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J. Michael Spector · Dirk Ifenthaler
Demetrios G. Sampson · Pedro Isaias
Editors

Competencies in
Teaching, Learning
and Educational
Leadership in the
Digital Age
Papers from CELDA 2014
Competencies in Teaching, Learning
and Educational Leadership in the Digital Age
J. Michael Spector • Dirk Ifenthaler
Demetrios G. Sampson • Pedro Isaías
Editors

Competencies in Teaching,
Learning and Educational
Leadership in the Digital Age
Papers from CELDA 2014
Editors
J. Michael Spector Dirk Ifenthaler
University of North Texas Deakin University
Denton, TX, USA Melbourne, VIC, Australia
University of Mannheim
Demetrios G. Sampson
Mannheim, Germany
School of Education
Curtin University
Pedro Isaías
Perth, WA, Australia
Portuguese Open University
Universidade Aberta
Lisbon, Portugal

ISBN 978-3-319-30293-5 ISBN 978-3-319-30295-9 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-30295-9

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016943560

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors
or omissions that may have been made.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland
We dedicate this volume to the many scholars
and practitioners who have demonstrated
(a) that information and communications
technologies have the potential to improve
learning and instruction and (b) that
learning and instruction have the potential to
make the world a better place for everyone.
J. Michael Spector, University of North
Texas, Denton, TX, USA
Dirk Ifenthaler, University of Mannheim,
Germany, and Deakin University, Melbourne,
VIC, Australia
Demetrios G. Sampson, Curtin University,
Perth, WA, Australia
Pedro Isaías, Universidade Aberta, Lisboa,
Portugal
Preface

The 11th International Conference on Cognition and Exploratory Learning in

Digital Age (CELDA 2014) was held in Porto, Portugal, October 25–27, 2014. As
with previous CELDA conferences, the purpose was to address the main issues
concerned with evolving learning processes and supporting pedagogies and applica-
tions in the digital age. There have been advances in both cognitive psychology and
computing that have affected the educational arena. The convergence of these two
disciplines is increasing at a fast pace and affecting academia and professional prac-
tice in many ways. Paradigms such as just-in-time learning, constructivism, student-
centered learning, and collaborative approaches have emerged and are being
supported by technological advancements such as simulations, virtual reality, and
multi-agent systems.
These developments have created both opportunities and areas of serious con-
cerns. This conference aimed to cover both technological as well as pedagogical
issues related to these developments. The main topics included:
• Acquisition of expertise
• Assessing progress of learning in complex domains
• Assessment of exploratory learning approaches
• Assessment of exploratory technologies
• Cognition in education
• Collaborative learning
• Educational psychology
• Exploratory technologies (such as simulations, VR, i-TV, and so on)
• Just-in-time and learning-on-demand
• Learner communities and peer support
• Learning communities and Web-service technologies
• Learning paradigms in academia
• Learning paradigms in corporate sector
• Lifelong learning
• Pedagogical issues related with learning objects
• Student-centered learning

vii
viii Preface

• Technology and mental models

• Technology, learning, and expertise
• Virtual schools and universities
The CELDA 2014 Conference received 78 submissions from more than 20 coun-
tries. Each submission was reviewed in a double-blind review process by at least
two independent reviewers to ensure quality and maintain high standards. Out of the
papers submitted, 25 were accepted as full papers for an acceptance rate of 32 %, 17
were accepted as short papers, and 2 were accepted as reflection papers. A special
issue with elaborated versions of five selected papers from CELDA 2014 along with
a featured article by CELDA organizers Dirk Ifenthaler, Demetrios Sampson, and
Michael Spector has been published in Technology, Knowledge and Learning—see
http://link.springer.com/journal/10758/20/2/page/1.
As with previous CELDA conferences, authors of the selected best papers were
invited to contribute elaborated versions to an edited volume. This book contains
those contributions. The invited keynote speaker at CELDA 2014 was Jan Elen, and
his contribution entitled “Reflections on the Future of Instructional Design” is the
opening chapter (Chap. 1) in this volume. Elen addresses the field of instructional
design as a technological field of inquiry aiming to build on a strong theoretical
base. Elen argues for gathering unobtrusive data in actual settings and using those
data to build an engineering science that can improve based on the systematic review
of data and the construction of a reliable knowledge base.
The remainder of the book is divided in to four parts, each of which was edited
by one of the CELDA organizers. The final chapter is a look forward authored by
the CELDA organizers.
Part I is entitled “A Global Conversation About Competencies and Challenges
for Twenty-First-Century Teachers and Learners,” which was a featured theme of
the conference. There are four chapters in the opening part of the volume that are
centered around the invited presidential panel that opened the conference—that
panel had the same title as this part of the book.
Chapter 2 by Lynne Schrum, Dale Niederhauser, and Neal Strudler is entitled
“Competencies, Challenges, and Changes: A US Perspective on Preparing Twenty-
First-Century Teachers and Leaders.” That chapter focuses on the many challenges
that teacher educators and educational leaders face in preparing the next generation
of teachers in America. The pressures created by standards and regulations along
with the rapid expansion of technologies and an evolving notion of literacy are
addressed. Teacher preparation programs in universities are struggling to respond to
those pressures while being less well equipped in terms of technology than many of
the schools into which graduating teachers will be placed.
Chapter 3 by Rose Dolan is entitled “Initiation and Implementation: Changes to
Teacher Education in Ireland” and presents a historical perspective of how Ireland
has responded to the challenges and pressures discussed in Chap. 2. Ireland’s
Education Act of 1998 led to the formation of the Ireland Teaching Council which
produced four policy documents, a revised code of conduct, and a number of docu-
ments pertaining to initial teacher preparation (ITE). While Ireland’s educational
Preface ix

