic development of Scypha clearly shows the asconoid
pattern being converted into syconoid pattern.
Body walls of syconoid sponges include two types of canals, the
radial canals and the incurrent canals paralleling and alternating
with each other. Both these canals blindly end into the body wall
but are interconnected by minute pores. Incurrent pores also
known as dermal ostia are found on the outer surface of the body.
These incurrent pores open into incurrent canals.
The incurrent canals are non-flagellated as they are lined by
pinacocytes and not choanocytes. The incurrent canals leas into
adjacent radial canals through the minute openings called
prosopyles. On the other hand radial canals are flagellated as they
are lined by choanocytes. These canals open into the central
spongocoel by internal ostia or apopyles.
In sycon type of canal system, spongocoel is a narrow, non -
flagellated cavity lined by pinacocytes. It opens to the exterior
though an excurrent opening called osculum which is similar t o
that of the ascon type of canal system.

Course of water current in Syconoid type canal system

Ingressing water dermal ostia incurrent canal Prosopyles Radial
canals Apopyles Spongocoel Osculum Outside

Sycon canal system takes a more complex form in few species like
Grantia, where the incurrent canals are irregular and branching
forming large sub-dermal spaces. This is due to the development of
cortex, involving pinacoderm and mesenchyme spreading over the
entire outer surface of sponge.
Leucon type of canal system
This type of canal system results due to further folding of body
wall of the sycon type of canal system. This canal system is the
characteristic of the leuconoid type of sponges like Spongilla. In
this type the radial symmetry is lost due to the complexity of the
canal system and this result in an irregular symmetry.
The flagellated chambers are small compared to that of the
asconoid and syconoid type. These chambers are lined by
choanocytes and are spherical in shape. All other spaces are lined
by pinacocytes. The incurrent canals open into flagellated
chambers through prosopyles. These flagellated chambers in turn
communicate with the excurrent canals through apopyles. The
excurrent canals develop as a result of shrinkage and division of
spongocoel. The large and spacious spongocoel which is present in
the asconoid and syconoid type of canal systems is absent here.
Here the spongocoel is much reduced. This excurrent canal finally
communicates with the outside through the osculum.
Course of water current in Leuconoid type canal system
Ingressing water dermal ostia incurrent canal Prosopyles Flagellated
chambers Apopyles excurrent canals Osculum Outside
Leucon type of canal system has the following three successive
grades in its evolutionary pattern:

Eurypylous type: This is the simplest and the most primitive type
of leuconoid canal system. In this type the flagellated chambers
directly communicate with the excurrent canal through broad
apertures called the apopyles.
Ex: Plakina

Aphodal type: In this type of canal system the apopyles are drawn
out as a narrow canal called aphodas. This connects the flagellated
chambers with the excurrent canals.
Ex: Geodia

Diplodal type: in some of the sponges, along with aphodas another

narrow tube called prosodus is present between incurrent canal
and flagellated chamber. This arrangement gives ris e to diplodal
type of canal system.
Ex: Spongilla

Phylum Porifera: Sexual and Asexual

Reproduction in sponges and Regeneration
in sponges
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN SPONGES
Though some unisexual sponge species are also known, most
sponges are monoecious or bisexual. Although sponges are
bisexual (hermaphrodite) cross fertilization occurs as a rule as the
production timing of sperm and ova are different. The sperm and
ova are derived from the undifferentiated amoebocytes called as
archaeocytes. The sperm and ova are also known to be derived
from choanocytes which later undergo gametogenesis to form
sperm or ova.
Sponges exhibit protandry, production of sperms first and ova
later or protogyny, production of ova first and sperms later. Both
protandry and protogyny facilitate cross fertilization.

Spermatogenesis
The sperm mother cell or a spermatogonium is the enlarged
archaeocytes. This spermatogonium is surrounded by one or more
flattened cover cells to form spermatocyst. These cover cells are
derived from other amoebocytes. Now these spermatogonia
undergo two to three maturation divisions to form spermatocytes
and these spermatocytes later give rise to spermatozoa. A matured
spermatozoon consists of a rounded nucleated head and a tail. The
lashing movement of the tail helps the spermatozoon to reach
other sponges.

Oogenesis
The egg mother cell or an oocyte is derived from large
archaeocytes which have distinct nucleus. Sometimes the oocytes
also arise from the choanocytes. This oocyte moves like an
amoebocytes engulfing other cells. These engulfed cells act as the
nursing cells for the oocyte. When fully grown the oocyte
undergoes two maturation divisions to form ovum which lies in the
wall of the radial canal or spongocoel, ready to be fertilized by the
sperm of other sponge.

Fertilization
Sperms are released out from sponge through the outgoing water
from osculum. The sperms thus releases make their way into
another sponge through incoming water by ostia. Choanocytes act
as nurse cells and transport the sperm to the ova which lie in the
flagellated choanoderm. The fertilization is internal and cross type.

Development
Early development takes place within the maternal sponge leading
to the formation of larval stages. The larval stages bear flagella,
which help them to escape out from the maternal sponge body. The
larva thus escaped gets attached to a suitable substratum,
metamorphose and grow into adult sponge. Sponges have two
types of larvae,
Amphiblastula: It is hollow, oval larval stage characteristic of
calcareous sponges (Scypha). Anterior half of amphibl astula bears
flagella while the posterior half is free from flagella.

Parenchymula: It is solid, oval or flattened larval stage

characteristic of calcareous sponges, Hexactanellida and most
Desmospongia. The entire larva is covered by flagella.

With the help of external flagella, the motile larvae escapes from
the parental body and swim for a few hours to many days. Finally
they settle down, become attached to some solid object,
metamorphose and grow into an adult.

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN SPONGES

Asexual reproduction in sponges is by
1. Budding
2. Fission
3. Formation of reduction bodies
4. Formation of gemmules

Budding
By this method the number of individuals in the colony may
increase or new colonies may be formed. An outgrowth from the
sponge body wall may arise either at the base or near the attached
end to form bud. This bud is the result of bulging of pinacoderm to
receive numerous archeocytes collected at the internal surface of
the body wall.

The bud so formed grows in size, breaks off an osculum at its free
distal end and thus becomes an adult individual. It either remains
attached to the parent sponge or may get detached to form a new
sponge by fixing itself to a suitable substratum.

Fission
In this type of reproduction parts of the sponge body are thrown
off from the sponge body. The sponge is hypertrophied over a
limited area developing a line of weakness. Hypertrophy is the
non-tumorous enlargement of a tissue or an organ as a result of the
increase in the size rather than the number of constituent cells.
Along this weak line, splitting occurs and this part is thrown off.
The part of parental sponge thus thrown off develops into an adult
individual, breaks off an osculum at its free distal end and gets
attached to a suitable substratum. This new individual develops a
new colony by budding.

Formation of reduction bodies

It is very unusual method of asexual reproduction found in
sponges. Some fresh water and marine sponges get disintegrated
during adverse conditions. During unfavourable conditions, the
sponge collapse leaving small rounded balls called as reduction
bodies.

Each reduction body consists of internal mass of amoebocytes

covered externally by pinacoderm. When the favourable conditions
return, each reduction body develops into a complete new sponge.
It gets attached to a suitable substratum and breaks off an osculum
at its free distal end.
Formation of gemmules
Gemmules are internals buds formed within the sponge body. It is
the characteristic feature of all fresh water and some marine forms
like Ficula and Tethya. Gemmules eventually get detached when
the parent sponge is decayed. Gemmules help the sponge to tide
over unfavourable conditions. Gemmules can withstand freezing
and considerably greater degree of desiccation than the adult
sponges.

A gemmule is a small, round, hard ball consisting of internal mass

of food laden archaeocytes surrounded by chitinous double
membrane. The outer protective membrane may be strengthened
by siliceous amphidisc spicules (Ephidatia) or by monaxon spicules
(Spongilla).
In autumn fresh water sponges suffering from cold and food
scarcity get disintegrated leaving behind number of gemmules
which remain inert throughout the winter. Gemmules are set free
after the decay of the parent sponge. The gemmules thus formed
may sink to the bottom or may flow away with the water. In spring,
when the conditions become suitable, the gemmules begin to hatch.
The living contents of the gemmules escape out through the
micropylar opening and form the new sponge. These new sponge
gives rise to summer generation by producing spermatozoa and
ova. The summer generation dies off in autumn living behind
gemmules which hatch in spring. The life history of such sponges
illustrates alternation of generation.

REGENERATION IN SPONGES

All animals, particularly the less specialized ones, can replace their
lost or injured parts. This process is known as regeneration. The
power of regeneration is greater in simple animals and simple
tissues. Sponges which have low grade of organization exhibit high
degree of regeneration power. Thus epithelial tissue regenerates
readily whereas highly differentiated tissues such as muscle or
nerve tissue have limited power of regeneration.
Sponges are undoubtedly the best at regeneration. As sponges can
be cut up tiny pieces or even mashed up into a paste and as long as
they have two special cells called collencytes (which produce
mesohyl the gelatinous matrix in the sponge that forms a sort of
psuedotissue) and archeocytes (which produce all the other cells
in the sponges body) the sponge will survive and reform into the
spongelet and then into an adult sponge. As long as a fragment of a
sponge has these two cells the animal can survive the most brutal
of Injuries and in a few weeks be back to its normal form, provided
it has favourable environment. This feature makes sponges one of
the most awesome animals ever.

Wilson's Experiment

The regeneration power of sponges is demonstrated by the

experiments carried out by Wilson in 1907.
If a sponge is chopped into small pieces, run through a meat
grinder and then squeezed through a fine blotting cloth then all the
sponge cells are separated from each other. In a suitable some of
these disunited cells unite to form small aggregates or spongelets.
In course of several days these spongelets acquire canals,
flagellated chambers and skeleton thus growing into new sponge.
Cells from different species of sponges may adhere temporarily but
later separate without re-forming a sponge.
According to the experiments conducted by Bergquist, if a tissue if
grafted in a sponge from another sponge of the same species, the
host and the graft will grow together. If the graft is from different
species, then the host will reject the graft. According t o the
experiments conducted by Humphrey, calcium and magnesium ions
are necessary for regeneration. Some unknown aggregation factors
from the cell surface are also supposed to be necessary for the
process of regeneration.
 UNIT:- 4
Cnidaria

POLYMORPHISM IN CNIDARIA
Polymorphism is the phenomenon of occurrence of the same
species of the organism in more than one form with different
functions. Polymorphism is a Greek word, polys meaning many and
morphe meaning form.
This occurrence of polymorphism guarantees well -organized
division of labor between several individuals. In coelenterates
different individuals get united in the form of a colony and hence
polymorphism is a very important feature of this phylum. Class
hydrozoa is the best example of polymorphism.
There are two main forms included in the polymorphism of the
coelenterates namely Polyps and meduase

Polyps: This form is tubular and the mouth is surrounded by

tentacles only at one end while the other end is usually attached by
a pedal disc to the substratum.

Meduase: This form is umbrella or bowl shaped with marginal

tentacles and mouth centrally located on the projection of the
lower concave surface.
Generally polyps are sessile and meduase forms are motile. But a
homology exists between the two in their basic fea tures.

Origin of polymorphism
Colonies of the order Siphonophora shows the highest degree of
polymorphism showing greatest number of polyp and medusa
forms. These are different schools of thought as to which of the
two forms of polyp and medusa originated first during the
evolution of Coelenterata.
According to one school of thought, the ancestral coelenterate was
hydra-like polyp which arose from gastrea. This hydra like polyp
gave rise to hydroid colony through asexual budding. In this sessile
colony some polyp forms were modified into medusa forms for
sexual reproduction and pelagic mode of life. And thus hydroid
colony became polymorphic.
 According to another school of thought given our by Brooks, the
ancestral coelenterate was a primitive medusa which arose from
metagastrea by developing tentacles and free swimming habit. The
tentacles and the umbrella of this medusoid form were multiplied
and shifted from their original positions to become zooids of the
polymorphic colony. As per this thought polyp is considered to be
persistent larval stage and medusa is the completely evolved
coelenterate. This thought is most acceptable.
According to another view of Moser, various zooids of the
siphonophorans are merely organs that have bot attained the
grade of polymorphic individuals. Siphonophora is regarded
ancestral to hydrozoa which has fully differentiated zooids. As per
this thought poly-organs of Siphonophora differentiate and become
poly persons of hydrozoa. This is the most disputable thought
about the origin of polymorphism.

Patterns of polymorphism
Different groups of hydrozoa show varying degree of
polymorphisms. The following are various patters of
polymorphism found in hydrozoa.
Dimorphic: This is the most simplest and the common pattern of
polymorphism exhibited by most of the hydrozoan colonies. They
have only two types of zooids and hence the name dimorphic.
Dimorphic polymorphism is exhibited by many hydrozoan colonies
like Obelia, Tubularia. The two types of zooids are,
 Gastrozooids are concerned with feeding. They are also known as
hydranths
 Gonozooids are concerned with asexual reproduction. They are
also known as blastostyles
Trimorphic: This polymorphic pattern bears an additional zooid
called as dactylozooids along with gastrozooids and
gonozooids.Dactylozooids are non-feeding, defensive structures
consisting of batteries of nematocycts.
Polymorphic: Having more than three types of zooid individuals is
termed as polymorphism. For example a colony of Hydractinia
consists of five types of polyps each assigned with a special
function,
 Gastrozooids for feeding
 Spiral dactylozooids for protection
 Long sensory tentaculozooids for sensory function
 Skeletozooids (Spiny projections of chitin)
 Gonozooids for reproduction

Modifications of Polyp forms

 Gastrozooids also called as feeding polyps. They have a mouth and
long a long tentacle
 Dactylozooid also called as protective polyp. They have no mouth
but have a basal long tentacle
 Gonozooid also called as reproductive polyp. It produces sexual
medusa form.
 Modifications of Medusa forms
 Nectophore also called as swimming zooid. They have muscular
bell without tentacles
 Pneumatophore also called as float bladder-like medusa. They are
filled with secreted gas.
 Phyllozooid also called as bract. They are studded with
nematocysts and help in protection.
 Gonophore also called as gonad zooid. They may be either male or
female.

Importance of polymorphism
Polymorphism is the phenomenon mainly associated with the
division of labor. Different functions are assigned to different
individuals rather than different parts or organs of the body of the
same individual. Polyp forms are associated with the feeding,
protection and asexual reproduction while medusa forms are
concerned mainly with sexual reproduction.

DEFENSE STRUCTURE IN CNIDARIA

The body wall of all the coelenterates contains special defensive
structures called as stinging cells or nematocysts. Because of the
presence of these cnidocytes the phylum Coelenterata is also
known as Cnidaria. Each cnidocyte contains a fluid filled
membranous capsule called cnida. Cnidocytes help not only in
defense but also in locomotion, adhesion and capture of prey.
The presence of these defensive structures is one of the most
important characteristic features of coelenterates. These are not
actually cells by are cell organelles found in the specialized cells
called as cnidocytes or cnidoblasts. Cnidoblast is a Greek term
“knide” meaning nettle and “blast” meaning germ.
Cnidoblasts develop only from modified interstitial cells of
epidermis and are not found in the gastrodermis. When fully
developed, cnidoblasts migrate to the tentacles through mesoglea
by means of amoeboid movement.

Structure of cnidoblast
Cnidoblast is an oval or rounded cell with a basal nucleus on one
side. Inside the cnidoblast an oval or pyriform bladder called as
stinging capsule is present. This stinging capsule is also called as
nematocyst. The nematocyst consists of a tiny bulb made of chitin.
This bulb is filled with poisonous fluid or hypnotoxin, which is
chemically a mixture of proteins and phenols. On end of this bulb is
extended as a narrow, long, hollow tube like filament which is
coiled round the poisonous sac. This filament is called as thread
tube. The base of the thread tube is swollen to form a shaft. Inside
the shaft there are three large spines called as barbs and three
spiral rows of minute spines called as barbules. The shaft is
externally covered by a lid-like structure called as operculum.
The outer end of the cnidoblast projects freely beyond the
epidermal surface as a tiny, pointed hair-like process called
cnidocil or trigger. Groups of supporting rods surround the central
core of cnidocil. The central core is structurally similar to the
cilium with fibers in 9+2 pattern. The cytoplasm of the cnidoblast
contains contractile muscle fibrils.
The cell organelles present in the cytoplasm of the cnidoblast
include endoplasmic reticulum, free ribosomes, Golgi bodies,
mitochondria and multi-vesicular bodies as revealed by electron
microscopic studies.

Distribution of nematocyst
Nematocysts are found scattered single or in groups (very rare)
throughout the epidermal region of the cnidarian body. These
special defensive structures are absent on the basal disc. They are
abundant at the oral region and on the tentacles where they for m
batteries of nematocysts.
A battery of nematocyst is the structure comprising of two large
central nematocysts surrounded by 10-12 small nematocysts. All
these large and small nematocysts are enclosed within a single
large epithelio-muscle cell. Cnidoblasts are not formed in the
tentacles rather they are formed in the epidermal region and then
they migrate to the tentacles. During this migration of large
number of cnidoblasts some of them encyst in clusters in gastro
vascular cavity to form battery of nematocyst.

Mechanism of Defense
The discharge or explosion of nematocysts takes place when
cnidocil is stimulated by food, prey or enemy. Both the presence of
food and touch together initiates the process of explosion and not
any one alone. Hence both the mechanical stimulations like contact
of food and chemical stimulations like approaching enemy are
involved in the mechanism of action of nematocysts.
Though the exact mechanism of discharge and enzymes involved
are not known, but is very much evident that the response is
wholly local without the involvement of nervous system. The wall
of nematocyst remains impermeable to water except during
discharge. On stimulation, the wall of the capsule s uddenly
increases its permeability causing rapid intake of water and
consequently the osmotic pressure inside the capsule increases.
Now as a result the operculum is forced to open up, then the coiled
thread tube turns inside out and finally the whole nema tocyst
explodes to the outside. As the thread tube everts, the barbs and
barbules present inside the shaft unfold to the outside.
The thread tube once discharged cannot be withdrawn in other
words; the nematocyst once exploded cannot be used again. After
the explosion the cnidoblasts migrate to the gastro vascular cavity
and are digested. The exploded nematocysts are replaced within 48
hours.

