Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties

Modern Periodic Law: The physical and chemical properties of the elements are periodic
functions of their atomic number.
Modern version of the periodic table is called long form of the periodic table where there are
seven periods (horizontal rows) and eighteen groups (verticals columns).
s-block elements

The elements in which the last electron enters the s-subshell of their outermost energy level.
They are otherwise called as representative elements.

Characteristics of s-block elements

➢ General electronic configuration ns1-2

➢ Soft reactive metals (alkali and alkaline earth)
➢ Low melting and boiling points
➢ Low ionization enthalpy
➢ Highly electro-positive
➢ Good reducing agents
➢ Form ionic compounds (except Li and Be)
p-block elements
The elements in which the last electron enters the p-subshell of their outermost energy level.
They are also called as representative elements.
Characteristics of p-block elements
➢ General electronic configuration ns2, np1-6
➢ They can be metal, non-metal or metalloids
➢ Have variable oxidation states
➢ Have high ionization enthalpy
➢ Electro-negative elements
➢ Form ionic as well as covalent compounds
d-block elements
The elements in which the last electron enters the d-subshell of the penultimate energy
level. They are also called as transition elements.
Characteristics of d-block elements

➢ General electronic configuration (n-1)d1-10, ns0-2

➢ Hard metals with high melting points.
➢ Have variable oxidation states
➢ Form colored complex
➢ Exhibit para-magnetism
➢ Have catalytic properties
➢ Good conductors of heat and electricity
Page 1 of 10
Why are d-block elements called transition metals?

d-block elements form a bridge between highly reactive metals in the s-block and less
reactive elements in Group 13-14 in the p-block. Hence d-block elements are called
transition metals.

Why do Zinc, Cadmium and Mercury not exhibit properties of transition metals?

Zinc, Cadmium and Mercury do not exhibit properties of transition metals because the d-
subshell in these elements are completely filled.

f-block elements

The elements in which the last electron enters the f-subshell of the anti-penultimate energy
level. They are also called as inner transition elements.

4f inner-transition series are called Lanthanoid series

5f inner-transition series are called Actinoid series
Characteristics of f-block elements
➢ General electronic configuration (n-2)f1-14, (n-1)d0-1, ns2
➢ Have high melting points / densities.
➢ Have variable oxidation states
➢ Form colored complex
Most of the elements in the Actinoid series are radioactive.

What are inner transition elements?

The two series of f-block elements that follow Lanthanum and Actinium are called inner
transition elements.
What are trans uranium elements?
The f-block elements after Uranium are called trans uranium elements.
Periodic Trends in Properties of Elements
Atomic Radius
The distance from the center of the nucleus of an atom to the outermost shell of electrons is
called its atomic radius.
Why can’t we measure the atomic radius accurately?
➢ Atom is too small to be isolated
➢ Electron cloud surrounding the atom does not have sharp boundaries.

Covalent Radius: One half of the distance between the centers of the nuclei of similar
atoms bound by a single covalent bond is called covalent radius. The size of a nonmetal is
usually measured using covalent radius.

Page 2 of 10
Metallic Radius

One half of the inter-nuclear distance between two adjacent atoms in a metallic lattice is
called metallic radius. The size of a metal is usually measured using metallic radius.

Vanderwaal’s Radius

One half of the inter-nuclear distance between two adjacent isolated atoms at the time of
their closest approach is called Vanderwaal’s radius. The size of noble gases is usually
measured using Vanderwaal’s radius.

Vanderwaal’s radius > metallic radius > covalent radius

Variation of atomic radius along the period:

Atomic radius decreases as we move along the period because the number of protons
increases but additional electron enters the same energy level. So the electrons experience
increased effective nuclear charge, hence there is a decrease in atomic radius.

Variation of atomic radius down the group:

Down the group, each element has one additional energy level added to the atom. The
effective nuclear charge experienced by the valence electron decreases with increase in
atomic size. Hence the atomic size increases down the group.