system is not nearly so complex as the American system, the significance of high-
level policy guidance with support and follow-through is clearly illustrated in
Dolan’s contribution.
Chapter 4 by Ronghuai and Junfeng Yang entitled “Digital Learners and Digital
Teachers: Challenges, Changes, and Competencies” examines the influence of tech-
nology on learning and the need to properly prepare teachers. The American frame-
works of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK; Shulman, 1986) and technological,
pedagogical, and content knowledge (TPCK; Mishra & Koehler, 2006) are dis-
cussed in detail with regard to the need to properly prepare Chinese teachers and
students in the twenty-first century.
Chapter 5 by Nicole Bellin-Mularski, Dana-Kristin Mah, and Dirk Ifenthaler is
entitled “Preservice Teachers’ Perspectives of School Development.” This contribu-
tion involves a study of 951 preservice teachers aimed at exploring the complexity
of factors influencing innovation and school development in Germany. The findings
of this research study suggest that competency-based training programs focused on
school development are needed. Stronger collaborations between preservice and
in-service teachers are recommended, potentially supported through social net-
working. The need for additional empirical research aimed at the complex and mul-
tifaceted nature of schools and how they are organized, developed, and situated to
respond to changing needs and technologies is made clear in this chapter.
Part II is entitled “Changing Learning and Instructional Paradigms,” which was
a theme that emerged from the papers presented at the conference. This part con-
tains five chapters that cover various frameworks and strategies that have the poten-
tial to transform learning and instruction.
Chapter 6 by Sylianos Sergis and Demetrios Sampson addresses the issue of
analytics and in the form of a multilevel framework to integrate and analyze data
collected across different school layers so as to provide ongoing formative feedback
to school leaders.
Chapter 7 by Kay Wijekuma, Bonnie Meyer, and Puiwa Lei reports the results of a
study of English language learners investigating the impact of teaching five text struc-
tures along with two forms of support: Spanish scaffolding (both English and Spanish
texts) and an English hybrid version that allowed students to hover over words to see
the Spanish version. The results of such support were generally positive.
Chapter 8 by Norsamsinar Samsudin, REngasamy Premila, Jessnor Elmy Mat
Jizat, Hariyaty Ab Wahid, and Norasibah Abdul Jalil reports an investigation of
school-based assessments in Malaysia. While the level of teacher understanding of
readiness to implement school-based assessments was found to be high, the study
also showed a negative relationship between teacher understanding and readiness
and their workload levels. This study suggested that heavy teacher workloads are a
barrier to progressive school improvement in Malaysia as they appear to be in other
parts of the world.
Chapter 9 by Sandra Ribeiron, António Moreira, and Christina Pinto da Silva
focuses on the important topic of digital storytelling. They argue that storytelling
has long held an important place in education and society more generally. Digital
storytelling has the potential to address important emotional issues that can either
x Preface

enhance or inhibit learning. The act of telling stories can promote self-reflection and
develop trust and dialogue among learners. The use of technology to support story-
telling, then, has the important potential to foster interpersonal interactions that can
promote social responsibility and emotional intelligence.
Part III is entitled “Assessments and Analytics for Teachers and Decision
Makers,” which represented a second emergent theme from papers presented at the
conference.
Chapter 10 by Martha Carey and Catherine Schifter addresses the controversial
issue of standardized testing in the context of the USA. They argue, as have many
others, that such assessments create disadvantages for many students. Their solution
approach involved providing evidence that contextually driven formative assess-
ments can help alleviate the problems with standardized assessments.
Chapter 11 by Steve Bennett, Trevor Barker, and Mariana Lilley examines the
use of electronic voting system clickers. They conducted a series of studies in a
master’s-level course on media design that had the entire class use clickers to pro-
vide peer feedback on multimedia resumes developed by classmates. As the meth-
odology evolved, the notion of peer grading was replaced by free and open feedback
in response to a set of standard questions about the designs. They note some resis-
tance on the part of students and cite limitations, while pointing out that as the
rubrics and scoring evolved, students became more receptive, and there are efficien-
cies in using this kind of feedback on student-created artifacts.
Chapter 12 by Said Hadjerrouit reports a case study involving collaborative writ-
ing in a wiki-based environment in a teacher education course on Web 2.0 technolo-
gies. There are a number of issues reviewed and examined in this study, including
collaborative work in small groups, the distribution of work within a group, the role
of a technology such as a wiki in supporting group work, and the value and impact
of comments within the wiki. One innovative aspect of this study is that it involved
using one of the technologies being examined as a tool to support course work. The
author notes that a wiki-based approach to learning and instruction is not well
developed and much more research in this area is required.
Chapter 13 by Timothy Arndt and Angelo Guercio focuses on student-centered
analytics in postsecondary education. The motivation for their work is the difference
in the interests and preferences of students (which they call do-it-yourself analytics)
and those of universities and colleges (typically referred to as learning analytics).
The authors present a framework for the development and implement of student-
centered analytics and propose a research stream that will address the efficacy of
student-centered analytics in comparison with the efficacy of learning analytics.
Chapter 14 by Peter Rich and Matthew Langton reviews the notion of computa-
tional thinking. They conducted a Delphi study to develop a consensus definition of
computational thinking that might clarify educational issues and guide the develop-
ment of courses aimed at promoting computational thinking. Many have promoted
the notion of computational thinking as an important twenty-first-century compe-
tency, but given the variety of views about computational thinking, it is not clear
what skills and competencies should be taught to whom and when. This effort is a
step in helping to resolve those questions.
Preface xi