Types of nematocysts
There are about 30 different types of nematocysts found in phylum
Coelenterata. Their type is constant for particular species. As far as
Hydra is concerned, there are four basic types of nematocysts
which serve various functions. The following is the description of
all of them.
Penetrant nematocyst: These are also known as stenotele. These
kinds of nematocysts are very large and complex compared to
other types. These nematocysts are pear-shaped almost occupying
the entire space of cnidoblast in which it lies. Its thread is also
long and hollow, coiled transversely and bearing three large barbs
and three rows of small spines. When the thread tube is
discharged, it shoots out with great explosive force to pierce the
victim body and injects the poisonous fluid which paralyses or kills
it outright. The hydra then seizes its prey with tentacles and draws
it into its mouth.

Volvent nematocyst: These are also known as desmoneme. These

kinds of nematocysts are small and pear-shaped. They contain a
short, thick, spineless Eleatic thread tube forming single loop.
When discharged, it tightly coiled round the small projections like
hair or bristles of the prey and thus stopping the movement of the
prey.
Stereoline glutinant nematocyst: These are also known as small
glutinant atrichous isorhizas. These kinds of nematocysts are oval
or elongated in shape. They do not have shaft. They discharge a
straight unarmed thread tube open at the tip. This kind of
nematocysts is useful in attachment and anchorage.

Streptoline glutinant nematocyst: These are also known as large

glutinant or holotrichous isorhizas. These kinds of nematocysts are
oval or cylindrical. Their thread tube is long with a narrow shaft
which forms three or four coils. It bears a spiral row of small
spines. These are mainly useful in attachment and to impede the
movement of small animals.
B.Sc ZOOLOGY (HONS)
DEGREE I
PAPER 1
CNIDARIA: GENERAL
CHARACTERISTCS

Dr.Anjali Gupta
Associate professor
Department of zoology
H.D.Jain College
General Characteristics of Phylum Cnidaria:

Some of the important General Characters of Phylum

Cnidaria are listed below:

1. Habitat:

All are aquatic and are mostly marine, except a few like
Hydra, are fresh water.
2. Body Form:

Body form varies considerably. Many colonial cnidarians like

Obelia (Fig. 4.15) are trimorphic, having three kinds of zooids
— polyps, blastostyles and medusae. Occurrence of more than
one type of individuals in their colonies performing different
functions is called polymorphism.
3. Symmetry:
They show radial symmetry.
4. Germ Layers:
Cnidarians are diploblastic animals, i.e., derived only from
two embryonic germ layers, viz., ectoderm and endoderm.
5. Level of Organization:
They are the first multicellular animals from evolution point
of view which show tissue level of organization.
6. Body wall
The body wall consists of two layers of cells; outer epidermis
and inner gastro dermis. There is a non-cellular gelatinous
layer, called mesoglea, between the epidermis and the gastro
dermis.

1. Epidermis:

The epidermis consists of the following cells:

(i) Epitheliomuscular cells. They provide protection and act as
muscles,
(ii) Cnidoblasts (= stinging cells). Name of the phylum
Cnidaria is due to the presence of these cells. A cnidoblast
(also called nematoblast) has nematocyst (‘stinging organ’).
The nematocyst consists of capsule, shaft and thread tube The
nematocysts are used for defence and offence,
(iii) Interstitial cells. They are reserve cells and are called toti-
potent cells which can be converted into any type of cells,
(iv) Nerve cells. They form a primitive nervous system,
(v) Sensory cells. They are sensory in function.
Differences between Nematobiast and Nematocyst:

3. Gastro dermis:

The gastro dermis comprises:

(i) Nutritive muscular or digestive cells. Intracellular digestion
takes place inside these cells. They also act as muscles;
(ii) Gland cells. They secrete digestive enzymes for
extracellular digestion;
(iii) Interstitial cells;
(iv) Nerve cells and
(v) Sensory cells.
Functions of interstitial cells, nerve cells and sensory cells are
similar to the cells found in epidermis.
7. Digestive Tract:
Cnidarians have a central gastro vascular cavity (coelenteron)
with a mouth, which also acts as anus. Thus there is present
incomplete digestive tract.
8. Digestion:
Both intra- and extra-cellular digestion are present.
9. Respiration and excretion:
Respiration and excretion are carried out through body
surface by diffusion. Ammonia is chief excretory waste.
10. Primitive Nervous System:
A primitive form of ‘Nervous system’ is found in these
animals. It consists of a network of nerve cells and their
processes. Statocyst is a sense organ for balance which is first
time developed in cnidaria.
11. Skeleton:
In some coelenterates the body is supported by horny or
calcareous exoskeleton or endoskeleton.
12. Reproduction:
Reproduction is both by asexual (budding) and sexual
methods. Both gonads and buds arise from the interstitial
cells. The power of regeneration is also developed.
13. Development:
The cleavage is holoblastic. Direct or indirect development is
found. In Obelia planula larva is present. However in Aurelia
planula, scyphistoma and ephyra larvae are found.
14. Metagenesis:
In Obelia, polyps reproduce medusae asexually and medusae
form the polyps sexually. Such alternation of asexual and
sexual phases in the life cycle of Obelia is called metagenesis.
It should not be confused with alternation of generations as
found in plants where one phase is haploid and other is
diploid. Here both phases are diploid.
Unique Features:
(i) Presence of cnidoblasts for defence and offence,
(ii) Network of nerve cells acting as ‘‘Primitive Nervous
System.”
Advancement over Sponges:
(i) Tissue level of organisation.
(ii) Digestive tract.
(iii) Nerve cells and sensory cells.

**************************************************
B.Sc ZOOLOGY (HONS)
DEGREE I
PAPER 1

CLASSIFICATION OF
COELENTERATA(CNIDARIA)

Dr.Anjali Gupta
Associate professor
Department of zoology
H.D.Jain College
COELENTERATE CLASSIFICATION (CNIDARIA):

Phylum Coelenterata is divided into two subphyla.

Subphylum 1) Cnidaria,
Subphylum 2) Acnidaria.
Now-a-days these two subphyla are regarded as two
independent phyla
Phylum: Cnidaria and phylum: Ctenophora.
According to Parkar and Haswel! Phylum Cnidaria is divided
into three classes.
1) HYDROZOA
2) SCYPHOZOA
3) ANTHOZOA.

CLASS I : HYDROZOA :
1) Hydrozoa animals are multicellular, diploblastic animals.
2) They show mouth opening, and anus is absent.
3) They show both polyp and medusa forms. Medusa is a
reproductive zooid. Polyp is a fixed stage.
4) In medusa the gasto-vascular-system is transversed by
canals. In medusa definite sense organs like statocyst, nervous
system, and muscular system are well developed.
5) Polymorphic tendency is well developed.
6) Gonads are seen.
7) Alternation of generations is seen in the life history of these
animals.
8) Velum is present on the medusa (Craspedote)
Order 1 : Hydroidea : Solitary or colonial forms. Polyp well
developed. Sense organs or medusa are statocysts.
Sub-Order 1 : Anthomedusae. Ex : Hydra, Bougainvillea.
Sub-Order 2. Leptomedusae. Ex : Obelia.
Order2:Trachylina
Fixed stage is absent. They are all mobile medusae. Marginal
sense organs are modified tentacles.
Sub-Order I : Trachymedusae Ex : Petasus.
Sub-Order II : Narcomedusae. Ex : Polycolpa.
Order 3: Hydrocorallina : It includes coral like hydrozoans.
CaC03 skeleton is secreted by coenosarc. Polyps are
dimorphic.
1)Millipora (Hydrozoans coral)
2)Stylaster (Hydrozoan corals)
Order 4 : Chondrophora : It includes organisms with big
floats. Ex:l)Velella 2)Porpita.
Order 5: Pteromedusae: Pelagic hydrozoans. Ex :
Tetraplatia.
Order 6: Siphonophora:
They show highest polymorphic tendency. Ex : 1) Physalia
(Poutugese-man-of-war) 2) Halistemma.
CLASS II: SCYPHOZOA:
1) Represented by medusoid forms.
2) Sense organs are tentaculocysts.
3) Gastrovascular system shows stomach and 4 gastric
pouches. In the gastric pouches gastric filaments are present.
4) Velarium is present with endodermal canal (Acraspedote).
5) Gonads are endodermal in origin
6) Medusa arises by strobilisation.
Order 1 : Stauromedusae : (Lucernarida) Sense organs
absent. Medusa is pyramidal shaped. Sedentary.
Ex : 1) Lucernaria 2) Haliclystus.
Order 2 : Coronatae : The umbrella shows coronary
grooves. 4 to 16 tentaclocysts are present.Ex: 1) Periphylla. 2)
Nausithoe (It lives inside Porifera animals (sponges).
Order 3 : Cubotnedusae : Medusa is cubical 4 perradial
tentacalocysts are present. Free swimming.
Ex : 1) Choropsaimum (free medusa) 2)Chatybdaea.
Order 4 : Semeastomeae (or) Discomedusae : Most
common medusae. Medusa is disc shaped, 4 perradial and 4
interradial tentaculocysts are present.
Ex : 1) Aurelia -Jelly fish 2)'Rhopilema3)Pelagia
(Luminescent Jelly fish)
Order 5 : Rhyzostomeae : Free swimming medusa. The oral
arms are branched. Tentacles absent. 8 or more tentaculocysts
are present.
Ex : 1) Pilema, 2) Rhizostoma.
CLASS III: ANTHOZOA:
1) They exhibit only polyp forms.
2) Medusa stage is absent.
3) Mesentries are present, they bear nematocyst.
4) Gonads are endodermal.
5) Corals coral reefs are common.
This class is divided into 2 sub classes.
i) Sub class: Hexacorallia (or) Zoantharia.
ii) Sub class: Octocorallia (or) Alcyonaria.
Sub class: Hexacorallia : It contains tentacles and mesentries
in multiples of six. It includes seven orders.
Order 1 : Actinaria : (Sea anemones) Skeleton is absent.
Ex: 1) Edwardsia 2) Adamsia
Order 2: Madreporaria : (True corals) Stony corals are
present Polyps are small. Siphonoglyphs absent.
Ex: 1) Meandrina (brain coral) 2) Fungia.
Order 3 : Zoanthidea :Solitaryor colonial organisms. Polyps
are united by basal stolons. Only ventral siphonoglyphis
present.
Ex: 1) Zoanthus.
Order 4 : Antipatharia : Includes black corals. Two
siphonoglyphs are present.
Ex: Antipathes (Black coral)
Order 5: Ceriantharia : Solitary structure. Tentacles many,
arranged into two whorls. Only single siphonoglyph occurs.
Ex .- Cerianthus.
Order 6: Corallimorpharia : Solitary or aggregate, anemone
like polyps. Ex : Corynactis.
Order 7: Ptychodactaria : Includes animals which are
anemone like polyps. Ex: Ptychodactis.
Sub class : Octocoralia (Alcyonaria) : In these Anthozoan
members the tentacles and mesentries are in multiples of
eight. On the stomodium never more than one siphonoglyph
will be present. It is ventral in position.
Order 1: Stolonifera : Polyps are connected by creeping
stolon.
Ex: Tubipora (orange pipe coral).
Order 2 : Telestacea :
The colonies contain simple or branched stem which bears
lateral polyps.
Ex: Telesto.
Order3: Alcyonacea : These are soft corals. Polyps may be
dimorphic.
Ex: 1) Alcyonium (dead man's fingers).
Order 4 : Coenothecalia : It includes a single genus.
Ex: Heliopora (Blue coral)
Order 5: Gorgonacea : It is a compound tree like coral.
Ex: 1) Gorgonia (seafan) 2) Corallium (red coral)
Order 6: Pennatulacea: These are elongated members.
Emended in the mud, and sea bottom.Ex : Pennatula (Sea pen)

SUB PHYLUM: ACNIDARIA:

According to Parker and Haswell this sub phylum is treated
as PHYLUM CTENOPHORA.
1} These are biradially symmetrical organism
2) They do not show nimatocysts
3) They show ciliary plates in 8 rows (comb plates in 8 rows).
4) The mesoglea is traversed by muscle fibres.
5) They may bear two tentacles. On tentacle Lasso cells are
present.
6) On the aboral pole an aboral sense organ is present, which
is a modified lithocyst.
7) There is no alternation of generations; this phylum is
divided into two classes.
Class I: Tentaculata: Ctenophores without tentacles. This
class is divided into four orders.
Order 1 : Cydlppidea : Two retractile tentacles. Ex :
Hormiphora
Order 2 : Cestidea : The bases of the two principal tentacles
are present. They are enclosed in sheaths. Ex : Cestus
Order 3 : Lobata : Many lateral non-retractile tentacles are
present. The bases of the two principal tentacles are present.
Ex : Deiopea
Order 4 : Platyctenea : They are creeping or sessile forms.
They show a pair of retractile tentacles.
Ex : Ctenoplana
Class II: Nuda : Ctenophores without tentacles. This class
includes only one order.
Order 1 : Beroldea : Mouth is wide. Gullet occupies greater
part of the body. Ex : Beroe
**************************************************
 CHARACTERS AND CLASSIFICATION OF
CTENOPHORA
Dr Poonam Kumari
Dept of Zoology (B.Sc Part I )

Ctenophoras are free-swimming, transparent, jelly-like, soft-bodied,

marine animals having biradial symmetry, comb-like ciliary plates for
locomotion, the lasso cells but nematocytes are wanting. They are also
known as sea walnuts or comb jellies.

Though comb jellies are, for the most part, of small size, at least one
species, the Venus’s girdle, may attain a length of more than 1 m (3
feet). One parasitic species is only 3 mm ( 1/8 inch) in diameter. Some
ctenophores live in somewhat brackish water, but all are confined to
marine habitats. They live in almost all ocean r egions, particularly in
surface waters near shores. At least two species (Pleurobrachia pileus
and Beroe cucumis) are cosmopolitan, but most have a more restricted
distribution.

Apart from a few creeping and parasitic species, ctenophores float freely
suspended in the water. They are frequently swept into vast swarms,
especially in bays, lagoons, and other coastal waters. Except for one
parasitic species, all of them are carnivorous, eating myriads of small
planktonic animals. When abundant in a region, ctenophores consume
most of the young of fish, larval crabs, clams, and oysters, as well as
copepods and other planktonic animals that would otherwise serve as
food for such commercial fish as sardines and herring. In turn, however,
comb jellies are themselves consumed by certain fish.
Phylum Ctenophora Characteristics

 They are free-swimming, marine, solitary, pelagic animals. No

polymorphism and no attached stages were found.
 The body is transparent, gelatinous, pear-shaped, cylindrical, or
flat or ribbon-shaped.
 They have a biradially symmetrical body along an oral-aboral axis.
 They have an external surface with comb-like 8 ciliary plates for
locomotion. Hence name as comb jellies.
 They have a pair of long, solid, retractile tentacles.
 Their body organization is cell- tissue grade.
 Their body is acoelomate and triploblastic, with the outer
epidermis, inner gastrodermis, middle jelly-like mesoglea with
scattered cells, and muscle fibers.
 Their digestive system contains the mouth, stomodaeum, complex
gastrovascular canals, and 2 aboral anal pores.
 They lack nematocysts.
 They have special adhesive and sensory cell i.e. colloblasts or lasso
cells present in tentacles which helps in food captures.
 They lack skeletal, circulatory, respiratory, and excretory organs.
 Their nervous system is diffused types and the aboral end bears a
sensory organ, called statocyst.
 They are monoecious (hermaphrodite); gonads are endodermal
situated on walls of digestive canals.
 Their development direct with characteristic cydippid larva.
 They lack asexual reproduction and alternation of generation.
 Regeneration and paedogenesis are common in them.
Figure: Pelagic ctenophores: (a) Beroe ovata, (b) Euplokamis sp., (c)
Nepheloctena sp., (d) Bathocyroe fosteri, (e) Mnemiopsis leidyi, and (f)
Ocyropsis sp.

Phylum Ctenophora Classification

Phylum Ctenophora contains about 100 know species and grouped in 2

classes

Class 1. Tentaculata

 Adults with 2 long aboral tentacles.

 In some larva has tentacles, while adults have oral lobes.
 Mouth narrow and pharynx small.

Order 1. Cydippida

 Body simple, round, and oval.

 Digestive canals terminate blindly; no anal pores.
 Tentacles are two long and branched.
 Tentacles are retractile into pouches or sheath.
  Examples: Mertensia, Pleurobrachia, Hormiphora

Order 2. Lobata

 Body oval, laterally compressed.

 Adults with 2 large oral lobes and 4 slender flap-like auricles
around the mouth.
 Pouched or sheath tentacles in the larva.
 Tentacles reduced and without sheath in adults.
 Gastrovascular canals are connected by a ring at oral ends.
 Examples: Mnemiopsis, Bolinopsis

Order 3. Cestida

 Body elongated compressed/flat, ribbon-like.

 Two main tentacles in the sheath but reduced.
 Many small lateral tentacles along the oral edge.
 Combs plates in 4 rows but rudimentary.
 Examples: Cestum, Velamen

Order 4. Platyctenea

 Body greatly compressed/flat in the oral-aboral axis.

 2 well- developed tentacles with sheath.
 Comb plates reduced in adults.
 Adapted for creeping.
 Examples: Ctenoplana, Coeloplana

Order 5. Thalassocalycida

 They are found surface waters down up to 2,765 Ms in Atlantic

oceans and the Mediterranean Sea.
  The body is a bell of Medusa shaped and may be up to 15 cm in
diameter.
 Mouth slit holds by a central cone-shaped peduncle.
 A pair of small tentacles hang from the side of the peduncle.
 Com jelly is with its transparent and colorless body. Usually
different to see.
 They hold the bell wide opens to captures prey i.e. Zooplankton.
 Presumably hermaphroditic.
 This species has limited swimming ability compared to other comb
jellies.
 Examples: Thalassocalyce inconstans.

Class 2. Nudu

 Body large, conical, and compressed laterally.

 Without tentacles and oral lobes.
 Wide mouth and large pharynx.
 Voracious feeder.

Order 1. Beroida

 No tentacles and oral lobes.

 Body large, conical, and laterally compressed.
 Mouth large.
 Voluminous Stomach.
 Examples: Beroe
 UNIT:- 5
Phylum Platyhelminthes
Did you know, potentially life-endangering parasites can live in the human
body for up to several decades? Moreover, these parasites, known
as blood flukes, have the ability to regenerate themselves. And so, can survive
in hostile environments. Furthermore, these worms belong to Phylum
Platyhelminthes. Let us explore this phylum.