Variation of Ionic Radii

Radius of cation is smaller than the parent atom. Na > Na+

In cations, the nuclear charge remains the same as the parent atom. But there is loss of
electron which results in increase of effective nuclear charge per electron. Hence this results
in decrease in size of the ion.

Radius of anion is greater than the parent atom. Cl- > Cl

Anion is formed by the gain of electrons without the change in nuclear charge. Since same
nuclear charge acts on increased number of electrons, the effective nuclear charge per
electron decreases in the anion, which causes increase in the size.

What are iso-electronic species? How does the size of iso-electronic ions vary?

The ions having same number of electrons but different nuclear charge are called iso-
electronic species.
Among the iso-electronic species, the one with more nuclear charge will have smaller size.
Eg. F-, O2-, N3-, Na+, Mg2+, Al3+ are all iso-electronic.
The increasing order of the ionic radius of these species will be:
Al3+ < Mg2+ < Na+ < F- < O2- < N3-
Page 3 of 10
 Ionization Enthalpy

Ionization Enthalpy of an element may be defined as the amount of energy required to

remove an electron from the outermost orbit of an isolated gaseous atom in the ground
state.

What are factors on which Ionization Enthalpy depends?

➢ Size of the atom - Size increases; IE decreases

➢ Magnitude of nuclear charge - Nuclear charge increases; IE increases
➢ Screening Effect - More number of inner electrons result in effective screening, hence
IE decreases.
➢ Penetrating Effect - In the same shell, it is easier to remove p-electron than s-electron
because the penetrating power decreases in the order s > p > d > f. Therefore if
penetrating power increases, IE also increases.
➢ Electronic configuration – Half-filled / completely filled orbitals are more stable, hence
difficult to remove electron. So presence of Half-filled / completely filled orbitals,
increases IE
Variation of Ionization Enthalpy along the period:

Ionization Enthalpy increases as we move along the period because the number of protons
increases, electrons enter the same energy level and there is a decrease in atomic radius.
Due to the combined effect of the increased nuclear charge (due to proton addition) and
decrease in atomic size, IE increases along the period.

Variation of Ionization Enthalpy down the group:

Down the group, nuclear charge increases. Atomic size also increases due to the addition of
new shell for each element, the number of inner electron increases which increases the
shielding effect on the outer electrons. As a result, IE decreases down the group.

Why does the IE decrease from Beryllium to Boron?

➢ Effect of increase in nuclear charge from Beryllium to Boron is cancelled by the

greater penetration of 2s electrons in Beryllium as compared to 2p electrons in Boron
➢ Better shielding of 2p electrons by 2s electrons in Boron.
➢ Stable configuration of Beryllium with completely filled 2s orbital.

Why does the IE decrease from Nitrogen to Oxygen?

The presence of half-filled 2p orbital in Nitrogen accounts for the extra stability. Hence it is
difficult to remove the electron. Whereas, Oxygen has partially filled p-orbital and therefore
electrons can be easily removed. Hence IE decreases from Nitrogen to Oxygen.

Page 4 of 10
Why do noble gas have higher IE?
Valence shell of noble gases are completely filled. Due to symmetry reasons, completely
filled orbitals are more stable. So, more energy is required to remove an electron from the
noble gases.
Why are successive IE higher than the first IE?
After the removal of the first electron, the atom changes into mono-positive ion. The number
of electrons decrease, but the nuclear charge remains the same. This results in the increase
of effective nuclear charge per electron. So the consecutive IE are higher.