Part IV is entitled “Changing Tools and Learning Environments” and represents

a third emergent theme from papers presented at the conference.
Chapter 15 is by Cheolil Lim, Sunyoung Kim, and Jihyun Lee. They investigate
and report the impact of turning two university lecture courses (calculus and nonlin-
ear systems) into flipped classroom courses. The results suggest that not all students
liked or benefited from the flipped classroom approach. However, the studies also
suggest that it is possible to design and manage a large course using a flipped class-
room approach, although the design had to be adjusted to fit the particular course.
Students tended to like the increased interaction with the instructor and efficiency of
viewing assignments online via video-based lectures. Lessons learned from the two
different implementations of a flipped classroom approach are discussed in detail in
the last part of this chapter.
Chapter 16 by Lee Schlenker and Sébastian Chantelot examines a scenario-based
approach for improving management education. They review the research on the
use of scenarios and design thinking and use that review as the basis for the approach
they call DSign4Practice (not to be confused with the Design4Practice program
developed at Northern Arizona University in 1994). Their DSign4Practice frame-
work involves a community of practice with interconnections among place, plat-
form, and people. The notion of creating support for the co-creation of participatory
learning places is fundamental to the framework. They conclude with a call to
implement the framework and conduct research on its efficacy.
Chapter 17 by Leila Mills looks at the role of informal learning in developing
and supporting interest and learning in science, technology, engineering, and math-
ematics at the high school level. She used an instrument called Possible Science
Selves in a pre-/post-study of students on a field trip to the Laser Interferometer
Gravitational Wave Observatory Science Education Center in Livingston, Louisiana.
The results showed that students with a low desire to become a scientist prior to the
field trip were significantly higher in that desire after the trip compared with those
who reported a strong desire to become a scientist or who had high confidence in
their academic skills. However, in general, there was an increase in reported desire
to become a scientist after the field trip. She cites the limitations of the study and
suggests additional studies to explore the impact of informal learning on interest in
science-related learning and careers.
Chapter 18 by Cristina Gomes, Mauro Figueiredo, José Bidarra, and José Gomes
examines gamification in music learning. The development of the Flappy Crab
game application for mobile devices and its initial use in music education are
reported. The game was developed using the UNITY 3D® game engine and initially
tested informally. Results suggest that students liked the game and participated in
many game-related activities. Additional studies are planned based on the positive
outcomes using the prototype game.
Chapter 19 by Cindy Kröber and Sander Münster reports on the creation and
evaluation of an educational application in the area of cultural heritage—in this
case, the cathedral in Freiburg, Germany. The instructional approach involved
project-/problem- and team-based learning at the college level with students
involved in interdisciplinary studies in art history, linguistics, and geoscience. The
xii Preface

focus of the project was on aspects of the architecture within the cathedral that had
implications for communicating with visitors that could then be presented in visual
form through a mobile application. Creation of such a visitor application was moti-
vating for students and created a need to understand a number of issues in the vari-
ous disciplines involved. The benefits of such applications within an interdisciplinary
curriculum are discussed along with lessons learned from the effort.
Chapter 20 by Peng Yan and colleagues discusses the issues involved in design-
ing intelligent tutors. An intelligent tutoring system developed for Virtual Cell, an
educational game, is reported in terms of its use in a cellular biology course. The
game contains a number of information resources which are needed to succeed in
specific game scenarios. The game contains four modules: (a) organelle identifica-
tion, (b) electron transport chain, (c) photosynthesis, and (d) osmosis. Initial find-
ings suggest that students gained the desired knowledge and competencies.
Additional games based on their goal-based and immersive virtual approach and
framework used are suggested.
The final chapter (Chap. 21) by the conference organizers is entitled “A
Synthesizing Look Forward in Teaching, Learning, and Educational Leadership in
the Digital Age.” In the final chapter, the authors address the need to align teacher
preparation, the design and development of learning environments, evaluation and
ongoing support, teaching and learning standards, and education policies. Without
alignment across all aspects of an educational system, it is unlikely that promising
efforts to integrate technology effectively will be taken to scale or that steady prog-
ress in learning and instruction will occur. That chapter concludes with a call for
serious efforts to create dynamic, multidimensional links among educational
researchers, practitioners, teacher educators, and policy makers.

Denton, TX J. Michael Spector

Melbourne, VIC, Australia Dirk Ifenthaler
Mannheim, Germany
Perth, WA, Australia Demetrios G. Sampson
Lisboa, Portugal Pedro Isaías

References

Mishra, P., & Koehler, J. J. (2006). Technological pedagogical content knowledge: A framework
for teacher knowledge. Teachers College Record, 108(6), 1017–1054.
Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational
Researcher, 15(2), 4–31.
Acknowledgments

We acknowledge the support of the International Association for Development of

the Information Society (http://www.iadisportal.org/) and for its continuing spon-
sorship of the International Conference on Cognition and Exploratory Learning in
Digital Age (CELDA). In addition, we wish to express our gratitude to all the mem-
bers of the CELDA 2014 international program committee for their timely and
thoughtful reviews of all papers submitted to the conference.
Finally, we would like to acknowledge the support of Springer Science + Business
Media; Springer’s education editor, Melissa James; and Springer’s project coordi-
nator for this edited volume, Michael Koy. Springer has been very supportive of
CELDA for many years by supporting the publication of an edited volume based on
expanded and edited versions of the best CELDA papers.

xiii
Contents

1 Reflections on the Future of Instructional Design Research............... 1

Jan Elen

Part I A Global Conversation About Competencies and Challenges

for Twenty-First Century (Presidential Panel)
2 Competencies, Challenges, and Changes: A US Perspective
on Preparing Twenty-First Century Teachers and Leaders ............... 17
Lynne Schrum, Dale S. Niederhauser, and Neal Strudler
3 Initiation and Implementation: Changes to Teacher
Education in Ireland ............................................................................... 33
Rose Dolan
4 Digital Learners and Digital Teachers: Challenges, Changes,
and Competencies ................................................................................... 47
Ronghuai Huang and Junfeng Yang
5 Pre-Service Teachers’ Perceptions of School Development................. 57
Nicole Bellin-Mularski, Dana-Kristin Mah, and Dirk Ifenthaler