Phylum Platyhelminthes

(Source: Wikipedia)

Platyhelminthes are commonly known as flatworms or tapeworms. They are

a group of soft-bodied invertebrate animals. As a matter of fact, there are
around 20,000 species of these animals. A few of these live as parasites on
humans and other animals. Furthermore, it is because of this parasitic nature
that they do cause some amount of trouble for the host animal. A few species
belonging to this phylum can be a major cause of certain diseases. For
example, Schistosomiasis, or bilharzia or bilharziasis, is a disease caused by
these parasitic flatworms. They belong to the family Schistosomatidae.

The most distinguishing feature of these invertebrates is their flat body. As

the body does not have any cavity, they are flat. The body is also not
segmented and they do not have specialized systems. Around eighty percent
of the flatworms are parasitic in nature, while a few free-form flatworms are
also present. The free-living forms are scavengers or predators. The parasitic
species feed on the tissues of the host organism in which they live.

The animals in this phylum have a diverse range in size. Some are
microscopic, while a few go up to two feet long. They are also
hermaphrodites, which mean that both the sexes are present in the same
organism.
Characteristic features of Phylum
Platyhelminthes

(Source: Britannica)

 Their body is dorsoventrally flattened.

 They exhibit bilateral symmetry.
 Also, they are triploblastic, with three germ layers.
 They do not have a body cavity and are acoelomate.
 The body is soft and unsegmented.
 They are mostly parasitic with a few free-living
 They exhibit an organ system grade of organization.
 The digestive system is incomplete or absent. In fact, there is a single
opening which leads to a well-developed gastro-vascular cavity. Also,
the anus is absent. And there is no true stomach structure. In a few
species, the digestive system is completely absent.
 Respiratory and circulatory systems are absent. In fact,
the respiration generally occurs by simple diffusion through the body
surface.
 The flame cells help in excretion. The excretory system has
protonephridia with the flame.
 A primitive nervous system is present.
 These animals are hermaphrodites i.e. both male and female organs are
present in the same body
 Sexual reproduction happens through gametic fusion.
 Asexual reproduction also happens in a few species through
regeneration and fission.
 Fertilization is internal.
 The life cycle of these organisms can be complex, especially if they are
parasitic, as this may involve one or more host animals.
Learn more about Phylum Mollusca here.

Classification of Phylum Platyhelminthes

The different classes under this phylum are:

 Turbellaria
 Trematoda
 Cestoda
Platyhelminthes Examples

 Taenia (Tapeworms)
 Fasciola (Liver fluke)
 Taenia saginata (Beef tapeworm)
 Echinococcus granulosus – The dog tapeworm
 Planeria (freshwater flatworm)
 Opistorchis

NEMATHELMINTHES

General characteristics of Phylum Nemathelminthes

• They are commonly called thread worm or round worm.
• Mostly parasitic, few are free-living.
• 20,000 species, out of which 15,000 are parasitic in nature.
• They are cylindrical, elongated, slender worm like and tapers at both end.
• Triploblastic.
• Bilaterally symmetrical.
• Organ system level of organization.
• Body is unsegmented.
• Body cavity is filled with muscle. They are pseudocoelomate i.e. body
cavity is not lined by mesodermal layer.
• Internal cephalization is present but externally there is little
differentiation between the anterior and posterior regions.
• Distinct head is lacking. However, mouth is present in anterior region.
• Body is covered with tough and resistant cuticle.
• Digestive system is complete and straight with both mouth and anus.
• Mouth is terminal and surrounded by lips bearing sense organ.
• Respiratory and circulatory organs are absent.
• Respiration occurs through general body surface. Respiration is aerobic in
free-living forms and anaerobic in parasitic form.
• Excretory system consists of intracellular canal or lateral excretory ducts.
• Nervous system is not much developed.
• Nervous system consists of circumpharyngeal nerve ring and longitudinal
nervecords.
• Sense organs are poorly developed
• These are unisexual i.e. sexes are separate with sexual dimorphism.
• Fertilization is internal, may be cross or self.
• Development may be direct or indirect.
• Larval forms are Rhabditiform, Filariform and Micrifilaria.
• Various lateral lines and pores are present on the surface of body.
• Eutyly: no. of cells are the fixed in every system
• Example: Ascaris lumbricoides (Roundworm)

Classification of Phylum Nemathelminthes

• Phylum Nemathelminthes is divided into 5 classes:

1. Rotifera
2. Gastrotricha
3. Nematomorpha
4. Nematoda
5. Kinorhyncha
6. Priapuloida
Class 1: Rotifera
• Commonly known as wheel animalcules
• Mostly freshwater, rarely marine
• Anterior end of the body is provided with a ciliary disc, called corona. It
helps in locomotion and food capturing
• Tail is segmented
• Dioecious (sexes are separated)
• Examples: Rotaria, Hydalina, etc.

Class 2: Gastrotricha
• Commonly known as hairy bellies or hairy backs
• Generally aquatic; freshwater or marine
• Body unsegmented and corona absent
• Ventral surface of the body bears two longitudinal rows of cilia, which
helps in locomotion
• Dioecious or monoecious
• Examples: Lepidodermella, Chetonotus, etc.

Class 3: Nematomorpha
• Commonly called hair-worms
• Adult are aquatic and fee-living but juveniles are parasitic
• Body is thread-like with blunt anterior end
• Dioecious
• Examples: Paragordius, Nectonema, etc

Class 4: Nematoda
• Commonly called round worms
• Aquatic or terrestrial, free-living or parasitic
• Body cylindrical and tapering at both ends
• Dioecious
• Examples: Ascaris sp. (round worm)Ancylostoma sp. (hook worm)

Class 5: Kinorhyncha
• Commonly called mud dragons
• All marine and free-living
• Body divided into 13 or 14 segments, each with spiny cuticle for
locomotion
• Dioecious
• Examples: Kinorhynchus, Pycnophyes, etc.
Class 6: Priapuloidea
• Commonly called penis worms
• All marine and free-living
• Body is unsegmented with superficially segmented trunk
• Body bears an interior introvent (reversible part)
• Dioecious
• Examples: Priapulus, Halicryplius, etc.
 Parasitic adaptations of Helminthic parasites

Parasitic adaptations Introduction

During the course of evolution, the endoparasites have acquired
certain adaptations to endoparasitism for survival in the intestine
of the predatory vertebrate host. These include changes in the
structure and physiology as a result of continuous mutations. The
prominent changes include:
 Degeneration of alimentary canal in flukes and absence in
tapeworms
 Degeneration of the nervous system
 Development of suckers and hooks for the purpose of attachment
 Developed reproductive system
 Complex life cycle with second and even third intermediate host
along with the primary host. Hence in course of time these
parasites have evolved and adapted themselves to several species
of hosts.

Adaptation is the fitness of an organism to its environment. It is

the characteristic which results in suitable & appropriate
morphological & functional correlation between an organism & its
environment.
The parasitic flatworms have undergone tremendous amount of
modifications to adapt to their parasitic mode of life. These
adaptations are known as the parasitic adaptations. Parasitic
adaptations can be of two types namely morphological and
physiological. The following is the description of both types of
adaptations,

Morphological adaptations

Body covering: The body of these animals is covered by thick

covering called as tegument. This covering provided protection to
the parasite. Also this tegument is continually renewed by the
mesenchymal cells.
Organs of adhesion: These animals need a firm grip in the host
body and for this reason special organs for adhesion are necessary
in these animals. Accordingly these flatworms are equipped arms
like suckers, spines and hooks.

Organs of locomotion: Generally animals need to move from place

to place in search of food. But these helminth parasites locate
themselves in such places inside the host body, where digested
food is readily available. Thus the organs of locomotion like the
cilia, flagella are absent in these forms. Some times locomotory
organelles are present in the free-living larval forms. For example
Miracidium larva has cilia and cercaria has a tail for locomotion.

Organs of nutrition: The organs of nutrition are also known as the

trophic organs. The food of these helminth parasites comprises of
digested or semi digested food readily available from the host. So
special organs for nutrition are absent in these animals.
Trematodes have an incomplete gut; an eversible pharynx is
present in the free living larval forms. Cestodes on the other hand
freely bathe in the digested food of the host so there is total
absence of the alimentation in tapeworms.

Neurosensory system: These parasites have a reduced nervous

system as there is no need for them to respond to stimuli quickly
and efficiently. Also there is total absence of sense organs.
Exceptionally for example, miracidium has eye spots.

Reproductive system: Reproductive system is the well-developed

system among all the other body systems of helminths. The
reproductive system is designed to perfected to meet the need for
tremendous egg production. All these parasitic worms with an
exception of Schistoma are monoecious or hermaphrodite.
Hermaphroditism is an advantage to the parasite as it ensures
copulation even when a few individuals are present and also after
copulation, individuals lay eggs to double the rate of reproduction.
In Cestoda each proglottid consists of complete sets of male and
female reproductive genetalia. Finally in the gravid proglottids all
the other organs degenerate to make space for the uterus which
 becomes highly enlarged and branched to accommodate numerous
eggs.

Physiological adaptations

Protective mechanisms: These parasites which live in the

alimentary canal need to protect themselves from the digestive
effects of the digestive juices of the host. So for this reason, the
tapeworms have special protective mechanisms like,
 Stimulating walls of the gut to secrete mucus, which then forms a
protective covering around the parasite
 Secreting antienzymes to neutralize the digestive enzymes of host
 Renewing the protective body covering called as tegument
continually.
Anaerobic mode of respiration: As these parasites reside in the
locations which do not have free oxygen, the respiration is
anaerobic type by the breakdown of glycogen by the process of
glycolysis. Glycolysis produces carbon dioxide and fatty acids.

Osmoregulation: Generally osmotic pressure of these

endoparasites is equivalent to that of the host body fluids.
Exceptionally the osmotic pressure of the intestinal worms is
slightly higher to permit ready absorption of the digestive food
from the host.

High fertility: The eggs produced by the parasitic flatworms have

to face many challenges for the survival. While passing through the
complex life cycle, these potential offsprings need to face severe
hazards and consequently only a small number of eggs reach
adulthood. This threat to the very existence and survival of these
parasites is met by the mechanism of production of high number of
eggs. And so the reproductive organs of these flatworms are
developed to meet this need.

OR /
Parasitic Adaptation in Helminths
Definition of Parasitic Adaptation:
The parasitic adaptation can be defined as the profound changes
and modifications occurring in per-suit of successful living so that
the parasite is fully adapted inside the body of the host.

Cameron (1965) has stated that “the parasites continue to lead

their life successfully by adopting various modifications
and compromises—compromises in some respects
parallel to those found among free-living sessile animals
and those which have adopted monophagy.”

I. Morphological Adaptations:

Transformation from external to internal:

Parasitism undoubtedly began as a chance of contact of one
organism with another. Sooner or later the guest began to partake
the food procured by the host, becoming more and more dependent
on such food and in many instances was gradually changed from an
ecto-to endo-parasite.

Two important aspects of parasitism as encountered in

the helminthes:
The structural and functional modifications in parasites depend on
the degree of parasitism. In a successful parasitic group of animals
the modifications run in two distinct directions—one leads to loss or
degeneration while the other leads to gain or new attainment.

A. Degeneration:
The degeneration in helminthes particularly involves the locomotor,
digestive and sensory organs. As the parasites live on the digested
or semidigested food of the host, their organs of locomotion and
alimentation have become simplified. They are mostly useless.

(1) Organ of locomotion:

Total reduction of locomotor organs is observed in adult except in
the free-living larval phase when the ectoderm becomes ciliated,
e.g., Miracidium and Hexacanth of flatworm.

(2) Organ of alimentation:

(a) Total disappearance in the adult tapeworm;

(b) In the hermaphroditic adult trematode it consists of a blind gut;

(c) In Redia stage it is further simplified and completely eliminated

in the Sporocyst stage.

(3) Sensory organs:

The sensory organs are reduced or absent (e.g., Fasciola) in some

endoparasitic platyhelminthes, and in some nematodes
(adenophoreans) the sensory organs are poorly developed and
represented by amphids. This condition can be correlated with the
sedentary life of endoparasites in which they live, in a more or less
uniform host’s environment.

B. New Attainment:
(1) Integument:

The integument covering the body of helminthes has become greatly

modified to serve following three important functions:

(a) Absorption:
The phenomenon of absorption is striking in larval stages which
develop in the lymph spaces of mollusca or in blood stream, muscle
fibre or musculature of vertebrates (Cysticercus, Trichinella) and in
the adult blood flukes in the hepatic portal system and in various
species of liver flukes (e.g., Fasciola) in the bile tract.

In these cases, the body is leaf-shaped and dorsoventrally flattened,

and the entire integument becomes thin and undoubtedly serves
partly or fully as a means for food absorption.
(b) Protection against the digestive juice of the host:

In the case of the larval flukes which have to pass through stomach
in order to reach the bile passage for further development—a cyst
capsule is provided as a protection against the digestive juice.

Certain Amphistomes (in Ruminants) and Gnathostomes (in cats,

dogs and horses) remain attached to the stomach wall. They are
provided with thick resistant integument impregnated with chitin-
like substances of impermeable nature.

(c) Protection against abrasion:

Many trematodes living in the intestinal tracts are provided with

spinous integument to guard against the abrasive action of the food
and roughage passing through the gut. These spines may be of
accicular, dentate or placoid types and are rooted into the sub-
integumental layer.

The oriental liver fluke Clonorchis sinensis, which was probably an

intestinal parasite before it became a bile duct inhabitant, possesses
a spinous integument during its larval phase— in fact, until it
becomes safely located in the bile passage.

(2) Modification for attachment:

Essential prerequisite for parasitic life is the possession of suitable

mechanism to attach strongly with host body.

Following modifications for attachment are often

encountered:

(a) Acetabulum or sucking organ:

Found in all the adult flatworms which parasitise man:

(i) In the liver flukes (e.g., Fasciola) it consists of two suckers on the
ventral side of the body—one anterior and the other posterior to it.
(ii) In the case of human tapewarm, it consists of either sucking
tongue or groove, or four cups at the cephalic end of the worm.

(iii) In the tapeworms, the scolex bears four large suckers (Taenia
solium) or accessory suckers (e.g., Myzophyllobothrium) or leaf-like
outgrowth on the scolex, called bothridium. Phyllobothrium -has
four bothridia, each bothridium with a sucker. Echinobothrium
bears two bothria (It is a shallow groove on the scolex) and a spiny
head stalk. Tetrarhynchus bears four bothria and four eversible
proboscis bearing spines.

(iv) In some monogeneans, a highly specialized attachment organ at

the posterior part of body called haptor (Opisthaptor) with suckers
and hooks (e.g., Polystoma, Choricotyle, Polystomoidella) and an
anterior adhesive organ (sometimes called prohaptor) consisting of
suckers and adhesive glands (e.g., Gyrodactylus) are present.

(b) Hooks:

In some tapeworms and nematodes, hooks are situated in or around

the anterior end:

(i) In Taenia, hooks are arranged in double circlet at the base of

rostellum.

(ii) In the dog tapeworm (Diphylidium caninum), it occurs in

several rows around the proboscis which may be everted.

(iii) Hooks are often provided with series of teeth and are placed in
the buccal capsule.

(iv) In Macracanthorhyncus sp. a buccal armature of tooth-like

structure is present, which serves for tissue aberration and
anchorage.

(c) Glands:

In some of the helminthes there have been developed in the vicinity

of mouth, unicellular secretory glands which serve in:
(i) Anchorage in favourable habitat, and
(ii) Aid in food supply.

(iii) In trematodes these unicellular glands, known as cystogenous

gland, are more common in the Cercarial stage and serve the pur-
pose of penetration to host tissue by elaborating histolytic sub-
stances.

(iv) In hookworms (Ancylostoma)— there are glands in buccal

region which are supposed to have anti-coagulative and histolytic
properties.

(3) Modification for reproduction:

The most conspicuous elaboration in organs and tissues in the

helminthes is that of the reproductive system.

(a) Both Platy—and Nematodes have large part of their body mass
occupied by these organs and their products.

(b) The adult flatworms, with few exceptions, are hermaphrodite.

(c) The roundworms are dioecious.

(d) Adult flukes and tapeworms have particularly complex

reproductive organs. In both the groups, cross- fertilization, which
was formerly the rule and is still a possibility, has been superseded
by self-fertilization.

(e) In tapeworm, instead of a single body unit, there are multiple

segments— proglottids, each one is sexually complete in itself.

(f) To ensure the perpetuation of the parasite species, endoparasites

produce a large number of eggs.

The adult Ascaris lumbricoides produces 200,000 eggs daily. The

human hook-worm Ancylostoma duodenale produces 25,000-
30,000 eggs per day. Each gravid segment of tapeworm contains
30,000- 50,000 eggs and the gravid segments may produce up to
1000.
Hymenolepis diminuta may produce up to 250,000 eggs per day
throughout the life. Such an enormous amount of eggs which are
produced by the endoparasites help to continue the race where the
chances of survival are very remote.

C. The unaltered systems:

Two systems of organs—the nervous and excretory, have remained

almost unchanged. However, the excretory system in the case of
flatworms has undergone some insignificant changes.

Greatest modifications among the helminthes have been

encountered in such forms that reside in the blood or lymph
systems (blood flukes and filarial worms) or in the muscular tissue
(Trichinella) or forms that attach to the peritoneum (Hydatid cyst).

They have been reasonably designated as old parasites while those

forms which live in mouth or bladder of the host or on the body
surface (Monogenic trematodes) have been termed young parasites
as demonstrated by their relatively slight modifications from the
prototypes of the group.

II. Physiological Adaptations:

1. Intracellular digestion:
Adult liver flukes, Fasciola hepatica feed on bile, blood, lymph and
other nutrients of the host and digestion probably extracellular and
takes place in the intestinal caeca. Reserve food is mostly in the
form of glycogen and fat. They can take up glucose and other
molecules through their body surfaces.

The species in which nutrients are absorbed through the body

surfaces, is regarded as the intracellular digestion. Cestodes lack
any form of digestive canal, so they feed on tissue elements and
inflammatory exudates of the hosts. All nutrients are absorbed
across the tegument. So digestion is intracellular.

In A. lumbricoides both extracellular and intracellular digestions

have been reported. When the cells of the intestinal wall engulf solid
particles for digestion, it is called intracellular digestion. Digestion
is started extra- cellularly when takes place within the intestinal
lumen but is completed intracellular.