Electron Gain Enthalpy

When an electron is added to a neutral gaseous atom to convert it into negative ion, the
enthalpy change accompanying this process is defined as Electron Gain Enthalpy.
Variation of Electron Gain Enthalpy along the period:
As we move along the period, the nuclear charge increases and the atomic size decreases.
So the force of attraction exerted by the nucleus on the electron increases, hence more
energy is released. Therefore, Electron Gain Enthalpy increases as we move from left to
right.
Variation of Electron Gain Enthalpy down the group:
As we move down the group, both the atomic size and nuclear charge increases. However,
the effect of increase in the atomic size outweighs (is higher than) the effect of increased
nuclear charge. Hence the tendency to accept an electron in the valence shell decreases
resulting in a lower Electron Gain Enthalpy. Therefore, the magnitude of Electron Gain
Enthalpy decreases down the group.
Why is the Electron Gain Enthalpy of Be and Mg Zero?
Be and Mg have fully filled s-orbital. Due to the extra stability of the fully filled orbital, they
show no tendency to gain additional electron. Hence the Electron Gain Enthalpy is zero for
these elements.
Why is the Electron Gain Enthalpy for Nitrogen and Phosphorus very low?
Nitrogen and Phosphorus have half-filled p-orbitals which are more stable. So, the do not
show tendency to accept electrons. Therefore their Electron Gain Enthalpy is very low.
Why is the Electron Gain Enthalpy of noble gases Zero?
Noble gases have completely filled p-orbitals. Due to the extra stability of the completely
filled orbitals, they show no tendency to gain additional electron. Hence the Electron Gain
Enthalpy is zero for noble gases.

Page 5 of 10
Why is the Electron Gain Enthalpy of halogens very high?
Halogens have ns2, np5 configuration. They require only one electron in the p-orbital to
attain noble gas configuration. Therefore more energy is released when electron is added to
halogen which results in very high Electron Gain Enthalpy.
Which of the following pair has a more negative Electron Gain Enthalpy O or F? Why?
On moving from oxygen to fluorine the effective nuclear charge increases and atomic size
decreases. Due to this the force of attraction from the nucleus increases for the incoming
electron. Hence the electron gain enthalpy of fluorine is more negative than oxygen.
Why is the Electron Gain Enthalpy of Chlorine higher than Fluorine?
Fluorine atom is small and has high electron density. So the added electron will experience
strong electron-electron repulsion in the 2p orbital and some energy is spent to overcome
the repulsion. Therefore, the net energy released when an electron is added is less.
In case of Chlorine atom, the electron is added to relatively 3p orbitals. Therefore, the
electron-electron repulsion in the 3p orbital is less. So the Electron Gain Enthalpy is more
than that of Fluorine.
Note: Similar answer to be given for the low Electron Gain Enthalpy in Carbon compared to
Silicon and Oxygen compared to Sulphur.
Electronegativity
➢ The qualitative measure of the ability of an atom in a chemical compound to attract
shared pair of electrons to itself is called electronegativity.
➢ It is not a measureable quantity, hence various scales like Pauling scale, Mulliken –
Jaffe scale, Allred-Rochow scale are available.
➢ Pauling scale is widely used where Fluorine the most electronegative element is
given a value of 4.0.
➢ The electronegativity of element is constant but varies with the element to which it is
bound. Eg, in Na2O oxygen is more electronegative but in case of OF2 oxygen is less
electronegative than fluorine.
➢ Electronegativity is related to the non-metallic properties of the element.
➢ Along the period the electronegativity increases and the non-metallic nature also
increases.
➢ Down the group electronegativity decreases and the metallic character increases.
Define Valence:
The valence of representative elements is equal to the number of electrons in the outermost
shell and / or equal to 8 minus number of outermost electrons.

Why do s-block elements act as reducing agents?

Loss of electron is called oxidation. Element that undergoes oxidation act as reducing
agents. Alkali or Alkaline earth metals (s-block elements) are ready to lose electrons to
attain stable configuration. Hence they act as reducing agents.
Page 6 of 10
Why do halogens act as oxidizing agents?
Gain of electron is called reduction. Element that undergoes reduction act as oxidizing
agents. Halogens are ready to gain electrons due to their high electronegativity in order to
attain noble gas configuration. Hence they act as oxidizing agents.
Nature of Oxides formed:
Basic oxides: The oxides formed by the elements in the extreme left of the periodic table
are basic in nature. When dissolved in water they form strong bases. Eg Na2O, CaO, MgO
etc.
Na2O + H2O 2 NaOH CaO + H2O Ca (OH)2
Acidic oxides: The oxides formed by the elements in the extreme right of the periodic table
are acidic in nature. When dissolved in water they from strong acids. Eg Cl 2O, SO3, CO2
etc.
Cl2O7 + H2O 2 HClO4 SO3 +H2O H2SO4