Part II Changing Learning and Instructional Paradigms

6 School Analytics: A Framework for Supporting School
Complexity Leadership .......................................................................... 79
Stylianos Sergis and Demetrios G. Sampson
7 Improving Content Area Reading Comprehension
with 4–6th Grade Spanish ELLs Using Web-Based Structure
Strategy Instruction ................................................................................ 123
Kausalai (Kay) Wijekumar, Bonnie J.F. Meyer, and Puiwa Lei

xv
xvi Contents

8 Teachers’ Readiness, Understanding, and Workload

in Implementing School Based Assessment .......................................... 137
Norsamsinar Samsudin, Premila Rengasamy, Jessnor Elmy Mat Jizat,
Norasibah Abdul Jalil, and Hariyaty Ab Wahid
9 Digital Storytelling: Emotions in Higher Education............................ 149
Sandra P.M. Ribeiro, António A.F.G. Moreira,
and Cristina M.F. Pinto da Silva

Part III Assessments and Analytics for Teachers

and Decision Makers
10 Addressing Standardized Testing Through a Novel
Assessment Model ................................................................................... 171
Martha H. Carey and Catherine C. Schifter
11 An EVS Clicker-Based Assessment for Radical Transparency
in Marking Criteria ................................................................................ 183
Steve Bennett, Trevor Barker, and Mariana Lilley
12 Assessing the Level of Collaborative Writing in a Wiki-Based
Environment: A Case Study in Teacher Education ............................. 197
Said Hadjerrouit
13 Student-Centered Analytics for Postsecondary Education ................. 217
Timothy Arndt and Angela Guercio
14 Computational Thinking: Toward a Unifying Definition.................... 229
Peter J. Rich and Matthew B. Langton

Part IV Changing Tools and Learning Environments

15 Designing the Flipped Classroom in Higher Education ...................... 245
Cheolil Lim, Sunyoung Kim, and Jihyun Lee
16 DSIGN4CHANGE: 4Ps for Improving Management Education ....... 259
Lee Schlenker and Sébastien Chantelot
17 Informal Learning for Possible Science Selves ..................................... 271
Leila A. Mills
18 Project Flappy Crab: An Edugame for Music Learning .................... 287
Cristina Maria Cardoso Gomes, Mauro Jorge Guerreiro Figueiredo,
José Bidarra, and José Duarte Cardoso Gomes
19 Educational App Creation for the Cathedral in Freiberg ................... 303
Cindy Kröber and Sander Münster
Contents xvii

20 An Approach to Designing and Implementing Intelligent Tutors

in Immersive Virtual Environments ...................................................... 319
Peng Yan, Brian M. Slator, Bradley Vender, Wei Jin,
Matti Kariluoma, Otto Borchert, Guy Hokanson, Bob Cosmano,
Christopher J. Schaefer, Andrew Mazz Marry, Wen Cheng,
and Vaibhav Aggarwal
21 A Synthesizing Look Forward in Teaching, Learning,
and Educational Leadership in the Digital Age ................................... 345
J. Michael Spector, Dirk Ifenthaler, Demetrios G. Sampson,
and Pedro Isaías

Index ................................................................................................................. 355

Contributors

Vaibhav Aggarwal MyFitness Pal, San Francisco, CA, USA

Timothy Arndt Department of Information Systems, Cleveland State University,
Cleveland, OH, USA
Trevor Barker Department of Computer Science, University of Hertfordshire,
Hatfield, UK
Nicole Bellin-Mularski Applied Teaching and Learning Research, University of
Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
Steve Bennett Department of Computer Science, University of Hertfordshire,
Hatfield, UK
José Bidarra Centro de Investigação em Artes e Comunicação, Universidade do
Algarve, Faro, Portugal
Centro de Investigação, Universidade Aberta, Lisbon, Portugal
Otto Borchert Department of Computer Science, North Dakota State University,
Fargo, ND, USA
Martha H. Carey College of Education, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
Sébastien Chantelot Entrepreneurship, ESC Pau, Pau, France
Wen Cheng Department of Computer Science, North Dakota State University,
Fargo, ND, USA
Bob Cosmano NAU Country Insurance Co., Ramsey, MN, USA
Rose Dolan Department of Education, Maynooth University, Kildare, Ireland
Jan Elen Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Centre for Instructional
Psychology and Technology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium

xix
xx Contributors

Mauro Jorge Guerreiro Figueiredo Centro de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental,

Centro de Investigação em Artes e Comunicação, Instituto Superior de Engenharia,
Universidade do Algarve, Faro, Portugal
Centro de Investigação, Universidade Aberta, Lisbon, Portugal
Cristina Maria Cardoso Gomes Centro de Investigação em Artes e Comunicação,
Universidade do Algarve, Faro, Portugal
Centro de Investigação, Universidade Aberta, Lisbon, Portugal
José Duarte Cardoso Gomes Centro de Investigação em Artes e Comunicação,
Universidade do Algarve, Faro, Portugal
Centro de Investigação, Universidade Aberta, Lisbon, Portugal
Angela Guercio Department of Computer Science, Kent State University—Stark,
North Canton, OH, USA
Said Hadjerrouit University of Agder, Kristiansand, Norway
Guy Hokanson Department of Computer Science, North Dakota State University,
Fargo, ND, USA
Ronghuai Huang Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
Dirk Ifenthaler Deakin University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Instructional Design and Technology, University of Mannheim, Mannheim,
Germany
Pedro Isaías Department of Social Sciences and Management, Universidade
Aberta, Lisbon, Portugal
Norasibah Abdul Jalil Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Perak, Malaysia
Wei Jin Department of Computer Science, North Dakota State University, Fargo,
ND, USA
Jessnor Elmy Mat Jizat Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Perak, Malaysia
Matti Kariluoma Disney Research, Los Angeles, CA, USA
Sunyoung Kim Center for Teaching and Learning, Seoul National University,
Seoul, South Korea
Cindy Kröber TU Dresden, Media Center, Dresden, Germany
Matthew B. Langton Instructional Psychology and Technology, Brigham Young
University, Provo, UT, USA
Jihyun Lee School of Dentistry, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
Puiwa Lei Department of Educational Psychology, The Pennsylvania State
University, University Park, PA, USA
Contributors xxi