2. Osmoregulation:
By the process of osmoregulation the endoparasitic helminthes
maintain a relative constancy of balance of salts, ions and water in
their tissues. Parasitic platyhelminthes such as cestodes and
trematodes maintain the same osmotic pressure as that of their
hosi, so there is no difficulty in maintaing life.

3. Anaerobic respiration:
The endoparasites live in an environment where there is more or
less lack of O2. So they have become adapted in a low metabolic rate
which requires a minimum amount of oxygen.
In this case the respiration is anaerobic type consisting of extracting
oxygen from food which are absorbed in the tegument. In the
absence of O2, energy releases by the fermentation of glycogen
which is broken by glycolysis and form pyruvate or pyruvic acid
(C3H4O3) as a hydrogen acceptor from NAD and forms lactic acid
(C3H6O3) and CO2.

Conclusion:
Viewing the groups of parasitic helminthes as a whole with respect
to successive stages of adaptation which they have undergone and
are undergoing, one is able to appreciate the vastness and
profoundness of the principles of adaptations and at the same time
how marvellously the parasitism has become successful in
helminthes.
 UNIT:- 6
METAMERISM IN ANNELIDA
METAMERISM IS SEEN IN DIFFERENT ANIMALS

The body of Annelids is divided into a number of segments longitudinally. All the
segments look alike. They are called metameres and this is called metamerism. In
these segments all systems are repeatedly arranged. Usually the metamerism is
confined to the trunk region of the organisms. Cephalic and anal regions may not
show metameric nature in the caphalic region sense organs are concentrated, where
in the anal region new segments are produced in front of anal segment.

1. Metamerism first observed in Annelida in the animal kingdom.

2. The most successful animals of animal kingdom like arthropoda and chordate will
also show metameric segmentation.

3. In annelids the metameric segmentation is both external and internal. The body is
divided into a number of segments which contain all body organs repeatedly but the
alimentary canal is long and straight tube extending through all the segments.

4. In arthropods the segmentation is external.

5. In chordates the segmentation is internal.

Homonomous & Heteronomous metamerism:

In annelida the body is divided into a number of segments. All are usually similar. If
all the metameres are similar throughout the body it is called Homonomous
metamerism. But in some groups like arthropoda and chordata the anterior
segments will show clear cephalisation. They are modified into head bearing specific
sense organs. Such metamerism is called "Heteronomous metamerism.

(Even in annelids some anterior segments look different. Hence typical homonomous
segmentation is not seen in any animal.)

In embryonic stages the metamerism is complete and uniform. But in adult condition
it will change due to cephalisation.

Origin of metameric segmentation: The origin of metamerism is not clearly known.

Many theories were proposed to explain the development of metamerism.

1. Fission theory:

1) Metamerism is derived from non-segmented ancestor, which might have under

gone transverse fissions repeatedly and gave metamerism.

2) This theory was improved by Perrier.

3) This theory infers annelids might have developed from Platyhelminthes.

Objections:

1. Because of fission the organism will divide into separate individuals but they will
not unite to form a metameric individual.

2. Reproduction by fission is confined to sessile animals but not in free moving

organisms.

2. Pseudometamerism theory:

This theory was supported by Hyman & Goodrich.

According to this theory the body parts like coelom, blood vessels, nephridia muscles
etc. will be repeatedly formed. In between them septa are formed. Thus metamerism
is derived. This can be seen in some larval forms and adults of some annelids.

3. Embryological theory: In the embryonic stage by some stress in the mesoderm

fragmentation is developed which gave metameric segmentation.

4. Locomotory theory:

This theory is a combination of pseudometamerism theory and embryological theory.

It is believed that metamerism is derived as an adaptation to locomotion:

1. In annelids the segmentation is developed as an adoptation for burrowing.

2. In chordates the metamerism is developed as an adoptation for swimming,

undulatory movements.

Most probable annelid ancestors were long coelomate organism. In these animals by
the development of septa the liquid skeletons and muscles function will be localised
and is advantageous for burrowing. Afterwards the nervous system, excretory
system etc. are also undergone segmental-organization.

In chordates the metameric segmentation of body wall and musculative allow

alternate waves of contraction which will help in swimming. Thus locomotion might
have caused metameric segmentation in these animals.

Significance of Metamerism :

1. Metameric segmentation helps the animals in their locomotion.

2. The segments will show high structural development which gave scope for
evolution.
Structure, function and development of segmental organs in Annelida
In Annelida, nearly each segment contains a pair of ducts that either are protonephridia
or metanephridia. These segmental organs function as excretory organs and, after
having been modified, they may also act as gonoducts during maturity. In certain
polychaetous annelids and especially in clitellates this function has been adopted by
additional gonoducts which generally are formed at the begining of maturity. At the end
of the last century the gonocoel theory tried to explain the relation between gonads,
coelomic cavities and nephridia. Using the gonocoel theory axiomatically, Goodrich
(1945) assumed that in annelids a pair of protonephridia and a pair of gonoducts
represent the primary condition. Evolution of metanephridia on the one hand and the
fusion of gonoducts and nephridia on the other hand occurred within the Annelida.
Based on recent ultrastructural investigations into the development of different
segmental organs, this paper re-evaluates Goodrich's hypothesis. According to these
data the segmental organs differentiate from a single anlage. Each consists of three or
four cells which line a small lumen filled with microvilli. The duct becomes ciliated and
the most proximal cells are separated when the coelom extends by fluid accumulation
between the lining cells. During enlargement of the coelomic cavity the proximal part of
the anlage is passively opened, so that the cilia face the coelom, to form the funnel. If
separation of the proximal duct cells is suppressed, the anlage differentiates into a
protonephridium, which secondarily may acquire a funnel during maturity by
proliferation of proximal duct cells. Thus, ditferent pathways in nephridial development
lead to completely different segmental organs in the fertile adult. Additional gonoducts
evolve in different lineages within the annelids.

Introduction
Segmental repetition of organ systems in Annelida also aplies to the genital system,
which may occur in most segments of the body. The segmental coelothelial gametogenic
tissue generally discharges gametes into the coelomic cavities, which store and
sometimes provide nutrition to the reproductive cells (for ref erences, see Eckelbarger,
1988, 1992). At a certain time during maturity, the gametes are discharged to the
exterior via simple ducts that open with large fun nels into the coelom. Williams (1858:
93) introduced the term 'segmental organs' for these ducts, because they primarily
occur in each segment of the Annel ida except the peristomium. The segmental organs
are either protonephridia or metanephridia and basically function as excretory organs.
During maturity, they are modified to be able to release gametes from the coelom. Thus,
gonoducts are identical with nephridia in most polychaetous annelids. In clitellate
annelids, gonads are restricted to certain segments. Here, special gonoducts may be
present in addition to the nephridia. This relationship between coelom, nephridia and
gen ital organs attracted many morphologists; suggestions and theories on the
evolution of this complex can be traced back to the last century. All of them are in
timately connected with the quest for the origin of the coelom.

Three theories were proposed at the end of the last century:

 1. The nephrocoel theory by Lankester (1874), who believed that the coelom
evolved by an enlarge ment of the terminal section of proto nephridia;
2. The archicoelomate or enterocoel theory by Mas terman (1898), who regarded
the coelomic cavities

Figure 1. (A-C) Scheme of central assumption of the gonocoel theory according to Goodrich (1945: 13,
modified 19). (A) Nemertine-like organization with protonephridia (black) and serially arranged gonads
with separate gonoducts representing primary conditions. (B) Segmental arrangement and enlargement
of the gonads within coelomic cavities results into one pair of proto nephridia and one pair of gonoducts
per segment, alledged to be a primary condition in annelids. (e) Protonephridia then evolve into
metanephridia (black). According to Goodrich (1945) fusion of gonoducts and nephridia leads to different
nephridial structures within the Annelida. (D-F) (redrawn from Goodrich, 1945: 1-3). (D) Formation of
protonephromixium by fusion of gonoduct funnel with protonephridium (dotted). Note peritoneal cells
between funnel and proximal duct. (E) Formation ofmetanephromixium by fusion of upper lips of
gonoduct funnel and metanephridium (dotted). (F) Formation ofmixonephridium by fusion offunnel of
gonoduct and metanephridial duct (dotted). (Nephridia and the epidermis dotted, coelothelial portions
white, coelom shaded, muscles striated).
 Adaptive radiations in Polychaetes
Introduction
Polychaeta is the largest class of phylum Annelida. This class shows greatest diversity in
Phylum Annelida. Majority of the 5000 species of polychaetes are marine and exhibit a
variety of habits and habitats. And accordingly they show great adaptive diversity. The
following is the discussion of the adaptive diversity of polychaetes,

Adaptive diversity according to habitat

Crawling polychaetes:- These are marine, freely moving animals that crawl on sea
bottom. Head bears sense organs such as eyes, tentacles, antennae, cirri and palps.
Locomotory organs or parapodia are large, they bear setae which can be retracted and
protruded out in various directions for crawling among rocks and stones. Parapodia
help in crawling and swimming. Sense organs on prostomium and peristomium are well
developed due to the free swimming and crawling habit. Body segments are generally
similar.
Ex: Nereis, Phyllodoce, Colycera

Pelagic polychaetes:- They are also known as planktonic polychaetes. These kinds
of polychaetes are adapted to live in open sea and are semi-transparent in appearance.
They swim near the surface of the sea where the danger of predators and solar
radiation is excessive. Hence, their semitransparent body that imparts them near
invisibility and thus protects them from predators. Some have large eyes while others
have none. Parapodia are small and locomotion is by lateral undulation of body. Cirri
are generally longer and carry tango receptors which help in locating food.
Ex: Vanadis, Tomopteris

Burrowing polychaetes:- These polychaetes are adapted for burrowing in sand.

Their body is elongated, prostomium is reduced or absent. Eyes, tentacles and palps are
also usually absent. Parapodia are reduced as they do not find any use.
They move through the substratum by their peristaltic contraction movements. Circular
muscles of these animals are well developed to assist in locomotion. Effective septa
compartment the coelomic fluid which has skeletal role in locomotion. Setae help to
anchor against the burrow wall. These animals spend most of their time inside the
burrows and come out only to catch the prey.
Ex: Arenicola, Glycera, Amphitrite and Terebella

Tubicolous polychaetes:- These are tube dwelling polychaetes. They live in

temporary or permanent self-secreted tubes. These tubes act as protective covering.
The tubes of various species vary greatly in form and construction. Based on the form
and construction the tubicolous burrows are of following types:
Mucus lined burrows:- Some errant polychaetes make mucus-lined burrows in
sand and mud. These polychaetes have well developed prostomium sense organs and
parapodia. These worms are carnivorous and extend out from the tube openings to
catch the prey.
Ex: Eunice, Perinereis

Shell and sand grain tubes:- These kinds of tubes are usually straight, built
vertically in sand or mud. These tubes are composed of sand grains and shell pieces
cemented together with mucus.
Ex: Pectenaria, Owenia, Diopatra, Clymenella

Parchment tubes: - These kinds of tubes are membranous, usually U-shaped. These
tubes may measure about 70 cm long and 2.5 cm in diameter. Sometimes these tubes
may be covered by sand grains and shells.
Ex: Chaetopterus, Platynereis

Calcareous tubes:- These tubes are made up of calcium. The two large glands under
the collar fold secrete calcium carbonate which forms the tube. Sometimes these tubes
may be covered by sand grains and shells.
Ex: Sabella, Serpula

Adaptive diversity according to Nutrition

Raptorial feeders:- They are also known as carnivorous feeders. They include most
crawling, burrowing and tubicolous and all pelagic polychaetes. They feed on small
invertebrates including other polychaetes. They capture the food by means of an
eversible pharynx or proboscis.
Ex: Nereis, Nephthys

Detritus feeders:- The shallow sea bottom is a source of food of great nutritional
value as it contains bacteria, diatoms and other dead organic matter. The sedentary
polychaete species rely on this food source. Detritus feeders may be of two types,

Direct deposit feeders:- Some of the polychaetes obtain their food by directly
swallowing sand and mud as they burrow through it. The organic matter contained in
the sand and mud is digested while the sand itself is egested as castings. Direct deposit
feeders include burrowing and tube-dwelling species.
Ex: Ophellids, Maldanids

Indirect deposit feeders:- These animals lack proboscis instead they are provided
with highly extensile ciliated grooved tentacles, secreting mucous. Small food particles
moving down the groove by ciliary action accumulate at the base of tentacles. These
food particles reach the mouth by wiping the tentacles across the lips. These feeders not
only feed on the bottom deposits but also use palps to collect the suspended detritus.
Ex: Terebella, Pectinaria

Filter feeders:-Most of the sedentary and tubicolous polychaetes are filter feeders.
They do not have a proboscis. Their head is provided with long bipinnate filaments
called radides with a ciliated groove running along the oral surface. Radides are used in
food collection.

Sabella is a genus of marine polychaete worm. Members of this genus are filter feeders
and there are about ninety species. They live in tubes made of mud that project from the
sand surface. They have a crown of feathery tentacles that protrude when the animal is
submerged that help in filter feeding, but are retracted when above water.
Chaetopterus which lives in U-shaped parchment tube has a unique method of food
selection. The notopodia of particular segments of the body form fans. The beating of
these fans produces water current which enters the tube from the anterior end and
flows out of the posterior end. The food particles in this water current are filtered out
into the mucous bag formed by ciliated glandular epithelium. This mucus bag ends in a
ciliated food cup where the food is rolled up into a ball and passed forward to the mouth
along the ciliary groove. Arenicola excavates L-shaped burrows. It periodically ingests
sand with the help of its simple proboscis. This causes the sand to cave in forming a
funnel- shaped depression at the surface. These sand filters suspend food particles from
the water percolating down the funnel. This organically rich sand is then ingested by the
worm.
Earthworm: General characters, Distribution, External morphology,
Structure and Arrangement of Setae

Distribution
More than 3000 species of earthworms are distributed worldwide
and many more are yet to be discovered. 18 families of class
Oligochaeta have several general of earthworms. In India out of
these 18 families, the earthworms of 7 families are found.
Among these, Megascolidae is largest genera. The members of this
genus Pheretima, Perionyx, Eutyphaeus and Polypheretima are
distributed in north India and other members like Drawida,
megascolex etc. are distributed in south India. Drawida grandis is
the longest earthworm in India.

Habit and habitat

Pheretima posthuma is a fossorial animal that lives in moist soil
burrows. It makes its burrows only in loamy and sandy soil. This
burrowing habit provides its protection and also helps in
respiration indirectly. Generally it lives in the upper layers of
damp soil which is rich in dead and decaying matter. In summer,
when the top soil is dry, earthworms burrow deep into the soil.
The earthworm burrows are lined by slimy secretion of its body.
External morphological features
Size- A fully grown, mature worm measures bout 3 -5 mm in width
and 150 mm in length.

Shape- Pheretima posthuma is long, elongated, cylindrical and

narrow in shape. Its body shape is well suited for burrowing habit.
It is bisymmetric animal. Its anterior end is slightly pointed
whereas the posterior end is blunt. A little behind the anterior end
it is thickest.

Color- The dorsal surface of the body is dark brown in color due to
the presence of the pigment called porphyrin. This pigment
protects the animal from harmful UV rays. The dorsal surface also
carries a dark colored median line which is due to the presence of
dorsal blood vessel which is seen through the integument.

Body segmentation- The body of Pheretima posthuma is soft and

naked. It is divided prostomium, trunk and pygidium. Prostomium
is fleshy lobe which overhangs mouth, trunk has 100 -120 similar
segments called as metameres or somites and pygidium bears anus.
The segments are separated externally by intersegmental grooves
and internally by corresponding intersegmental septa. The
external segmentation corresponds with the internal
segmentation.

New segments are formed from the germinal zone located in front
of the pygidium. Hence the old segments are at the anterior and the
new segments are formed at the posterior end. The first segment of
the body is peristomium which is the oldest segment of the body,
while the preanal segment is the youngest segment of the body.
 Head- Earthworm does not have distinct head and also sense
organs like eyes, cirri, tentacles are absent. The first segment of
the body at the anterior end is called buccal segment or
peristomium. Peristomium bears terminal, crescentic mouth. The
mouth is bordered by anterior edge of peristomium and overhung
by prostomium.

Clitellum- In mature earthworms, a prominent circular band

around the segments 14-16 is called cingulum or clitellum. Based
on the location of the clitellum, the body of the earthworm is
distinguished into three regions namely pre-clitellar, clitellar and
post-clitellar regions.

Genital papillae- These are two pairs of conspicuous rounded

elevations, one pair each in the 17th and 19th segments on the
ventral surface. Each papilla bears shallow cup-like depression at
its top which acts as sucker during copulation.

External openings
 Mouth is situated at the anterior side of the first segment. It is
surrounded by peristomium and overhung by prostomium.
 Along the mid dorsal line, in the intersegmental grooves a series of
minute openings called dorsal pores are present. Coelomic fluid
 flows out through these pores and keeps the skin slippery and
moist. The first pore lies in the groove between segments 12 -13.
 Anus is the terminal opening present in the posterior terminus of
pygidium

 The openings of integumentary nephridia are

called nephridiopores. These are minute apertures present on the
body wall behind first two segments. They are scattered
irregularly all over the surface of the body.
 On the ventral surface of 14th segment, a single median aperture
called female genital aperture is present.
 On the ventral surface of 18th segment there is a pair of male
genital apertures.
 Four pairs of small elliptical openings called spermathecal
apertures are situated ventro-laterally, in the intersegmental
grooves of 5-6, 6-7, 8-9 segments. One pair is present in each
intersegmental groove.
Structure and arrangement of setae
About middle of each segment there is a ring of tiny curved bristles
called as setae. Setae are also known as chaetae. They are formed
of a horny nitrogenous organic substance known as chitin. On each
body segment there are about 80 -120 setae. They are absent on
the peristomium, pygidium and clitellum.
Structure of setae: Each seta is an ‘S’ shaped and faint yellowish
in color. It has a pointed distal end, a blunt proximal end and a
central swelling called nodulus. About 1/3 of the setae projects
above the body wall which is called the neck and the part
embedded in the setal sac is the base. The setal sac is formed by
the invagination of the epidermis of the body wall. Each seta is
formed in the setal sac. One pair of protractor muscles and a
retractor muscle are associated with each setal sac.