Amphoteric oxides: The oxides formed by the elements in the center of the periodic table
form amphoteric oxides. They react as acids with bases and bases with acids. Eg. Al 2O3,
As2O3
Neutral oxides: The elements in the center of the periodic table also form neutral oxides.
They have no acidic or basic properties. Eg. CO, N2O, NO.
Anomalous properties of second period elements:
The first element of each of the groups 1 (Li) and 2 (Be) and groups 13-17(B to F) differ from
other members of the group.
Li and Be predominantly form covalent compounds while the other members form ionic
compounds.
Li and Be resemble Mg and Al which are diagonally placed in the periodic table. This sort of
similarity is commonly referred to as diagonal relationship in the periodic properties.
What are the reasons for the different chemical behaviour of the first member of a
group of elements in the s and p block compared to the subsequent members in the
group?
Reasons for the anomalous behaviour are:
➢ Their small size
➢ Large charge / radius ratio
➢ High electronegativity
➢ Absence of empty d-orbitals
➢ Ability to form pπ-pπ multiple bonds with itself and other second period elements

Page 7 of 10
Explain why Boron can only form [BF4]- and Aluminium can form [AlF6]3-
Boron has got only four valence orbitals (2s and 3-2p) available for bonding. But Aluminium
has got nine valence orbitals (3s, 3p and 5-3d). As a consequence, the maximum covalency
of Boron is only 4 whereas Aluminium can expand their valence shell to accommodate more
electrons.
NCERT SOLUTIONS:
1. What is the basic difference in approach between the Mendeleev’s periodic law and
modern periodic law?
Mendeleev’s periodic law states that the properties of the elements are a periodic function of
the atomic mass.
Modern periodic law states that the properties of elements are a periodic function of their
atomic numbers.
2. On basis of quantum numbers, justify that sixth period of the periodic table should
have 32 elements.
In modern periodic table each period starts with the filling of a new principal energy level.
Sixth period start filling up n=6 energy level. According to Aufbau principle, the electrons are
filled in order of their increasing energies. In sixth period the electrons will be filled in 6s,6p
5d and 4f orbitals. There are 16 orbitals and 32 electrons can be placed hence there can be
32 elements in the 6th period.
3. What does atomic radius ionic radius mean?
Refer notes for the explanation.
4. How would you explain the fact that the first ionization enthalpy of sodium is lower
than that of magnesium but its second ionization enthalpy is higher than that of
magnesium?
The first ionization enthalpy of Mg is higher than that of Na because it has greater nuclear
charge and stable electronic configuration (completely filled s orbital).
However the second ionization enthalpy of Na is higher than of Mg because Na+ ion has a
noble gas electronic configuration which is more stable and Mg+ ion has one electron in the
outermost shell on losing which it gets a noble gas configuration so has less value.
5. What is the significance of the term isolated gaseous atom and ground state in
definition of ionization enthalpy and electron gain enthalpy?
For the determination of ionization enthalpy and electron gain enthalpy it is essential that the
interatomic forces of attraction should be minimum. In gaseous state the atoms are far apart
from each other and interatomic forces are minimum hence isolated gaseous atom is
mentioned in the definition.
The atom is most stable when it is in its ground state. If the atom is in excited state less
energy is needed to remove the electron form valence shell, and less energy is released
when an electron is added. Hence the atoms must be in the ground state for the
determination of ionization enthalpy and electron gain enthalpy.
Page 8 of 10
5. Would you expect the second electron gain enthalpy of O as positive, more
negative or less negative than the first? Justify your answer.
When an electron is added to O atom to form O- ion, energy is released. Thus, the first
electron gain enthalpy of O is negative. O(g) + e- → O- (g) EGE = - 141 kJ/mol
On the other hand, when an electron is added to O- ion to form O2- ion, energy has to be
given out in order to overcome the strong electronic repulsions. Thus, the second electron
gain enthalpy of O is positive. O-(g) + e- → O2- (g) EGE = +780 kJ/mol
6. The first ionization enthalpy values (in kJ/mol ) of group 13 elements are:

How would you explain this deviation from the general trend?
On moving down group 13, ionization enthalpy decreases due to an increase in the atomic
size and shielding from B to Al as expected.
Ga has higher ionization enthalpy than Al, Al follows immediately after s-block elements,
whereas Ga follows after d-block elements. The shielding provided by d-electrons is not very
effective. These electrons do not shield the valence electrons very effectively. As a result,
the valence electrons of Ga experience a greater effective nuclear charge than those of Al.
Further, moving from Ga to In, the ionization enthalpy decreases due to an increase in the
atomic size and shielding. On moving from In to Tl, the ionization enthalpy again increases.
In the periodic table, Tl follows after 4f and 5d electrons. The shielding provided by the
electrons in both these orbitals is not very effective. Therefore, the valence electron is held
quite strongly by the nucleus. Hence, the ionization energy of Tl is on the higher side.

7. What are the various factors due to which the ionization enthalpy of the main group
elements tends to decrease down a group?
(i) Increase in the atomic size of elements: As we move down a group, the number of
shells increases. As a result, the atomic size also increases gradually on moving down a
group. As the distance of the valence electrons from the nucleus increases, the electrons
are not held very strongly. Thus, they can be removed easily. Hence, on moving down a
group, ionization energy decreases.
(ii) Increase in the shielding effect: The number of inner shells of electrons increases on
moving down a group. Therefore, the shielding of the valence electrons from the nucleus by
the inner core electrons increases down a group. As a result, the valence electrons are not
held very tightly by the nucleus. Hence, the energy required to remove a valence electron
decreases down a group.

Page 9 of 10
8. What is the basic difference between the terms electron gain enthalpy and electro-
negativity?
Electron gain enthalpy is the measure of the tendency of an isolated gaseous atom to
accept an electron, whereas electronegativity is the measure of the tendency of an atom in a
chemical compound to attract a shared pair of electrons.
9. How would you react to the statement that the electro-negativity of N on Pauling
scale is 3.0 in all the nitrogen compounds?
Electronegativity of an element is a variable property. It is different in different compounds.
Hence, the statement which says that the electronegativity of N on Pauling scale is 3.0 in all
nitrogen compounds is incorrect. The electronegativity of N is different in NH3 and NO2
10. Would you expect the first ionization enthalpies for two isotopes of the same
element to be the same or different? Justify your answer.
The ionization enthalpy of an atom depends on the number of electrons and protons
(nuclear charge) of that atom. Now, the isotopes of an element have the same number of
protons and electrons. Therefore, the first ionization enthalpy for two isotopes of the same
element should be the same.
11. The increasing order of reactivity among group 1 elements is Li < Na < K < Rb <Cs
whereas that among group 17 elements is F > CI > Br > I. Explain.
The elements present in group 1 have only 1 valence electron, which they tend to lose.
Group 17 elements, on the other hand, need only one electron to attain the noble gas
configuration. On moving down group 1, the ionization enthalpies decrease. This means that
the energy required to lose the valence electron decreases. Thus, reactivity increases on
moving down a group. Thus, the increasing order of reactivity among group 1 elements is as
follows:
Li < Na < K < Rb < Cs
In group 17, as we move down the group from Cl to I, the electron gain enthalpy becomes
less negative i.e., its tendency to gain electrons decreases down group 17. Thus, reactivity
decreases down a group. The electron gain enthalpy of F is less negative than Cl. Still, it is
the most reactive halogen. This is because of its low bond dissociation energy. Thus, the
decreasing order of reactivity among group 17 elements is as follows:
F > Cl > Br > I

Page 10 of 10