Mariana Lilley Department of Computer Science, University of Hertfordshire,

Hatfield, UK
Cheolil Lim College of Education, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
Dana-Kristin Mah Applied Teaching and Learning Research, University of
Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
Andrew Mazz Marry Department of Biosciences, Minnesota State University,
Moorhead, MN, USA
Bonnie J.F. Meyer Department of Educational Psychology, The Pennsylvania
State University, University Park, PA, USA
Leila A. Mills Department of Computer Science, St. Edwards University, Austin,
TX, USA
LIGO LLO Science Education Center, California Institute of Technology,
Livingston, LA, USA
António A.F.G. Moreira Departamento de Educação, Campus de Santiago,
Universidade de Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
Sander Münster TU Dresden, Media Center, Dresden, Germany
Dale S. Niederhauser Department of Curriculum & Instruction, West Virginia
University, Morgantown, WV, USA
Cristina M.F. Pinto da Silva School of Accounting and Administration of Oporto,
Polytechnic of Porto, São Mamede de Infesta, Portugal
Premila Rengasamy Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Perak, Malaysia
Sandra P.M. Ribeiro School of Accounting and Administration of Oporto,
Polytechnic of Porto, São Mamede de Infesta, Portugal
Peter J. Rich Instructional Psychology and Technology, Brigham Young
University, Provo, UT, USA
Demetrios G. Sampson School of Education, Curtin University, Perth, WA,
Australia
Norsamsinar Samsudin Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Perak, Malaysia
Christopher J. Schaefer OSSC Legal Team, IBM, Rochester, MN, USA
Catherine C. Schifter College of Education, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA,
USA
Lee Schlenker Information Systems, ESC Pau and EM Lyon Business School,
Pau, France
Lynne Schrum College of Education, Nova Southeastern University, Fort
Lauderdale, FL, USA
xxii Contributors

Stylianos Sergis Department of Digital Systems, University of Piraeus &

Information Technologies Institute, Centre for Research and Technology—Hellas,
Piraeus, Greece
Brian M. Slator Department of Computer Science, North Dakota State University,
Fargo, ND, USA
J. Michael Spector Department of Learning Technologies, University of North
Texas, Denton, TX, USA
Neal Strudler Department of Teaching & Learning, University of Nevada, Las
Vegas, Las Vegas, NV, USA
Bradley Vender Department of Computer Science, North Dakota State University,
Fargo, ND, USA
Hariyaty Ab Wahid Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Perak, Malaysia
Kausalai (Kay) Wijekumar College of Education, Texas A&M University,
College Station, TX, USA
Peng Yan 3M Corporate Research Laboratory, St. Paul, MN, USA
Junfeng Yang School of Education, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou,
China
Chapter 1
Reflections on the Future of Instructional
Design Research

Jan Elen

Abstract Instructional design aims at being a technological field of enquiry. For

such a science, it is essential that it can build on a strong theoretical base. Confronted
with the phenomenon of noncompliance or instructional disobedience, it is wondered
what the validity and relevance is of the current theoretical base of instructional
design. This is mainly because it builds on data gathered in experimental settings
with interventions of short duration and with self-reporting instruments. It is argued
that new research approaches largely built on the gathering of unobtrusive data in
ecological settings may help to strengthen the knowledge base of instructional design.
This in turn may help instructional science to become an engineering science.

Keywords Instructional design • Theory development • Tool use

1 Introduction

Educational quality is of paramount importance to society. An important way to

bring about quality is through the deliberate and systematic design of learning envi-
ronments. While this sounds straightforward and evident, designing learning envi-
ronments responsively and responsibly is complex. Instructional design research
aims at increasing our understanding of what is important in designing learning
environments and what—within a specific context—are appropriate decisions. In
this contribution, some reflections are formulated with respect to the aims and scope
of instructional design research on the one hand and its future on the other.

This contribution is based on two keynote presentations. The first was given at the EARLI-
conference in Münich, Germany in August 2013; the second was delivered at the CELDA confer-
ence in Porto, Portugal in October 2014.
J. Elen (*)
Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Centre for Instructional Psychology
and Technology, KU Leuven, Dekenstraat 2, Leuven 3000, Belgium
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 1

J.M. Spector et al. (eds.), Competencies in Teaching, Learning and Educational
Leadership in the Digital Age, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-30295-9_1
2 J. Elen

First, it is argued that instructional design implies the practical application of

scientific insights; it is in other words a technology. It builds on basic research that
provides insight in learning processes on the one hand and interactions between
individual learners and features of instructional environments on the other. This idea
of a linking science, of course, aligns with the work of Glaser (1976) who already
in 1976 argued in favor of a specific, prescriptive kind of psychology of instruction
that would tune scientific insights acquired in well-defined empirical settings such
as learning laboratories into instructional designs.
The instructional design research that resulted in these reflections is presented and
discussed in a second part. That research reveals a phenomenon of—to put it a bit
provocatively—instructional disobedience. Research evidence (e.g., Beasley &
Smyth, 2004; Betrancourt, 2005) is growing that learners only rarely interact or behave
as designers expect them to interact. Indeed, students neglect support provided, do not
study the materials in a fixed or expected sequence, reply with shallow answers to
deep-level questions, split group tasks into individual work rather than engaging in
collaborative learning; learners do all sorts of things that designers view as less func-
tional and—given current scientific understanding—as suboptimal for their learning.
Research implications of this phenomenon will be discussed in the third part. It
is explored why—given the nature of the research instructional design builds
upon—the phenomenon might be non-surprising. Further, research is discussed that
might help both to better understand learning and instructional processes and to turn
instructional design into a linking science it wants to be.
Dramatically, new insights will not be revealed in this contribution; rather, cur-
rent practices will be discussed. Nothing of what is presented is new (other than a
specific perspective on current practice) and the basic line of the reasoning is very
familiar; that is to say that this contribution may serve as a pointed reminder of cur-
rent practice and the gap that exists with regard to relevant research and theory. This
reflects a conviction that instructional design research urgently needs more accumu-
lation in order to be able to reveal what is actually new.