The protrusion and retraction of the setae are effected by

protractor and retractor muscles respectively. Setae grip the soil
to help the earthworm move about and sense the environment.
Setae are absent in the peristomium and pygidium. Setae are
dropped in the mature worm from the region of the clitellum.
Arrangement of setae: The arrangement of the setae is one factor
that helps in the identification of earthworms.
 Across the middle line of each segment, a ring of setae is arranged
in the body wall around the segment. Such arrangement is called
perichaetine arrangement.
Eg: Pheretima posthuma

 Eight setae are arranged closely or widely or in pairs. This kind of

arrangement is called as oligochaetine arrangement.
Eg: Lumbricus
 UNIT:- 7
Phylum Arthropoda: Larval forms in Crustaceae

Introduction
The animals belonging to class Crustacea shows both direct and
indirect development. In the direct development, the egg hatches
into young one resembling adult in general structure. Progressive
growth and differentiation transforms the young ones into adul t.
Whereas indirect development includes larval stages which later
become adults. These larval stages are different from the adult in
form and structure. The larval stages achieve adulthood through
the process of metamorphosis. The following is the detaile d
explanation of each of the larval forms of crustaceans.

Nauplius larva
 It is the first larvae hatched from egg in most of the crustaceans.
 It is free swimming larvae.
 It is minute and microscopic.
 The body has indistinct regions like a simple median eye also
called as nauplius eye, three pair of jointed appendages
(uniramous antennule, biramous antennae and mandible).
 Mandibles along with antennae are helpful in food collection.
 In some forms nauplius larva develops straight away into adult,
but in many other crustacean forms it gives rise to other
intermediate larval forms like metanauplius, protozoaea, zoaea,
crypsis, mysis, megalopa, phyllosoma, alima

Metanauplius larva
 It is the larva of Apus.
 It is the second larval stage which develops from the nauplius
larva.
 The body has an anterior oval cephalothorax, an elongated trunk -
region and an abdomen terminating in a caudal fork provided with
setae.
 The anterior end has a pair of frontal sense organs.
 Dorsal shield of the head grows back to form carapace.
 The larvae has three pair of appendages just as in nauplius, it also
develops the rudiments of 4 pairs of appendages, which later
become the maxillae and 2 pairs of maxillipedes of the adults.

Cypris larva
 It is the larvae of Sacculina, Balanus and Lepas.
 It develops from nauplius
 It is a free swimming larva.
 It is triangular in shape with bivalent shell.
 The larva has seven pairs of appendages, namely a pair of
antennules and six pair of thoracic appendages.
 A median eye is present.
 The larva contains a mass of germ cells.
 It undergoes a remarkable series of metamorphoses to become the
sessile adult form.

Protozoaea larva
 The metanauplius larva is succeeded by the protozoaea stage
 It is divisible into broad segmented cephalothorax covered with a
small carapace and a slender abdomen which is unsegmented.
 Abdomen terminates in a forked telson.
 The carapace becomes enlarged and covers the dorsal surface
anteriorly.
 The 7 pairs of appendages present in the metanauplius become
well-developed and capable of movements.
 The rudiments of paired lateral eye begin to appear near the
median eye.
 The rudiments of the remaining posterior six thoracic segments
are also marked off, but the abdomen is still unsegmented and
without limbs.
 The protozoaea swims by antennae.
 Marine prawns, Penaeus hatch in to protozoaea larva.
 Zoaea larva
 Zoaea is the second important larvae of the Crustacea, after the
nauplius larva.
 Protozoaea stage is succeeded by the zoaea stage.
 The zoaea is characterized by a distinct cephalothorax and
abdomen, 8 pair of appendages and buds of 6 more, and resembles
the adult Cyclops.
 The cephalothorax is immensely developed and covered by a
helmet-like carapace, which is produced into two long spines, an
anterior median rostral and a posterior median dorsal.
 Two lateral spines are also present.
 The paired lateral and stalked compound eyes become well-formed
and but remaining 6 pair of thoracic appendages appears in the
form of bud.
 The long abdomen is distinctly made of 6 segments, and terminates
in a caudal furca and still lacking in appendages.
 Zoaea swims by means of thoracic limbs.
 Mysis larva
 In Penaeus, the zoaea larva, instead of converting into the
megalopa stage, moults into the post larval mysis larva.
 It has 13 pairs of appendages. All the thoracic appendages are
biramous. Even the 5 pairs of posterior thoracic legs are biramous
with flagellar exopodites which take up the locomotory function.
 The abdomen develops similar to that of the adult form, with 5
pairs of biramous pleopods and a pair of uropods and a telson.
 The mysis larva metamorphosis in to the adult prawn by the loss of
the exopodites on the thoracic legs.
 Megalopa larva
 In true crabs, the zoaea larva or metazoaea larva passes through
successive moults into the post larval megalopa stage.
 It has a broad and crab-like unsegmented cephalothorax.
 The carapace is produced anteriorly into a median spine.
 The eyes are large, stalked and compound.
 All the thoracic appendages are well formed of which the last 5
pairs are uniramous.
 The abdomen is also well formed, straight and bears biramous
pleopods.

Phyllosoma larva
 In the rock- lobster (Palinurus), the newly hatched larva is called
the phyllosoma larva or glass- crab
 It is a greatly modified mysis stage.
 It is a remarkable for its large size, extremely flattened and leaf -
like delicate form and glassy transparency.
 A narrow constriction demarcates the head from thorax.
 A large oval carapace covers the head and the first two thoracic
segments.
 The eyes are compound and borne by large stalks.
 Only anterior 6 pairs of thoracic appendages are present in the
newly hatched larva.
 The first thoracic appendages or maxillipedes are rudimentary
(Palinurus) or absent (Scyllarus) and the second are uniramous;
succeed by 4 pairs of very long and biramous legs with exopodites.
 Last two pairs of thoracic appendages are usually absent.
 Abdomen, though indistinctly segmented is very small and
limbless.
 Phyllosoma undergoes several moults before reaching the adult
form.

Alima larva
 The so-called alima larva of Squilla hatches out from the egg
directly
 It is a modified zoaea larva form.
 It is apeagic larva, having a glass-like transparency and occurring
in large numbers in the plankton. It has a slender form, and a sort
and broad carapace. All the head appendages are present. But only
is 6-segmented, having 4 or 5 pairs of pleopods. The alima larva
differs from the zoaea larva in the armature of the telson and a
very large raptorial second maxillipedes.

Significance of Larval forms

According the biogenetic law proposed by Haeckel, ontogeny

recapitulates phylogeny. This in other words means that, the
successive stages of individual development correspond with
successive ancestors in the line of evolutionary descent. Nauplius
larva occurs in the development of all the crustaceans and so it
was considered as the ancestral form of crustaceans. The old idea
of recapitulations stands greatly modified now -a-days and the
crustacean larval forms are now regarded to be the larval
reversions of simpler crustacean ancestors.
The larval forms are useful for finding out homologies and the
affinities among various groups. The animals which pass through
similar stages are closely related. Larvae are helpful in wide range
distribution of species and also in keeping the food reserves of
eggs to a minimum.
 Respiration in Arthropoda
(Gill and Trachea in Arthropods
 Respiration involves the exchange of gases between the body the environment. There are two
types of respiration in arthropoda They are

1. Aquatic respiration

2. Aerial respiration

1. Aquatic Respiration

Aquatic respiration involves the utilization of oxygen dissolved in water. It occurs in aquatic arthropods.
Aquatic respiration is car. ried out by the following organs:

1. Gills. 5. Tracheal gills

2. Epipodite. 6. Blood gills
3. Branchiostegite 7. Book gills and
4. Rectal gills 8. Bodysurface

1. Gills
The gills are delicate feather-like outgrowths of the thoracic appendages.

Location

The gills are located inside the gill chamber. The gill chamber is located on the sides of the thorax. It is
covered by branchiostegite.

Structure

The gills are crescent-shaped. Each gill has a central axis and two or more rows of lateral lamellae. The
lamellae have different shapes in the different crustaceans. Based on the shape of lamellae, the gills are
classified into three types. They are the following:

A gill of a crestacian
 1. Phyllobranch

In this gill, the lamellae are broad leaf like and are arranged in two rows ,it is found in palaemon.

2. Dendrobranch
In this gill the leaf like lamellae are divided into many fine slender processes called gill filaments.
It is found in Penaues.

Cross section of the gills of crustacean,

3. Trichobranch

Attachment of gills.
In this gill, the lamellae are in the form of large gill filaments. They are arranged on three sides. It is
found in Astacus.

The gills of Penaeus is classified into three types based on their place of attachment. They are as follows:

1. Podobranchs (Foot gills)

These are the gills attached to the coxa of the appendages. Penseus Sone pair of podobranchs attached
to Il maxillipedes.

2. Pleurobranchs (side gills)

These are the gills attached to the lateral wall of the thorax. There * pairs of pleurobranchs
attached near the last six pairs of thoracic appendages.

3. Arthrobranchs (Joint gills)

These are the gills attached to the junction of the appendages and the body. There are eleven pairs of
arthrobranchs.

Number of gills: The number varies in the different Penaeus has 24 gills. Palaemon has 16 gills.
Homarus has 20 Pea crab contains 6 gills.

Branchial Formula: The number and arrangement of gills in are given in the form of a formula called
branchial formula.

Blood supply: The gills receive blood through afferent branchii channels. The oxygenated blood is
carried by the efferent branchini channels to the pericardial sinus.

Mechanism of Respiration: Gills lie in the branchial chambers. The gill chamber opens ventrally,
anteriorly and posteriorly. Scaphognathite of II maxilla lies at the anterior entrance of the gill chamber.
By its movement, it sends out water from the gill chamber through the anterior end. To make up the loss
of water, water flows in through the posterior entrance of the gill chamber. So water flows in and out of
the gill chamber freely. The gills are always immersed inside the water. Exchange of gases takes place
between the water and the blood. The setose hairs present at the entrance of the branchial cham ber
prevent the entry of foreign particles.

2. Epipodites

These are membranous outgrowths of the interanous outgrowths of the integument arising from the
thoracic appendages. Penaeus has 6 pairs of epipodites. ated on the first 6 pairs of thoracic appendages.
The first pair of epipodites is conical in shape. The remaining five pairs are Yshaped palaemon has 3 pairs
of epipodites. They are highly vascular and they exchange gases between the blood and the water.

3. Branchiostegite
Branchiostegite is the gill-cover. It is the lateral extension of pace. It encloses a cavity between itself and
the body. This is called gill chamber. The inner lining of the branchiostegite is richly supplied with blood.
It is constantly bathed by the water-current. Hence exchange of gases occurs between the water and the
blood.

4. Rectal gills:

The rectal gills are located in the inner surface of rectum. They are e form of soft lamellae. Water is
drawn in and expelled out via for respiration, Rectal gills occur in the naiads of dragonfly.

5. Tracheal gills

These are the outgrowths of the body wall. They are finger-shaped or leaf-shaped. They contain a system
of tracheae. The naiads (naiad = aquatic larva of insects) of mayfly contain 7 pairs of leaf-like tracheal
gills on the sides of abdomen. The naiad of damselfly has three leaflike tracheal gills attached to the
posterior end of the abdomen. In the naiads of stonefly, the tracheal gills are finger-shaped and are located
around the bases of the legs.

6. Blood-gills

These are the gills of insect-larvae supplied with blood and not with tracheae. Blood-gills occur in
Trichopeterus and Tipulid larvae.

7. Book-gills

Book-gills are book-like gills. These are the respiratory organs of Limulus. Limulus has 5 pairs of book-
gills. They are found attached to the last five pairs of appendages. Each book gill is formed of 150 to 200
leaf-like lamellae. The lamellae are richly supplied with blood.

8. Body-surface

In many arthropods respiration occurs through the general body surface by diffusion. It commonly occurs
in crustaceans. It also occurs in insects with small and soft body.

2. Aerial Respiration
Aerial respiration involves the utilization of oxygen present in the air. Aerial respiration occurs in
terrestrial arthropods. The respiratory organs for aerial respiration are the following:

1. Tracheal system .2. Book-lungs 3. Simple-lungs 4. Spiracular gills 5. Plastron 6. Respiratory tubes
 Tracheal Gills

1. Tracheal system

Tracheal system is found in insects, centepedes, millipedes and many rachnids. It is a system of tubes
ramifying the body. The tracheal system consists of spiracles, tracheae, tracheoles and air sacs.

i. Spiracles: These are the openings of the tracheal system to the exterior. They are also called stigmata.
They are located on the sides of the thorax. Insects have 9 or 10 pairs of spiracles. Of these, two pairs are
located on the sides of the thorax and the remaining pairs are located on the sides of the abdomen.

In most insects the spiracle opens into a cavity called atrium from which the trachea arises. The atrium is
provided with an air filtering apparatus. The filtering apparatus keeps away the dust and parasites.

A valve is also present in the atrium. The valve can close the spiracle when required

ii. Tracheae: Tracheae are highly branched tubes. The chea is formed of three layers, namely an inner
intima, a mida of epithelium and an outer layer of basement membrane. The is produced into spiral
thread-like thickenings called taenidia.

Part of tracheal system sowing spiracle trachea and tracheols

i. Tracheoles: The smallest branches of the tracheae are called tracheoles. The tracheoles are devoid of
taenidia. They end in the tid sues. The terminal ends of tracheoles are filled with a fluid called tracheole
fluid.

iv. Air sacs: In certain places, the tracheae are dilated to form air sacs. They help to store air and to
circulate air in the tracheal system.

Types of Tracheal system: There are three main types of tracheal system, namely polypneustic,
oligopneustic and apneustic tracheal systems. In polypneustic tracheal system, eight or more pairs of
spiracles are functional. In oligopneustic, type one or two spiracles are functional. In apneustic type, there
is no functional spiracle.

Mechanism of Tracheal Respiration: Air is drawn into and forced out of the tracheal system through
the spiracle by alternate expansion and contraction of the body. The air enters the tracheoles. The
tracheole fluid absorbs oxygen. This oxygen diffuses into the tissue. Similarly CO, from the tissues
diffuses into the tracheoles.

2. Book-lungs

are the respiratory organs of Scorpion. There are four pair of book lungs. They are found in the 3rd 4th 5th
and the 6th segment of the mesosoma, one pair in each segment. Each book-lung lique slit called stigma.
The cavity of each bookthin cuticle which is formed into numerous folds.called lamellae.

. The lamellae are arranged parallel to one another giving the appearance of the leaves of a book. There
are about 150 lamellae. They are hollow containing blood. Each stigma leads into a small chamber called
atrial chamber. The atrial chamber leads into a large pulmonary chamber in which the lamellae are
arranged. Air from outside enters the chamber and passes into the spaces between the leaves.
The blood flows continuously in the space inside the lamellae while the inter lamellaar spaces are filled
with air so that exchange of gases lakes place through the thin walls of the lamellae. impure blood from
the ventral sinus is sent to each book-lung The blood is aerated in the lamellae, The aerated blood is
collected by the pulmonary vein, which opens into the pericardial sinus To tion and expiration of air in
the book-lungs is controlled by th oventral and atrial muscles.

Book-Lungs of a Scorpion

3.Simple-lungs
In the terrestrial coconut crab Birgus, the upper part of the gillah ber is separated from the rest as
an almost closed air-filled cavit lung. Highly vascular epithelial folds hang from the roof of this
and carry on aerial respiration.
4. Air-tubes
The terrestrial crustacean Oniscus contains trachea-like resni tory tubes in its abdominal
appendages for aerial respiration.
5. Spiracular gills
Spiracular gills are ectodermal outgrowths enclosing air Space They have connections with
tracheae. They occur in the larvae of Teich mza and in the pupae of Simulium.
6. Plastron
Certain aquatic beetles like Haemonia, Phytobius, etc. have a kind of air store in the region of
spiracle. This air store is called plastron. It is covered with hydrofuge hairs. It is communicating
with the spiracle. This air-store helps the insect to remain under water for a long time.
7. Respiratory tubes
Respiratory tubes are found in the water-scorpions Nepa and Ranatra. They are located at the
posterior end of abdomen. Each respiratory tube is formed by two cerci. The water scorpions
come to the surface and fill the respiratory tube with atmospheric air. This air can be used for
respiration when the scorpions are under water. The mosquito larva has also a respiratory tube at
the posterior end.
Aquatic insect with respiratory tubes
 Circulatory system in Arthropods and Mollusk
Circulatory system in animals
• The circulatory system is effectively a network of cylindrical vessels (the arteries, veins,
and capillaries) that emanate from a pump (the heart).

• The circulatory system can either be open or closed, depending on whether the blood
flows freely in a cavity or is contained in vessels.

• A closed circulatory system, found in all vertebrates and some invertebrates, circulates
blood unidirectionally from the heart, around the body, and back to the heart.

• An open circulatory system, found in arthropods, pumps blood into a cavity called a
hemocoel where it surrounds the organs and then returns to the heart(s) through ostia
(openings).

Key terms:

• ostium: a small opening or orifice, as in a body organ or passage.

• hemolymph: a circulating fluid in the bodies of some invertebrates that is the equivalent
of blood.

• hemocoel: the system of cavities between the organs of arthropods and mollusks
through which the blood circulates.

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM IN ARTHROPODS:

• Arthropods, have an open circulatory system which he blood is pumped forward by the
heart, but then flows through the body cavity, directly bathing the internal organs.

• Arthropods' primary internal cavity is a hemocoel, which accommodates their internal

organs and through which their blood circulates. They have a dorsal heart and arteries.
There are blood vessels that act as pumps to force the blood along.

• Instead of capillaries, blood vessels join directly with open sinuses.

• "Blood," actually a combination of blood and interstitial fluid called 'hemolymph', is

forced from the blood vessels into large sinuses, where it actually baths the internal
organs.
• Other vessels receive blood forced from these sinuses and conduct it back to the
pumping vessels.

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM IN HORSESHOE CRAB (LIMULIDAE):

• The horseshoe crab's heart is a long tube that lies along the opposite side of the body
from the nerve cord and extends almost the entire length of its body. On average, the
heart rate of the horseshoe crab is 32 beats per minute.

• It has eight pairs of slit-like openings, or ostia, each opening having two valves through
which the blood enters the heart from the pericardial chamber.

• The blood is pumped forward and escapes through three pairs of aortae, one pair of
cerebral arteries, and a frontal artery.

• Unlike vertebrates, horseshoe crabs do not have hemoglobin in their blood, but instead
use hemocyanin to carry oxygen. Because of the copper present in hemocyanin, their
blood is blue.

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM IN SCORPION:

• The emperor scorpion consists of an open circulatory system.

• Their body contains blood vessels and the blood contains hemocyanin rather than
hemoglobin.

• The tubular heart of the scorpion runs approximately the length of the metosoma.

• There are small arteries that carry blood to the nerve cord.

• The blood vessels pump the blood to the heart

•

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM IN COCKROACH:

• The heart of the cockroach is elongated, thick, muscular, tubular and 13-chambered. It
lies in the pericardial sinus of the haemocoel.

• Each chamber of the heart receives oxygenated blood from the dorsal sinus through
one pair of slit like openings called ostia.

• The heart contracts in a postero anterior direction and the blood also flows
posteroanteriorly.

• The alary muscles are responsible for the circulation of blood.

• The first chamber leads into an aorta, which opens in the head sinuses, which are
connected to the pericardial sinus through perineural and perivisceral sinuses.
 Circulatory System in Mollusca:

• Most animals within the Mollusca Phylum have an open circulatory system.

• Cephalopods have a closed circulatory system. Within a open circulatory system blood is
not restricted to circulating within the blood vessels.

• Open circulatory systems which have evolved through species such as crustaceans,
insects, mollusks, and other invertebrates, pump blood into a hemocel with the blood
extending back to the circulatory system betweens the various cells.

• Blood within a open circualtory system is pumped by a heart into the body cavities,
where tissues are surrounded by blood. There are various animlas that fit the
requirments of the Mollusa Phylum.

Circulatory system in Mussels:

• Mussels have an open circulatory system meaning that blood is not completely
transported within blood vessels.

• Tissues in mussels are covered in hemolymph in order for the gas and nutrients
exchange.

• The hearts of mussels have three chambers: one ventricle and two auricles.

• Blood flows around the body of the mussel. It is oxygenated in the gills and mantle, and
them returns to the heart.

• Oxygenated hemolymph is pumped away from the heart through blood vessels to the
bodies organs. It is then moved to hemoceols where gases, nutrients, and wastes are
exchanged.
• The hemolymph is reoxygentated in the gills and mantle before going back to the he

art.

Circulatory system in Snails:

• - The snail has an open circulatory system with a two chambered heart.

• The heart pumps blood into the aorta, and then into small arteries. The blood then
empties into a cavity called the haemocoel.

• Blood is then passed into vessels surrounding the heart where it gains oxygen and gets
rid of carbon dioxide.

• The blood re-enters the heart through the pulmonary vein.

 Circulatory system in Squids:

• The Squid has a more complex circulatory system compared to other invertebrates.

• The circulatory system here is a closed one, so blood is transported completely through
vessels.

• The squid has three hearts: two branchial and one ventricular. The brachial hearts are
locate right at the base of the gills.

• The branchial hearts pump unoxygenated blood through the gills in order to be
oxygenated.

• The ventricular heart pumps this oxygenated blood throughout the body.
Mouth Parts in Insects
1. Biting and Chewing:
This type of mouth parts are supposed to be the most primitive type as the
other types are believed to be evolved from biting and chewing type of
mouth parts.

These consist of the labrum forming upper lip, mandibles, first maxillae,
second maxillae forming lower lip, hypo pharynx and the epipharynx.

The labrum is median, somewhat rectangular flap-like. The mandibles are

paired and bear toothed edges at their inner surfaces; they work
transversely by two sets of muscles to masticate the food. The first maxillae
are paired and lie one on either side of the head capsule behind the
mandibles. Each possesses a five-jointed maxillary palp which is a tactile
organ.

The first maxillae help in holding the food. The second maxillae are paired
but fused to form the lower lip. Its function is to push the masticated food
into the mouth. The hypo pharynx is single median tongue-like process at
whose base the common salivary duct opens. The epipharynx is a single
small membranous piece lying under the labrum and bears taste buds.
This type of mouth parts are found in orthopteran insects like cockroaches,
grasshoppers, crickets, etc. These are also found in silver fish, termites,
earwigs, beetles, some hymenopterans and in caterpillars of Lepidoptera

2. Chewing and Lapping:

This type of mouth parts are modified for collecting the nectar and pollen
from flowers and also for moulding the wax, as is found in honeybees,
wasps, etc. They consist of the labrum, epipharynx, mandibles, first pair of
maxillae and second pair of maxillae.

The labrum lies below the clypeus, below the labrum is a fleshy epipharynx
which is an organ of taste.

Mandibles are short, smooth and spatulated, situated one on either side of
the labrum; used in moulding wax and making the honeycomb. The labium
(second pair of maxillae) has reduced paraglossae, the glossae are united
and elongated to form the so called retractile tongue, at its tip is a small
labellum or honey spoon. The labial palps are elongated.

The glossa is used for gathering honey and it is an organ of touch and taste.
The first pair of maxillae are placed at the sides of labium, they bear small
maxillary palps, lacinia is very much reduced but galea are elongated and
blade-like.

The galea and labial palps form a tube enclosing the glossae which moves
up and down to collect nectar from flower nectaries. The nectar is sucked
up through the tube, so formed, by the pumping action of the pharynx. The
labrum and mandibles help in chewing the food.

3. Piercing and Sucking:

This type of mouth parts are adapted for piercing the tissues of animals and
plants to suck blood and plant juice, and found in dipteran insects like
mosquitoes and hemipteran insects like bugs, aphids, etc.

They usually consist of labium, labrum and epipharynx, mandibles,

maxillae (1st pair) and hypo pharynx.

However, for the sake of easy description, this type of

mouth parts can be discussed in the following two
headings:

(i) Piercing and sucking mouth parts of mosquitoes:

The labium is modified to form a long, straight, fleshy tube, called
proboscis. It has a deep labial groove on its upper side. The labial palps are
modified to form two conical lobes at the tip of the proboscis, called labella
which bear tactile bristles. The labrum is long needle-like. The epipharynx
is fused with the labrum. The labrum-epipharynx, thus, covers the labial
groove dorsally from inside.

These structures appear C- shaped in transverse section having a groove,

called food channel. Mandibles, maxillae and hypo pharynx are modified to
form needle-like stylets which are placed in the labial groove. In male
mosquitoes, the mandibles are absent. The mandibles are finer than the
maxillae, but both have saw-like edges on their tips. The hypo pharynx
possesses salivary duct which opens at its tip.

(ii) Piercing and sucking mouth parts of bugs:

In bedbug, the labium constitutes a three- jointed proboscis. The mandibles
and maxillae are modified to form stylets; the mandibular stylets possess
blade-like tips, while maxillary stylets possess saw-like tips. The labrum is
flap like and covers the labial groove at the base only.

Of the four stylets, mandibles are placed externally in the labial groove,
while both the maxillae are placed internally in the labial groove. The
maxillae are grooved and placed in such a way that they form an upper
food channel and lower salivary canal. The epipharynx and hypo pharynx
are absent.

4. Sponging:
This type of mouth parts are adapted for sucking up liquid or semiliquid
food and found in houseflies and some other flies. They consist of labrum-
epipharynx, maxillae, labium and hypo pharynx; mandibles are entirely
absent.

In fact, in this type of mouth parts, the labium, i.e., lower lip is well
developed and modified to form a long, fleshy and retractile proboscis.

The proboscis is divisible into three distinct parts:

(i) Rostrum or basiproboscis; it is broad, elongated and cone-shaped basal
part of proboscis articulated proximally with the head and bears a pair of
un-jointed maxillary palps representing the maxillae,

(ii) Haustellum or mediproboscis; it is the middle part of proboscis bearing

a mid-dorsal oral groove and a ventral weakly chitinised plate-like theca or
mentum.
A double- edged blade-like hypo pharynx is located deep inside the oral
groove; it bears salivary duct and closes the groove of labrum-epipharynx
from below. The labrum-epipharynx is a long, somewhat flattened and
grooved structure covering the oral groove. The food canal or channel is,
thus, formed by labium-epipharynx and the hypo pharynx.

(iii) Labella or distiproboscis; it is the distal part of proboscis and consists

of two broad, flattened and oval spongy pads having a series of channels
called pseudo tracheae. These open externally by a double row of tiny holes
through which liquid food is taken in. The pseudo tracheae converge into
the mouth lying between the two lobes of labella which lead into the food
canal.

5. Siphoning:
This type of mouth parts are adapted wonderfully for sucking flower nectar
and fruit juice, found in butterflies and moths belonging to the order
Lepidoptera of class Insecta. They consist of small labrum, coiled proboscis,
reduced mandibles and labium. The hypo pharynx and epipharynx are not
found.

The labrum is a triangular sclerite attached with the front clypeus of the
head. The proboscis is formed by well-developed, greatly elongated and
modified galeae of maxillae. It is grooved internally to form the food
channel or canal through which food is drawn up to mouth. At rest, when
proboscis is not in use, it is tightly coiled beneath the head but it becomes
extended in response to food stimulus.

The extension of proboscis is achieved by .exerting a fluid pressure by the

blood. Mandibles are either absent or greatly reduced, situated on the
lateral sides of the labrum. The labium is triangular plate-like bearing labial
palps.
 UNIT:- 8
RESPIRATION IN MOLLUSCS

The two types of respiration in mollusca.

1. Aquatic Respiration
2. Terrestrial Respiration.

Type # 1. Aquatic Respiration:

In this, O2 dissolved in water is used. The surface of the respiratory
structure is greatly increased to allow rapid absorption of O2.

The aquatic respiratory structures may be placed under two

heads—primary and secondary: Primary respiratory structures:

The primary respiratory structures are ctenidia or gills. The gills are
located in the mantle cavity, attached to the body by membranes.

Structure of ctenidia:
1. Ctenidia are paired, symmetrical, ciliated and two rows of flattened
gill filaments, arranged one on either side of a long, flattened axis,
traversed by afferent and efferent vessels through which haemolymph
flows.

2. Narrow spaces are left between the gill filaments to permit free water
flow between them but close enough so that cilia on adjacent filaments
may operate together in generating water current.

3. Haemolymph circulates through the gill filaments.

4. Skeletal rods support the gill filaments.

5. Cilia generate inhalant water current drawing water below the ctenidia
and exhalant current expelling water out from above them.
 Types of ctenidia:
Based on topography, the ctenidia in molluscs are placed in
following categories:

1. Holobranchiate:
The ctenidia extend all over the body. The number varies from 14- 80
pairs. Example: Polyplacophora.

2. Merobranchiate:
The ctenidia are restricted to a particular area of the body.

Depending on the arrangement of leaflets the gills have been

subdivided into four types:
A. Plicate:
Simple, flat, transversely folded, projecting integumentary laminae
constitute the gill. In Neomania a tuft of filaments arise from the cloacal
wall.
B. Monopectinate:
Flattened gill filaments are arranged in a single row. Examples: Pila, Triton,
etc.

C. Bipectinate:
Flattened gill filaments are arranged in two rows.

They are of two types:

a. Unequal:
Both rows of filaments are present, the right one being smaller in size.
Example: Fissurella.

b. Equal:
Both the rows of filaments are of same size.

This type is present in Bivalvia, but they are variously modified:

i. The leaflets are short and flat.

Example: Nucula.

ii. The leaflets are filamentous and long.

They may be free (Area) or joined by ciliary connectives (Mylilus).

iii. The ciliary junctions are replaced by membrane.

Example: unio.

iv. The gill is degenerated and represented as transverse partitions.

Example: Porontya.

D. Feathered:
Assumes the shape of a feather. Examples: Cephalopods.

Ctenidia in different groups of molluscs:

1. Monoplacophora:
The pallial groove contains five to six pairs of unipectinate gills. Example:

Neopalina.

2. Polyplacophora:
Bipectinate ctenidia located in the mantle groove:
(a) Number of ctenidia varies from 14 (Lepidopleura) to 80
(Acanthopleura).

(b) Gill rows may be holobranchiate with two exceptions bearing

merobranchial type. Examples: Chiton.
3. Aplachophora:
The gills are reduced to a paired, feather-shaped structure situated near the
cloacal cavity, one on each side. The gills are merobranchiate. Example:
Chaetoderma.

4. Gastropoda:
The gills vary widely in number and position in this group:
A. Prosobranchia:
Ctenidia lie in front of the heart.

a. Diatocardia:
The arrangement is most primitive. The gills are two, long, feathered, on
each side and lie symmetrically to the middle line. Example: Fissurella.
b. Monotocardia:
The arrangement of the gills is remarkably uniform. A single gill,

feathered on one side and united to the mantle along its whole length.
Example: Triton.

B. Opisthobranches:
The gills are partially enclosed in the mantle cavity (Tectibranchiata). The
true ctenidium, when present, is little developed and located on the right
side of the body.

Example: Aplysia.

5. Bivalvia:
The gills are bipectinate, equal on either side, usually very large, having
assumed food collecting function in most species in addition to gas
exchange.

A. Protobranchiata:
Gills are smallest and lie behind the foot at the back of the mantle cavity. In
Nucula the gill filaments are triangular.

B. Filibranchiata:
Each gill separately forms a ‘W’ in section-.with long, narrow limbs. The gill
axis lies at the middle angle of the W. Example, Mytilus.

C. Pseudolamellibranchiata:
The reflected dorsal tips of the gill filaments have coalesced laterally with
the mantle and mesially with the base of the foot. The gill has a greater
cohesion than that in the filibranchs. The gills are more complex, with the
surface plicate or thrown into folds and grooves.
Examples: Ostreidae, Pectinidae, Pleriacea.

D. Eulamellibranchiata:
The adjacent filaments of gills are united by vascular cross connections,
leaving narrow openings, the Ostia between them. The two lamellae of each
demi-branch are attached back to back in the same way. Examples:
Cardiacea, Myacea.

E. Septibranchiata:
The ctenidia do not exist as such, being converted into a horizontal muscular
septum running from the base of the foot to the mantle, and extending right
back to the siphons. Example: Poromya.
6. Cephalopoda:
The gills are large, paired, bipectinate and one suspended on either side of
the rectum by their afferent edges, not by efferent, as in gastropods, and the
water current is driven from afferent to efferent side.

A. The gill filaments are firm and fleshy, non-ciliated, and thrown into
primary and secondary folds to increase respiratory surface. In

Nautilus, the gills are two pairs.

B. The haemolymph flows through each gill is assisted by a pulsatile

accessory branchial heart, located at the base of the gill in the course of the
afferent ctenidial vessel and placed in an annexe of the pericardium.

C. Pallial contractions drive water between the gill filaments at great

pressure.

Evolution of ctenidia:
The most primitive ctenidia are found in zeugobranchiate prosobranchs,
which are simple outgrowths of the body. In bivalves;

with an increase in length of the ctenidium. In this group three kinds of

new tissue connections evolved.

1. Interfilamentar junction between adjacent filaments.

2. Inter-lamellar junction between two lamellae.

3. Connections between the tips of the filaments and mantle or foot.

In bivalves, the branchial apparatus in addition to respiratory function acts

as a food collecting organ. Large, non-food particles are trapped and
strained out by the mucus secreted by hypobranchial gland. Osphradium
tests water quality.

Adaptive or secondary gills and integument: The gills

develop from aberrant sites:
1. Anal gills:
Delicate leaflets form a rosette around the anus. Example: Doris. In
Chactoderma a pair of symmetrical lateral gills are present on each side of
cloaca.

2. Cerata or dorsal appendages:

In many opisthobranches the dorsum bears highly vascular appendages
called cerata. They may be simple and club-shaped (Aeolis), dendritic
(Dendronotus) or multi-lobed resembling a bunch of grapes (Dotochica).

3. Pleural gills:
In Pleurophyllida lateral rows of branchial leaflets are situated beneath the
mantle.

4. Pallial gills:
In certain basommatophore pulmonate secondary external gills develop by
the enlargement of the pallial lobe, just outside the pneumostome. They,
however, lack cilia. Examples: Planorbidae, Ancylidae.

5. Integument:
Specialised respiratory structures are lacking in some Scaphopoda.

Respiration is carried by the internal surface of the mantle, particularly the

anteroventral side in Dentalium, Antalis. In nudibranchs (Gastropoda) the
entire dorsum of the body acts as the site of gas exchange. Integumentary
gas exchange occurs in parasitic Entoconcha, Conia, Limpontia sp. etc.

Type # 2. Terrestrial Respiration:

Amphibious adaptation and adaptation to terrestrial life have introduced

remarkable modification in the respiratory structures of molluscs.

The structures associated with terrestrial respiration are:

1. Nuchal lobe:
The left nuchal lobe is better developed and forms a long respiratory siphon.
Example: Monotocardia.

2. Pulmonary sac:
In some amphibious prosobranchs—Pila. , Ampullarius, Siphonaria, etc. the pallial cavity
is incompletely partitioned by a fleshy fold, the epitaenia, into a right branchial chamber
and a left pulmonary chamber. The highly vascularized roof of the pulmonary chamber
forms a pulmonary sac, the aerial respiratory structure, with a small aperture opening in
the pulmonary chambers.
Air enters the pulmonary chamber through an opening at the tip of the left
siphon. Aerial respiration takes place during aestivation and when there
occurs a depletion of O2 concentration in water. The pulmonary epithelium
comprises cuboidal or squamous cells bearing short microvilli and many
mucous cells.

1. Lung:
In pulmonate — both stylommatophores and basommatophores the
— respiratory structure is a true lung of independent origin, not
vascularized mantle, which occupies the major part of the roof of the
pallial cavity.

In some it extends to the walls and floor. In slugs Athoracophoridae the lung
is nonvascular and its wall gives off a number of delicate branched tubules,
named tracheae (Hiscock, 1972), which function as respiratory structures.

The pallial cavity opens to the exterior by a large, oval aperture, the
pneumostome, the opening and closure of which are controlled by
contraction and relaxation of muscles. Large pulmonary veins with
extensive ramification drain oxygenated blood from lung to auricle.

Respiratory pigment:
The respiratory pigment is an extra corpuscular haemocyanin. It is more
concentrated in gastropods and cephalopods. In Area, and Solen the
pigment is haemoglobin and present in some special corpuscles in the
haemolymph.