2 Instructional Design as a Technology

There are at least two things to be highlighted about instructional design. First, instruc-
tional design aims at the enhancement of learning in an instructional context.
Instructional design is not oriented towards informal learning but towards the kind of
learning that others (e.g., researchers, designers, instructional leaders) want to happen.
The relationship between the goals of external actors and learners is a key and some-
what underestimated issue in instructional design. For optimal learning in an instruc-
tional setting to occur, it is beneficial—if not essential—that learners accept and
appropriate externally recommended or imposed goals. Given this context, motivation
to reach these external goals is a student variable as important as prior knowledge.
Second, instructional design is a technology that offers evidence-based guidelines
on bringing about instruction. The aim of instructional design research is fundamen-
tally practical. It offers guidelines on how to ensure—or at least optimize—learning.
1 Reflections on the Future of Instructional Design Research 3

It is a prescriptive science, providing—within a series of restrictions—the probabi-

listically most optimal (research-based) solution for practical problems.
Instructional design guidelines are often presented in models. Instructional
design models give advice on goal-specific designs and target-specific interventions
of two kinds: (1) learning tasks or interventions that elicit particular learning activi-
ties from the learner, and (2) learning support or interventions that are likely to help
learners to successfully engage in those learning activities.
While instructional design models (ID-models) over the years have dramatically
changed, they continue to show important similarities. It seems impossible, for
instance, to identify a model that does not assume that—in order to learn—particular
activities have to be engaged in by the learner. Learning activities predict learning
outcomes, as noted by Skinner with his teaching machine, Gagné (1985) with his
conditions for learning, Merrill (2002) with his first principles or van Merriënboer
(1997) with the 4C/ID-model. Each of these models provides guidelines to elicit
learning activities. While all of these and other ID-models build on that same
fundamental assumption, differences among the models are significant and reflect
different conceptualizations of learning goals, learner characteristics, and most
importantly learning processes. Different perspectives on learning result in differ-
ent views about the nature of activities to be performed to reach particular goals,
assessing successful attainment of goals as well as about the extent to which
particular learning activities can be—sometimes partially—supplanted (Greeno,
Collins, & Resnick, 1996).
ID-models exemplify the technological nature of instructional design. In view of
solving specific practical problems (designers and instructors want learners to learn
something specific) instructional design builds upon basic scientific insights. For
instructional design, research on learning (including motivation) and more specifi-
cally research on the interaction between environmental features and that learning
are of paramount importance. Instructional design as a research discipline is directed
towards investigating effects of proposed solutions in order to gradually elaborate
models of effective and sustainable solutions. Instructional design, as a practice, uses
these models to develop and implement concrete solutions. This is nicely illustrated
by the work on the 4C/ID-model (van Merriënboer, 1997). The model is firmly
rooted in basic research on learning and instruction, integrates multiple insights,
provides practical advice, and generates new research questions. Given the techno-
logical nature of instructional design, it is clear that its strength depends on the solid-
ity of the research it builds upon. This will be further discussed in the last part.

3 Instructional Disobedience or the Noncompliant Learner

Over the years, research has revealed an interesting phenomenon. Students regu-
larly are instructionally disobedient; that is to say that they do not follow the paths
instructional designers have outlined for them. Considering the findings, Goodyear
(2000) called these learners noncompliant. The phenomenon can be illustrated by a
variety of studies.
4 J. Elen

3.1 Some studies to Illustrate Noncompliance

A first study by Barbara Greene and Susan Land (2000) addresses the use of differ-
ent types of scaffolds. In this qualitative landmark study, 18 college students were
monitored on how they worked with Web resources and how they used different
types of scaffolds. Of specific interest here are procedural scaffolds. As specified by
Greene and Land “The purpose of the questions was to help students frequently
evaluate and reflect on their project ideas by having them answer what and why
questions about their current project plans in order to explain their ideas” (p. 159).
Unfortunately, this is not what happened. As Greene and Land concluded, proce-
dural scaffolds are often not adequate, partly due to omitted questions or superficial
answers, indicating a failure to engage students in deep processing; rather than
using questions to aid cognition, learners seemed to consider questions as impeding
progress and often ignored them.
A second study is one by Geraldine Clarebout. Clarebout (2005) who asked 185
university freshmen to solve ill-structured problems in a computer-based learning
environment using a wide variety of tools such as videos, background information,
and planning tools. Students were distributed over three conditions: (a) a control
condition with tools only, (b) a condition in which a pedagogical agent prompted at
regular intervals the use of tools, and (c) a condition in which a pedagogical agent
adaptively prompted tool use by considering tools already used. Achievement was
measured by the quality of the proposed solution. There was only one significant
result. Students in the nonadaptive advice group in which prompts were offered at
regular intervals, provided more arguments for their solutions than students in the
other groups. Overall, tool use was very low and surprisingly the conditions did not
differ with respect to total amount of tool use. Students, however, differed in the
proportion of time spent using the different tools with the most time spent on using
the information tools. Results further indicate that students most of the time did not
follow advice provided by the pedagogical agent.
A third study is one by Lai Jiang. Jiang (2010) studied the impact of higher order
adjunct questions in instructional texts. Inspired by Rich Mayer (year), 42 univer-
sity students studied a short science text on how lift occurs in airplanes. There were
two conditions: (a) an experimental one with questions and (b) a control condition
without questions. Questions occurred at the end of each relevant paragraph.
Achievement was tested by retention and inference questions. Students in the con-
trol condition outperformed students in the experimental condition on retention
questions, whereas students in the experimental condition outperformed students in
the control condition on the inference questions. It was observed that students
accessed the first question more frequently than the second and third questions.
Furthermore, the quality of question use was studied. It was observed that some
students did try to generate a proper answer whereas others simply copied informa-
tion from the text into the answer field. Overall, frequency of accessing a question
was not related to performance. For quality of use, results confirm the hypothesis
that the higher the quality of the answers students gave to adjunct questions, the
better they performed in the post-test.
1 Reflections on the Future of Instructional Design Research 5