Mechanism of Respiration and Oxygen uptake

A. Aquatic respiration:
Water is driven over the ctenidial surface by ciliary beating or by muscular
pumping.

a. Cephalopoda have branchial hearts at the gill bases, the pulsation of

which drives haemolymph through afferent vessels.

b. Lack of such additional pump and less efficient funnel contraction are
compensated with the development of two pairs of ctenidia in Nautilus.

c. Oxygen utilisation from pallial water is high in gastropods and

cephalopods. It is 56% in Haliotis, 79% in Triton and 63% in Octopus,
as compared with 5-9% in sedentary lamellibranch’s.
B. Terrestrial respiration:
Contraction and relaxation of muscles in pulmonates cause in and outflow of
air into and from the pallial cavity.

a. In a relaxed state of muscles the floor of the pallial cavity

(diaphragm) arches upward.

b. During inspiration the pneumostome opens, muscular contraction

flattens the floor causing fall of pressure in the pallial cavity and air
rushes in. This is followed by closure of the pneumostome.

c. A slight delay in the opening of the pneumostome facilitates O2

uptake by haemolymph.

d. Respiratory movements increase with lowering of the

O2 concentration and at higher temperature. Such movements have been
reported from Arion, a slug with a large pneumostome (Runhon & Hunter,
1970).

e. In prosbranchs alternate dilatation and contraction of the mantle and

pulmonary chamber wall help in and outflow of air in the

pulmonary chamber through left siphon, which enlarges to reach above

water level when the snail remains submerged.

Molluscs are sluggish creatures except cephalopods. The lower respiratory

activity in the majority, however, is sufficient to meet with the need of
energy of the animals. In cephalopods, a rapid flow of haemolymph through
the gills is effected with the development of accessory branchial hearts,
helping higher uptake of oxygen by the gills.

The presence of diverse but well-organised respiratory structures— gills

and lung—and certain other features led some authors to be- lieve that
molluscs are di-phyletic in origin.
 Phylum Protozoa: Locomotary Organs (Pseudopodia,
Myonemes, Flagella and Cilia)

Protozoan movement in water

Protozoans in water are subjected to forces of water resistance like pressure drag and viscous
drag. Pressure drag is due to the difference of pressure between two ends of the body.
Viscous drag is due to the water molecules attached to the surface of the body.
For protozoans which are small in size, viscous drag is of much importance. These organisms
are not streamlined to minimize the pressure drag.

Locomotory Organs in Protozoa

Locomotion is the movement of the animals from place to place. It is performed in search of
food, mate, and shelter or to escape from predators etc. it is influenced by external and
internal stimuli.
Protozoans are very primitive, single celled animals which show great adaptability in their
locomotion. They exhibit slowest locomotion like amoeboid locomotion and also the fastest
locomotion like ciliary locomotion.
In protozoans, locomotion is brought about by

 Cellular extensions like Pseudopodia (Eg: Amoeba)

 Pellicular contractile structures like Myonemes (Eg: Euglena and Sporozoans)

 Locomotory organelles like Flagella (Eg: Paramecium) and Cilia (Eg: Euglena)

PSEUDOPODIA (CELLULAR EXTENSION)

They are also known as false feet. These are the temporary outgrowths of the cell. They are
formed on the surface of the body by the movement of the cytoplasm.

Depending on number of pseudopodia formed on the surface :

Polypodia- Several pseudopodia formed on the surface of the body.
Eg: Amoeba proteus
Monopodia- Only single pseudopodia is formed on the surface of the body.
Eg: Entamoeba histolytica

Depending on the structure of the pseudopodia :

Lobopodia: These are lobe like and blunt structures with broad and rounded ends. These
structures composed of endoplasm and ectoplasm. Lobopodia move by pressure flow
mechanism.
Eg: Amoeba proteus, Entamoeba histolytica
Filopodia: These are slender filamentous pseudopodia tapering from base to tip. Sometimes
these may be branched out but they are not fused to form a network. They are composed of
only ectoplasm.
Eg: Euglypha, Lecithium

Reticulopodia: They are also known as rh izopodia or myxopodia. They are filamentous,
profusely interconnected and branched. They form a network. The primary function of these
pseudopodia in ingestion of food and the secondary function is locomotion. They exhibit two
way flow of the cytoplasm. They are commonly found in foraminifers.
Eg: Elphidium, Globigerina

Axopodia: These are fine needle like, straight pseudopodia radiating from the surface of the
body. Each Axopodia contain a central axial rod which is covered by granular and adhesive
cytoplasm. The main function of these axopodia is food collection. Axopodia also exhibit
two-way flow of cytoplasm. Axopodia are mainly found in Heliozoans and radiolarians.
Eg: Actinosphaerium, Actinophrys, Collozoum
MYONEMES (PELLICULAR CONTRACTILE EXTENSIONS )
Many protozoans have contractile structures in the pellicle or ectoplasm called as myonemes.
These may be in the form of,
* Ridges or grooves (Eg: Euglena)
* Contractile myofibrils (Eg: Larger ciliates)
* Microtubules (Eg: Trypanosoma)

FLAGELLUM (LOCOMOTORY ORGANELLES)

Flagella are the locomotory organelles of flagellate mastigophoran protozoans. They are
mostly thread like projection on the cell surface. A typical flagellum consists of an
elongated, stiff axial fiber called as axial filament or axoneme enclosed by an outer sheath.
The axoneme arises from basal granule called as blepharoplast or kinetosome which is
further derived from Centrioles. Blepharoplast lies below the cell surface in the ectoplasm.
The region around blepharoplast is called microtubular organizing center that controls the
assembly of microtubules.

When the axial filament is viewed under an electron microscope 9 + 2 arrangement can be
observed. The 2 central longitudinal fibers are enclosed by membranous inner sheath. The 2
central longitudinal fibers are surrounded by 9 longitudinal peripheral doublets (each with
microtubules A and B) which form a cylinder between the inner and the outer sheath. Each
peripheral paired fiber is connected to the internal membranous sheath by radial spokes.
Each peripheral doublet also has pairs of arms directed towards neighboring doublet. These
arms are made of the protein called as dynein. The arms create the sliding force. The
peripheral doublets are surrounded by an outer membranous sheath called as protoplasmic
sheath, which is an extension of the plasma membrane. Some flagella also bear lateral
appendages called as flimmers or mastigonemes along the length of the axoneme above the
level of the pellicle.

Types of Flagella
Number and arrangement of flagella vary in Mastigophora from one to eight or more. Free
living species usually have one to eight flagella whereas the parasitic forms may have one to
many flagella. Flagella are classified based on the arrange ment of lateral appendages and the
nature of the axial filament.
Stichonematic: Only one row of lateral appendages occurs on the axoneme up to tip.
Eg: Euglena, Astasia
Pantonematic: Two or more rows of lateral appendages occur on the axoneme
Eg: Peranema, Monas
Acronematic: Lateral appendages are absent and axoneme ends as a terminal ‘naked’ axial
filament
Eg: Chlamydomonas, Polytoma

Pantacronematic: Flagellum is provided with two or more rows of lateral appendages and
the axoneme ends in a terminal naked axial filament.
Eg: Urceolus
Anematic: In some cases the flagella is simple without any lateral appendages and a terminal
naked filament.
Eg: Chilomonas, Cryptomonas
CILIA (LOCOMOTORY ORGANELLES)
Cilia are short hair like structures present all over the surface of the body. They may be also
confined to specific regions of the ciliate protozoan. Cilia help in locomotion as well as in
food collection.
Cilia greatly resemble the flagella in the basic structure. The major difference between the
flagella and the cilia is that cilia are smaller compared to the flagella. Cilia arise from the
kinetosome. Cilia consist of an axial filament called as axoneme surrounded by the
protoplasmic outer sheath.
Electron microscopic studies of axoneme reveal 9 + 2 organization of the peripheral doublet
fibrils and central singlet fibrils. The details of the 9 + 2 organization and the presence of
the dynein arms are similar to that of the flagellum. All these fibrils are embedded in a
matrix. The central fibrils are enclosed within a delicate sheath.
The infraciliary system is located just beneath the pellicle. It consists of kinetosomes at the
bases of cilia, kinetodesmos or kinetodesmal fibrils that are connected to the kinetosomes
and running along the right side of each row of kinetosomes as cord of fibers known as
kinetodesmata. A longitudinal row of kinetosomes, kinetodesmal fibrils and their
kinetodesmata form a unit called kinety. All the kineties together form an infraciliary system
that lies in the ectoplasm. The infraciliary system is connected to the motorium, a
neuromotor center neat the cytopharynx and forms the neuromotor system. This neuromotor
system controls and coordinates the movement of cilia.

Types of cilia
* In some primitive forms like holotrichs (Eg: Paramecium) cilia are present all over the
body
* In some forms like peritrichs (Eg: Vorticella) cilia are present only in the peristomial
region
* In Suctorians (Eg: Acineta) cilia are present in only in the young ones which are later
replaced by sucking tentacles in the adults

Differences between Flagella and cili a

Flagella Cilia

They may be one to four in number. Mor than Generally cilia are more in number compared to
four flagella are present in mastigophoran flagella. Cilia vary from 3,000 to 14,000 in
parasites number

A flagellum is about 150 microns in length A cilium is about 5 to 10 microns in length

Flagella are commonly found at one end of the Cilia occur either all over the body surface or at
cell specific regions of the cell

Flagella produce undular movement Cilia produce pendular movement

Flagella help in locomotion only Cilia help both in feeding and in locomotion
 Flagella Cilia

Flagella do not form compound organelles Cilia may form undulation membranes and other
compound ciliary organelles

Compound ciliary organelles

* Cilia in compound ciliary organelles do not fuse, but their basal granules are sufficiently
close to introduce a sort of coupling.
* A group of cilia that forms a bundle is called as cirrus. An undulating membrane is a row
of adhering cilia forming long sheet.
* The smaller rows of adhering cilia form the membranelles

Torsion and Detorsion in

Gastropoda (With Diagram)

The below mentioned article provides a brief account of torsion and

detorsion in Gastropoda.

Torsion in Gastropoda:
Mollusca are typically bilaterally symmetrical animals but this symmetry is
lost in Gastropoda due to two processes called coiling and torsion. There is a
tendency for digestion and resorption to be confined to a dorsal digestive
gland or liver, the liver undergoes growth to form a projection which grows
so much that it falls over to one side causing a coiling of the alimentary canal
into a visceral hump.

The visceral hump grows faster on one side than on the other, so that it is
twisted into a compact spiral which is directed posteriorly to keep the
balance of the animal, the shell is also coiled. With this spiral coiling one may
confuse another process called torsion of the visceral mass, but this coiling
evolved before torsion.

The visceral hump behind the head includes the visceral mass, mantle,
mantle cavity, and foot; it rotates in a counter-clockwise direction through an
angle of 180° on the rest of the body by contraction of an asymmetric
retractor muscle which arises from the right side of the larval shell, passes
over the body and gets inserted to the left side of the head.
This rotation is known as torsion which is distinct from coiling and is a much
more drastic change, it occurs after coiling of the visceral hump.

In torsion only a narrow part of the body and the organs which pass through
it are twisted, it is that small part which lies between the visceral hump and
the rest of the body. Torsion changes the orientation of the mantle cavity and
its organs, and the organs of the left side tend to be reduced or even lost.

Before torsion the mantle cavity opens posteriorly, ctenidia point backwards,
the auricles are behind the ventricle, the nervous system is bilaterally
symmetrical, and the mouth and the anus are at opposite ends.

After torsion the mantle cavity opens in front just behind the head, ctenidia
come to lie in front and point anteriorly, the ctenidium of the right side
comes to lie on the left and that of the left side on the right, the auricles
become anterior to the ventricle, the auricle of the right side comes to lie on
the left and vice versa, the nervous system is twisted into a figure of 8 by the
crossing of the two long nerve connectives running to the viscera, and the
digestive system becomes U-shaped so that the anus comes to lie in front
near the mouth.

The entire process of torsion generally takes only a few minutes.

In primitive Gastropoda there are two ctenidia, two auricles and two kidneys,
but in more specialised forms the real left but topographically right
ctenidium, right auricle and the right kidney fail to form; this absence of
organs of the right side is a consequence of torsion.

The number of auricles is directly related with the number of ctenidia

present, and the loss of one gill leaves only one auricle.

It is not clear whether torsion is an advantage or not to the animal, or if it has

any evolutionary significance, but it takes place during the embryological
development of gastropods, the larva is a first bilaterally symmetrical, then
quite suddenly it undergoes torsion. In some forms after the coiling of the
visceral hump, torsion occurs by rotation only through 90°, so that the
ctenidia and anus point laterally.

Detorsion in Gastropoda:
In some forms the changes brought about by torsion are reversed to a certain
extent, while in others, e.g., Aplysia a complete reversal of torsion takes place
which is known as detorsion, this occurs when the shell is lost or much
reduced, the ctenidia liberated from their enclosing case point posteriorly
again, their anterior position being of no advantage, and the visceral hump
gets completely untwisted.

In Cephalopoda the body has become greatly elongated along the dorso-
ventral axis, and as a result of change in the method of locomotion this axis
has become the functional anteroposterior axis. A ring of tentacles lies at the
anterior end of the body and the visceral hump is posterior, the original
mantle cavity has become ventral.
 UNIT:- 9
LARVAL FORMS OF ECHINODERMS
Introduction
 No Other group of animals has such complicated metamorphosis in the
course of development. Development may be direct or indirect. In direct
one, the larval stages are missing while in indirect one, various types of
free-swimming larvae are formed, In .each class, a few members, are
viviparous, that is, they brood their young in a sort of brood pouch on
the surface of their body. The development of larva takes place in a
typical deuterostomous fashion. In most cases the characteristic free
swimming larvae develop externally which are of great phylogenetic
significance.
 Echinoderm larva is strikingly bilaterally symmetrical in marked
contrast to radially symmetrical adult. It swims about by means of a
ciliated band, which may be complicated by a number of short or long
slender projection or arms from the body wall. Based upon the nature
and position of the arms or their absence, lame of different classes of
Echinodermata may distinguished. After a free-swimming planktonic
existence, the bilateral larva undergoes a metamorphosis, in which the
radial symmetry of the adult is developed. In different classes of
echinoderms, different types of larvae complete the development.
Echinoderm Larvae
Class 1. Asteroidea
Bipinnaria larva
 Two types of development occurs in asteroids.
 The direct type has large, yolky eggs and no free swimming larval stage.
 The indirect type has homolecithal eggs with little yolk and a free
swimming larval stage.
 After hatching the larva develops cilia and begins a free swimming life.
The larva feeds on diatoms as an alimentary canal is formed. The
presence of powerful ciliary band on the stomodaeal walks helps in
feeding.
 Two lateral longitudinal locomotory ciliated bands develop which
connect infront of mouth, forming a preoral loop and in front of the anus,
to form a preanal loop.
 Preoral later, separates or in some cases develops independently into an
anterior ciliated ring around the body.
 Three lateral lobes or projections are also developed by ciliary bands.
This larva is known as bipinnaria and develops in 2 to 7 days.

Internal development of bipinnaria :- Tip of larval archeteron forms the

mesenchyme and later gives rise to two lateral pouches which connect
arteriorly to form a U-shaped coelom. Posterior ends of the lateral pouches
pinch off to form right and left somateocoels.
Remaining Anterior portion represents the hydrocoel and exocoel, but they
never separate. Left hydrocoel connects with the dorsal surface to form the
hydropore, without ectodermal invagination. Ventrally an ectodermal
invagination meets the archentron and the larval gut is differentiated into
mouth, oesophagus, stomach and intestine. Blastopore remains as larval
anus. Right somatacoel and axohydrocoel get reduced in metamorphis,
while left axohydrocoel gives rise to water ring and radial canals. Axocoel
separates from hydrocoel and contributes to stonecanal. Madreporite or
dorsal sac originates either from rearrangement of mesenchyme cells
either from ectodermal invagination or from right axohydrocoe;. Bipinnaria
larva, after free swimming existence for a few weeks, changes to next larval
stage, called brachiolaria larva.

Brachiolaria larva :-
 Bipinnaria transforms to brachiolaria larva which develops three short
arms at preoral lobe, known as brachiolar arms (one median and two
lateral arms). They cntain coelomic extensions and adhesive cells at their
tips. An adhesive glandular area at their base acts as a sucker.
Appearance of the sucker marks the beginning Of metamorphosis.

Metamorphosis of brachiolaria :- With the help of adhesive structures

it attaches to some object. Anterior region acts as stalk for sometime,
 while posterior part, having gut and coelomic chambers, converts into a
young star. This Star detaches itself and starts leading a free life.
Some species cut short the development as a result of deletion of some
larval stages. In Astropecten, the brachiolaria stage is missed with the
result bipinnaria directly metamorphosis into adult with in 2-3 months.
In Asterina gibbosa, bipinnaria stage is omitted, larva develops an
adhesive apparatus, as brachiolar arms and sucker, and undergoes
metamorphosis. Still in Luidia, a giant and peculiar is formed which is
called as bipinnaria asterigeara.

Class 2. Ophiuroidea
Ophiopluteus larva
 Pluteus is the free swimming larva in brittle stars which is known
as ophiopluteus.
 It is similar to echinopluteus of echinoids with the only difference that
the former has fewer arms than the later.
 The posterolataral arms are the longest and directed forward.
 After gastrulation the arms develop gradually. Posterolateral arms are
formed first.
 After 4, 10 and 18 days, anterolataral, postoral and posterodorsal arms
develop, respectively.
 Ciliated bands accompany the arms edges.
 Internally the larva contains coelomic chambers and archenteron.
 Internal development proceeds in the same way as in other classes.
While free swimming metamorphosis of the larva starts, there Being no
attachment stage.
 Tiny serpent star sinks to the bottom to begin its adult existence.
Amphiura vivipara, a viviparous form, omits pluteus stage. In Ophionorus
heractis, development takes place in ovary and the aborted pluteus larva is
devoid of arms and anus.

Class 3. Echinoidea
Echinopluteus larva
 Larva is formed after gastrulation.
 Gastrula becomes conical, one side of which flattens to form the oral
surface.
 Stomodaeal invagination communicates with archenteron and the gut is
differentiated into mouth, oesophagus, stomach and intestine.
 Blastopore remains as larval anus.
 Larva begins to form projections which develop into arms.
 There are six arms namely, preoral, anterolateral, anterodorsal, postoral,
postero-dorsal and posterolateral.
 Posterolateral arms are very short and directed outwards or backwards.
In some cases, anterodorsal arms may also not develop. Thus a fully
developed echinopluteus may have 5 or even 4 pairs of arms instead of
usual six.
 Tips of the arms are pigmented and are supported by calcareous skeletal
rods.
 Locomotion is by ciliated bands, which in some case become thickened
and known as epaulettes.
 In Arbacia and Cidaris, larva develops special ciliated lobes, between the
arm bases known as vibratile lobes, auricular lobes Or auricles.
Internal Development :- Archentron gives off entrocoels which contribute
to axocoels, hydrocoels and somatocoels. A vestibule is formed by the
enlargement of an ectodermal invagination on the left side. Hydrocoel and
vestibule form the oral side of the adult. Five radial arms and five primary
podia are given off the hydrocoel. Echinopluteus is microscopic, free
swimming in water and it develops within 7 to 30 days. Metamorphis is
extremely rapid, taking place in about an hour. There is no attachment age
in echinoids.

Class 4. Holothuroidea
Auricularia larva
 After gastrulation and formation of coelomic sacs and gut. the embryo
becomes a free-swimming larva Called auricularia larva.
 Within 3 days. It is transparent, pelagic about 0.5 to 1 mm in length.
 It swims about by a ciliated hand Which forms preoral loop and a oral
loop.
 Internally, larva has a curved gut with occiform stomach, hydrococl and
right and left somatocoels.
Some giant auricularians or unknown adults reported from Bermuda, Japan
and Canary lands measure about 15 mm in length and posses a frilly
flagellated band.
 Doliolaria larva
 It is a transitional stage from auricularia and appeares barrel-shaped and
alike doliolaria of crinoids. Continuous ciliated band streaks in 3 to 5
fllagellated rings. Mouth is shifted to anterior and anus to posterior pole.
 Metamorphosis is gradual during which it requires 5 tentacles and 1 to 2
functional podia. such it is sometimes known as pentactula. After
appearence of more podia and tentacles, sea cucumber settles to the sea
bottom and leads adult mode of life.
Other forms of this class show marked pecularities in larval development.
In cucumaria and C.quinquesemita, etc., there is no auricularia stage and
embryo directly develops into doliolaria larva. In others like C. saxiola,
C.frondsoa both of these larval stages are comitted and the larva only swims
about having an oval ciliated shape. In holoturia floridana, embryo hatches
directly into a young.
 Class 5. Crinoidea
Doliolaria larva
 It hatches as a free-swimming larva.
 Body has 4 to 5 Ciliated bands with an apical sensory plate at the
anterior end provided with a bunch of cilia.
 There is an adhesive pit over the first ciliated band, near the apical plate
in the mid ventral line.
 Between second and third ciliated band lies the stomodaeum or
vestibule.
 Skeleton also develops at this larval stage. After the differentiation into
prospective organs, larva attaches itself and internal organs rotate at an
angle of 90 degrees from ventral to posterior position. Larva forms a
stalk and is now referred as cystidean or pentacrinoid larva which, after
sometime metamorphoses into adult.

Significance of Echinoderm larvae

It is Seenthat different classes of echinoderms have somewhat different
larvae which are differently named. After their study, following significant
points can be drawn.

1. Common origin of classes :- Except the larva of crinoidea which

becomes sedentary, the larvae of rest of the classes have some
fundamental resemblances. They are constructed on the same
general fundamental plan with bilateral symmetry. They have
somewhat flattcned body, longitudinally looped ciliated bands, gut
and entcrocoelic coelom. With so many common characters, one may
conclude the origin of their respective classes (groups) from a
 common ancestor which was a coelomate, bilateral and free
swimming. Dipleurula and pentactula larva are two such hypothetical
ancestors by zoologists. It is believed that all modern echinoderms
have originated from them.

2. Taxonomic affinities :- Closely looking at the classification of the

phylum, it is seen at the larval simlarities do not indicate affinities.
Among Eleutherozoa, two well marked larval forms occur – (i)
Pluteus group is common to ophiuroids and echinoids, bilaterally
symmetrical with long arms. (ii) Auricularia group, is common to
asteroids and holothurians, has a winding ciliated band which may
produced into lobes. On the basis of larval similarities ophiuroids
should be placed near to echinoids and asteroids near to holothurian.
But this is not in agreement with palaeontological and morphological
result, according to which asteroids and ophiuroids are closely
related to each other while echinoids seem to have followed an
entirely independent evolution:

3. Phylogenetic affinities :- A survey of larval types throughout

echinoderms indicates several examples of close larval resemblances
e.g. ophipluteus and echinopluteus. This must be due t0 convergent
larval evolution. Occurrence convergence in development is seen
among unrelated groups such as Asteroidea, Holothurioidea and
Crinoidca. Similarly, larva of closely related forms such as asteroids
and ophiuroid, exhibit major differences, which must be due
to divergent larval evolution. Occurrence of divergent type of
development is seen within related groups (ophiuroidca). Therefore,
larval Structures in echinoderms, cannot serve the purpose of
determining the phytogenetic affinities in the phylum.

4. Relationship with Chordates :- Auricularia larva of Echinodcrmata

and Tornaria larva of some enteropneusts (e.g., Balanoglossus)
shows very close and striking similarities. Moreover, cleavage is
indeterminate and mesoderm and coelom (enterocoel) have similar
origin echinoderms and lower chordates. Serology also indicates a
relationship between the two groups. In view of all this and other
evidences, echinoderms and chordates have been regarded as
phylogenetically related groups.
5. Aid in dispersal and feeding :- Since the adult echinoderms are
somewhat sluggish. their larvae are the main dispersive phase for them.
They remain in plankton for sufficient time to swept from the place of their
birth to new areas. or to restock the original areas. In addilion to their
dispersive function, larvae will aid the species in feeding from a different
source from their adults, and thus when rood is short larvae and adult will
not compete.

Water Vascular System of

Echinoderms
In this article we will discuss about Water Vascular System of
Echinoderms:-
1. Introduction to Water Vascular System
2. Contents of Water Vascular System
3. General Plan
4. Modifications
5. Functions.

Introduction to Water Vascular System:

The water vascular system is enterocoelic in origin and arises from the left
hydrocoel. It exhibits radial symmetry from the beginning and is equally
developed in all Echinoderms.

This system lies just above the haemal system. It is primarily locomotory in
function and also sub-serves the function of tactile and respiratory organs
in some cases. The excretory role of water vascular system, suggested by
some workers, is not yet fully ascertained.

Histological picture reveals that the canals have an inner lining of flat
ciliated epithelium, a layer of longitudinal muscles, a connective tissue
layer and an outermost layer of flat ciliated cells.

Contents of Water Vascular System:

The canals of the water vascular system contain a fluid of albuminous
nature. It contains sea water and leucocytes. Existence of red corpuscles is
recorded in an Ophiuroid, Ophiactis virens. Binyon (1964) has shown that
the level of potassium in the fluid may be as much as 60% above the sea
water value. Boolootian (1966) has recognised 14 different types of
amoebocytes in this fluid.

General Plan of Water Vascular System:

The water vascular system in different classes of Echinodermata has almost
the same structural organisation. It comprises of a few canals together with
some appendages attached to these canals. The typical arrangement of the
water vascular system is exhibited by Asterias.

The water vascular system includes a circumoral canal (circular ambulacral

or ring canal) situated around the mouth which gives tubular radial
extensions, called radial canals. The number of the radial canals is usually
five. But the number corresponds to the number of the radii of the body.

Each radial canal ends blindly at the end of the arm and gives off along its
course lateral vessels, each joining a tube-foot. Each tube- foot is a hollow
conical or cylindrical process with an ampulla and a terminal sucker. The
junction between the lateral vessels and the tube-feet is provided with
valves which assist in locomotion.

The contraction of the ampullae results in the extension of the tube-feet. A

short, slightly curved, cylindrical and vertically disposed stone or sand
canal is present between the madreporite and the ring canal. The stone
canal opens into the ring canal at the oral end and into the madreporic
ampulla at the aboral end.

The madreporite is a skeletal plate-like structure placed at the aboral side.

It is perforated by pores, called the madreporic pores, which lead into
madreporic ampulla or vesicle from where the stone canal starts. The stone
canal is surrounded by a wider canal, called axial sinus, the wall of which
becomes folded to form the axial organ or dorsal organ or ovoid gland or
heart. The role of axial organ is not fully known.

Besides the main vessels, some appendages become associated with the
system. Inter-radially located and connected with the ring canal, there are
polian vesicles and Tiedemann’s bodies. The Polian vesicles are bladder-
like sacs with narrower neck.

They are contractile and usually manufacture amoeboid cells. The

Tiedemann’s bodies are glandular in nature and consist of a number of
branched tubules. They are yellowish in colour and give origin to cells for
the water vascular system.

Modifications of the Water Vascular System in Different Classes:

The water vascular system is equally developed in all Echinoderms and has
basically the same structural plan. In the different classes, slight deviations
from the basic plan are encountered. The variations are due to their
adaptations to different modes of living.

Madreporite:
In Asteroidea (Fig. 21.7B), it is a calcareous sieve-like plate and is situated
aborally. The increase in number of the madreporite is observed in many
Asteroidea. The number of madreporites is 3 in Asterias capensis, 4 in A,
tenuispina, 16 in Acanthaster echinites. The madreporite is provided with
many secondary water-pores. Most of the water-pores lead into stone canal
and rest into the axial sinus in adults.
The water-pores are many in number and develop from one primary larval
water-pore. Like Asteroidea, in Echinoidea (Fig. 21.16) also the
madreporite possesses many pores, but Echinocyamus pusillus, is peculiar
in having only one water-pore. In Ophiuroidea, the madreporite has one
water-pore, but in Ophiurae and Astrophytidae there are several water
pores.

In Holothuroidea true madreporite is absent. Great variations are observed

regarding the opening of the stone canal. In Pelagothuria it opens to the
exterior by one pore and in many Elasipodidae there are 2 to 50 or more
pores. But in some Elasipodidae and Molpadidae the stone canal opens into
the coelom by many pores instead of opening to the exterior.

In the rest of the Holothurians, the stone canal opens into the axial sinus
which in turn opens to the exterior by one or more water-pores which are
comparable to madreporite. The madreporite in this case may best be
called as internal madreporite.

In Crinoidea, madreporite is represented by fine water-pores on the body

surface and these water-pores lead directly into the body cavity. The water-
pores are recorded to be 1500 in Antedon bifidia.

Stone canal:
Normally the stone canal is a short, slightly curved and vertically disposed
cylindrical tube. It opens into the ring canal at the oral end. It is enclosed by
the wall of another wide canal, the axial sinus.
In Asteroidea, the stone canal is one and ‘S’-shaped. But in Asterias rubens,
there are two stone canals. The wall of the stone canal is provided with
calcareous ossicles. Development of a longitudinal ridge-like projection
makes the stone canal complicated in the different members of the
Asteroidea (Fig. 21.37).

The following conditions are encountered:

(1) In Echinaster purpureus, the fold projects as a ridge into the canal. This
represents the simplest condition.

(2) In Asterina gibbosa, the free terminal end divides into two lamellae
which may be coiled. This is seen in Asterias and Gymnasterias.

(3) In Astropecten, the coiled lamellae become very complicated and

extend between the walls from one side to another of the lumen.

(4) In Culcita and Astropecten aurantiacus, the whole lumen becomes

divided into a number of irregular chambers.
In Echinoidea, the stone canal is only one and has soft membranous wall
devoid of calcareous matter. In Cedaris, the wall of the stone canal is
provided with calcareous deposit. The stone canal has an ampulla below
the madreporite.

In Ophiuroidea, the stone canal is devoid of calcareous deposition and

opens in one of the oral plates (Sedjwick, 1898). In Trichaster elegans,
there are five stone canals. In Ophiactis virens, the stone canals are many.

In Holothuroidea, the stone canal is mostly single but in some cases it may
be more than one. The number of accessory stone canal is also variable. Its
walls are provided with calcareous matters.

The opening of the stone canal shows greatest variation, particularly in

Holothurians. The stone canals in all Holothurians are attached to body
wall. In Pelagothuria, the stone canal opens to the exterior by one or many
pores. This also is true in many Elasipodidae.

In Thy one, the stone canal is branched. In some Elasipodidae and

Molpadidae the stone canal ends blindly and opens internally into the
coelom by many pores as in the genus Elasipoda.

In Crinoidea, stone canal as such is absent. Numerous tubes, without

calcareous deposits in their walls, emerging from the ring vessel are the
representatives of the stone canals of other groups.

Axial sinus and axial organ:

The axial sinus is variously developed in different Echinoderms. It is quite
distinct from the perivisceral cavity in adult excepting some Holothurians
and Crinoids. The axial sinus is inconspicuous in Asteroids, very small in
Echinoids and Ophiuroids. The axial organ, a fold from the wall of the axial
sinus, is present in all Echinoderms excepting Holothurians.

The axial organ comprises connective tissue and cells of germinal rudi-
ment. In Echinoids the axial sinus ends blindly and communicates with the
stone canal. In Crinoids, the portion of the coelom, into which the tubes
from the ring vessel open, represents the axial sinus. The axial organ
occupies the axis of the body. It consists of anastomosing canals embedded
in connective tissue.
Ring canal and Radial canals. The ring canal is a constant structure in all
Echinoderms and is situated round the mouth. It gives tubular
prolongations along the radii, called radial canals or radial vessels. In
Asteroidea, the ring canal is pentagonal and is situated in the buccal mem-
brane (peristome). It is communicated with the exterior through the stone
canal and axial sinus.

In Echinoidea, the ring canal is situated at the upper end of the jaws and
gives five radial vessels. In Ophiuroidea, the condition is same as in
Asteroidea. In Holothuroidea, the ring canal is situated around the
oesophagus and the five raidal vessels extend towards the oral end and
again proceed aborally along the radii of the body.

The radial vessels end blindly and the terminal tentacle, characteristic of
Asteroidea and Echinoidea, is absent. The numbers of radial vessels are
five. They are absent in Synaptidae. In case of Crinoidea, the terminal
tentacles are absent and the radial vessels end blindly.

Lateral vessels and Tube-feet:

The radial vessels give lateral vessels to the tube-feet. The tube-feet are
cylindrical processes and their cavities are continuous with the water
vascular system. The tube-feet possess ampullae at their inner ends and
suckers at the terminal ends. The ampullae are present in all echinoderms,
except Ophiuroidea and Crinoidea.

In Crinoidea, terminal suckers are absent and the tube-feet are sensory and
respiratory in function. In many Astropectinidae, each tube-foot is provided
with two ampullae. In all the members of the Asteroidea the tube-feet are
provided with well-developed suctorial disc-like expansions.

In Echinoidea, the tube-feet show variations. In Endocyclica, the terminal

ends of the tube-feet are suctorial and supported by calcareous rings. In
Cidaridae and Echinothuridae, small oral tube-feet project from the
perforations of the ambulacral plates which are olfactory in nature. In
Clypeasteroids, the tube-feet are broad and the walls are devoid of
calcareous bodies. They help in respiration.
The cylindrical tube- feet which are suctorial and provided with calcareous
rings, are locomotory in function. But in Spatangoids, the tube-feet vary
quite greatly which are due to their functional activities.

The tube-feet without suckers are respiratory in function; with suckers and
calcareous ring are locomotory in function; with expanded terminal disc
and filaments around the mouth as the tactile organ; rosette feet act as
prehensile organs and seize food from the surroundings.

In Ophiuroidea, the orientation of the lateral vessels and the tube-feet is

same as in Asteroidea, but they are devoid of ampullae and are exclusively
sensory in function.

In Holothuroidea, lateral branches from the radial vessels go into the tube-
feet as well as into the tentacles. Some lateral branches also emerge from
the radial vessels and end blindly in the body wall. Ampullae are present in
the tube-feet and in the tentacular canals. The tentacular canals are devoid
of ampullae in Elasipodidae where they arise directly from the ring canal.

Among the Crinoidea, in Antedon, each lateral branch from the radial vessel
supplies three tube-feet. The tube-feet have ampullae. They are purely
respiratory and sensory in function.

Polian Vesicle and Tiedemann’s Bodies:

The ring canal possesses bladder-like polian vesicles and gland-like
Tiedemann’s bodies. In Asteroidea, the number of polian vesicles varies
greatly. They are totally absent in Asterias rubens and A. glacialis. There
are cases where two or many polian vesicles may be present in each inter-
radius as seen in Astropecten.

In this case, a few vesicles open into the ring canal by one common stalk
(Fig. 21.38). The Tiedemann’s bodies are attached to the ring canal and are
usually two in each inter-radius excepting that containing the madreporite
where only one is present.
Amongst Echinoidea, in most Endocylica, a small spongy outgrowth in each
inter-radius is present which is supposed to be the polian vesicle. There are
five Tiedemann’s bodies in Echinoidea. In Ophiuroidea, in each inter-radius
excepting that of stone canal, there is a polian vesicle.

In Ophiactis virens, besides two or three polian vesicles opening in each

inter-radius, there are many tubular canal of Simroth (supposed to be
respiratory in function). The Tiedmann’s bodies appear to be wanting.
Some authorities refer some structures homologous with Tiedmann’s
bodies.

Some say that the radiant protrusions are found in some places. Hyman
(1955) also refers that these are Tiedmann’s bodies. Fedetov (1926) has
reported that the radial protrusion is associated with water ring in
Ophiactum sericeum.

In Gorgonocephalus, a bunch of pouch-like structures or branching tubules

are present in water ring. He did not mention it as Tiedmann’s bodies but
represented it as specialized structure.

Hyman (1955) said perhaps this structure mentioned in these above ani-
mals as homologous with the Tiedmann’s bodies. In Holothuroidea, usually
one large polian vesicle is present. In some exceptional cases more than
one polian vesicle may be present. In Crinoidea, the polian vesicle and
Tiedemann’s bodies are absent.
Functions of the Water Vascular System:
1. Locomotion:
The main function of the water vascular system is to help in locomotion.
Echinoderms having suctorial podia (tube-feet) can adhere to the
substratum temporarily. The mechanism of locomotion has discussed in
detail under the water vascular system of Asterias and Echinus.

2. Respiratory and sensory:

In Ophiuroidea and Holothuridea the tube-feet (podia) are primarily
sensory in function. In Echinoidea (in regular urchins), the tube-feet of the
aboral side lack terminal disc and are sensory in function (Hyman, 1955).

In spatangoids, the petaloids of the aboral surface are provided with

lobulated podia without suckers and are believed to some respiratory in
function (Loven, 1883).

3. Excretory:
Nitrogenous wastes are eliminated through the thin areas of the body
surface such as the walls of tube-feet.