A fourth study is one by Tinne Dewolf and colleagues (2012). In this study, the
impact of pictures while solving word problems was investigated (Dewolf, Van
Dooren, Kellen, & Verschaffel, 2012). Research in mathematical education shows
that students often do not adequately model the situation as described in word prob-
lems and consequently give mathematically possible but realistically impossible
answers. Given text-picture research, it was assumed that pictures would help learn-
ers to better model the situation as described in the word problem. However, no
effect of pictures was retrieved. In a follow-up study using eye-tracking, it was
found that the absence of effect could be due to the negligence of the pictures by the
participants (Dewolf, Van Dooren, Ev Cimen, & Verschaffel, 2014). They simply
did not look at the pictures. In a later study, it was revealed that they did not do so
even after encouragement to do so.
These are only a few studies in a long series of research efforts that suggest four
fascinating conclusions. First, though based on solid theoretical understanding and
empirical evidence, outcomes of these studies were largely not as expected, in most
cases they were even totally disappointing. Second, learners did not behave in line
with what was expected by the designer; they were noncompliant or even disobedient.
Third, in all cases participants had some degree of learner control; that is to say that
they had some freedom to decide whether or not to use the support, or at least they
could decide about how to use the support. Fourth, each of these studies shows that it
is nearly impossible from the description of the instructional environment to predict
what the outcome will be. By using components of the instructional environment, it
is the learner who decides about the use and hence the effects of that environment.
From an instructional design point of view, these conclusions are very discom-
forting. The studies reveal that instructional design is based on the idea of a compli-
ant learner (Goodyear, 2000), which reflects two faulty assumptions (Winne, 2004):
(1) the provision of particular support will elicit the cognitive processes as intended
by the designer (Gerjets & Hesse, 2004; Winne, 2004), and (2), instructional inter-
ventions will elicit similar responses among different students (Lowyck, Lehtinen,
& Elen, 2004; Winne, 2004).

3.2 Explaining the Phenomenon

The phenomenon of noncompliance revealed by these studies is well documented

and several researchers have tried to explain it. Perkins (1985), for instance, proposed
three clusters of factors that affect whether a learning opportunity will be effective:
(1) the opportunity has to be actually present, (2) the learner has to be knowledgeable
about it, and (3) the learner has to be motivated. These factors are discussed next.
First, availability of opportunity pertains to the question whether the actual use
of the tool, support device, or adjunct aid does indeed improve learning. This calls
for a particular type of research since we need a situation that guarantees students to
adequately use the tool and moreover allows us to observe learning effects (perfor-
mance or motivation) at least for particular groups of students. Typical for instance
6 J. Elen

is the mostly experimental, research on advance organizers showing a (conditional)

benefit of adjunct aids (Mayer, 1979). While for most support devices in instruc-
tional texts availability of opportunity has been researched, far less evidence in this
respect is available for a multitude of tools provided in current electronic learning
environments such as links to ample resources and discussion for all kinds of illus-
trations. There is certainly a need for basic instructional research on the actual func-
tionality of the enlarged set of support devices.
The second and third condition of Perkins are research-wise more difficult ones,
and the research base seems far less stable. The second category pertains to knowl-
edgeability of students. Students have to be knowledgeable about the tool’s useful-
ness. Illustrative is the classic study by Gavriel Salomon in 1984. Salomon asked
124 sixth graders to study a comment on abstract art either in a film version or a
printed version. Much care was invested in making both versions as informationally
equivalent as possible. Achievement was tested by using factual recognition and
inference questions. In addition, a number of instruments was administered with
respect to perceptions of media, attribution of failure, perceived self-efficacy and,
after the session, invested mental effort. It was found that while doing equally well
for the factual recognition items, students in the print group performed much better
on the inferences part of the achievement test. Salomon explained these results by
referring to perceptions of students. Students considered learning from film to be
easier and hence invested less effort while studying. The opposite was true for the
print condition. More effort was spent because students regarded studying from
print to be difficult. This finding supports the established notion that time spent on
a learning task will be correlated with the associated learning outcome.
Research suggests that in order to learn in an instructional context learners not
only need knowledge about their own learning but also and specifically about how
elements of the environment can be used to support their learning. Two elements
hamper research on these matters. First, attempts to solidly assess instructionally
relevant conceptions, beliefs, and perceptions have not been very successful. In our
own work, we have elaborated a highly reliable instrument—the instructional con-
ceptions questionnaire—but despite repeated attempts, we have never been
successful in demonstrating any direct or indirect impact of these conceptions on
actual tool-use behavior (reference citation needed here). Second, there is a problem
especially with survey instruments as they largely neglect the volatility of percep-
tions. Lust and colleagues (Lust, Elen, & Clarebout, 2011), for instance, assessed
perceptions of students about Web-based lectures and found a significant difference
in the perceptions at the start and at the end of the semester. Perceptions seem to be
easily modifiable.
Perkins’ third category specifies that the learner has to be motivated to use the
opportunity. In various studies, attempts have been made to include motivational vari-
ables in order to find some clear links between motivation and tool use. The results
are at least inconclusive. In various studies, conflicting results have been found. For
instance, in line with research by Ryan and Pintrich (1997) one may expect a positive
relationship between mastery goal orientation and tool use. While in a study by Jiang
and colleagues (Jiang, Elen, & Clarebout, 2009), some indications were found that
Discovering Diverse Content Through
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Working my
Way Around the World
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Title: Working my Way Around the World

Author: Harry Alverson Franck

Lena M. Franck

Release date: July 16, 2017 [eBook #55129]

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WORKING MY

WAY AROUND THE WORLD ***
 WORKING MY WAY
AROUND THE WORLD

HARRY A. FRANCK
 WORKING MY WAY AROUND THE
WORLD
REWRITTEN BY
LENA M. FRANCK
FROM
HARRY A. FRANCK’S “VAGABOND JOURNEY AROUND THE WORLD”

ILLUSTRATED WITH PHOTOGRAPHS AND WITH MAPS

NEW YORK
THE CENTURY CO.
1918

Copyright, 1918, by
The Century Co.

Published, September, 1918

 DEDICATED TO
ALL YOUNG FIRESIDE TRAVELERS

Still, as my Horizon grew,

Larger grew my riches, too.
 CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

I “Crossin’ the Pond wi’ the Bullocks” 3

II “On the Road” in the British Isles 7

III In Clean Holland 12

IV Not Welcome in the Fatherland 17

V Tramping Through France 24

VI Climbing Over the Alps 29

VII In Sunny Italy 32

VIII Among the Arabs 56

IX A Lonely Journey 75

X Cities of Old 82

XI The Wilds of Palestine 106

 XII Cairo and the Pyramids 129

XIII A Trip Up the Nile 146

XIV Stealing a March on the Far East 164

XV In the Land of the Wandering Prince 180

XVI The Merry Circus Days 194

XVII Three Wanderers in India 204

XVIII The Ways of the Hindu 216

XIX In the Heart of India 224

XX Beyond the Ganges 242

XXI Tramping Through Burma 250

XXII In the Jungles of Burma 265

XXIII In Siam 276

XXIV Hungry Days 287

XXV Following the Menam River to Bangkok 304

XXVI On the Way to Hong-Kong 316

XXVII Wandering in Japan 322

XXVIII Homeward Bound 332

 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Harry A. Franck Frontispiece

PAGE

A baker’s cart of Holland on the morning round 14

Boundary line between France and Germany 21

My entrance into Paris 22

The Bridge of Sighs 39

My gondolier on the Grand Canal 41

Country family returning from market 49

Italian peasants returning from the vineyards to the

village 53

The lonely, Bedouin-infected road over the Lebanon 76

On the road between Haifa and Nazareth I met a

road repair gang 98
The shopkeeper and traveling salesman with whom I
spent two nights and a day on the lonely road to
Jerusalem 117

The Palestine beast of burden 119

A woman of Alexandria, Egypt, carrying two bushels

of oranges 130

An abandoned mosque outside the walls of Cairo 132

An Arab café in Old Cairo 134

Sais or carriage runners of Cairo, clearing the streets

for their master 138

An Arab gardener 140

Egypt—A young Arab climbing down the pyramid 142

On the top of the largest pyramid 143

A trip to the pyramids 144

“Along the way shadoofs were ceaselessly dipping up

the water” 147

The Egyptian fellah dwells in a hut of reeds and mud 156

Soudan steamer on the Nile 160

Arab passengers on the Nile steamer 162

A Singhalese woman stops often to give her children

a bath 182

The yogi who ate twenty-eight of the bananas at a

sitting 187

The thatch roof at the roadside 190

I take a last ’rickshaw ride before taking the steamer

for India 205

“Haywood” snaps me as I am getting a shave in

Trichinopoly 209

The Hindu street-sprinkler does not lay much dust 228

I do a bit of laundry work 235

A lady of Delhi out for a drive in a bullock cart 240

The chief of a jungle village agrees to guide us for

one day’s journey 267

A freight carrier crossing the stream that separates

Burma from Siam 277

My companion, Gerald James of Perth, Australia,

crossing the boundary line between Burma and
Siam 279
The sort of jungle through which we cut our way for
three weeks 292

Myself after four days in the jungle, and the Siamese

soldiers who invited us to eat a frog and lizard
supper 297

An elephant, with a Mahout dozing on his head, was

advancing toward us 307

Bangkok is a city of many canals 317

My ’rickshaw man 322

Numadzu 323

Some street urchins near Tokio 325

Osaka 326

Horses are rare in Japan 328

Japanese children playing in the streets of Kioto 329

Women do most of the work in the rice-fields of

Japan 330

Yokohama decorated in honor of Secretary Taft’s

party 334
A Yokohama street decorated for the Taft party 338
WORKING MY WAY AROUND THE
WORLD
 CHAPTER I
“CROSSIN’ THE POND WI’ THE BULLOCKS”

After spending some sixteen years in schools and colleges, I

decided, one spring, to take a year off and make a trip around the
world. I had no money for such a journey; but that didn’t matter for
I meant to “work my way” from place to place. I spoke French and
German, and had some knowledge of Spanish and Italian. I believed
that if I had to work among the people of foreign countries I would
learn more of them and of their languages than in any other way. So
I was not sorry that I had to start my journey with only my camera
and one hundred and four dollars for films.
As a beginning I had arranged to cross the Atlantic on a cattle-boat
in the employ of a company in Walkerville, Canada. This company
ships thousands of cattle to the markets of England every year.
When I asked for a job as cattleman, they employed me at once. So
it happened that on the eighteenth of June, 1904, I crossed the
Detroit River to Canada, and walked two miles to the Walkerville
cattle-barns. From the long rows of low brick buildings sounded now
and then a deep bellow, or the song or whistle of a stock feeder at
his labor. I left my bag at the office and joined the crew in the yard.
The cattlemen had already begun driving the cattle from the stables.
It was no easy task. As soon as they were free, the sleek animals
began to prance, to race, and to bellow, leading the stockmen a
merry chase all around the yard. Little by little, however, the men
managed to urge them slowly up the chute into the waiting cars.
The setting sun had reddened the western sky, and darkness had
fallen in the alleyways between the endless stables, before the last
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