Article

Study of Synergetic Optimization Operation for Distribution

Network Considering Multiple Reactive Power Output Modes of
Photovoltaics and Different Port Numbers of Flexible
Interconnection Devices
Yijin Li 1 , Jibo Wang 1 , Zihao Zhang 1 , Wenhao Xu 1 , Ming Wu 2 and Geng Niu 2, *

1 School of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology-Beijing,
Haidian District, Beijing 100083, China; [email protected] (Y.L.);
[email protected] (J.W.); [email protected] (Z.Z.);
[email protected] (W.X.)
2 State Grid Shanghai Energy Interconnection Research Institute, China Electric Power Research Institute,
Haidian District, Beijing 100192, China; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Due to the integration of distributed photovoltaic (PV) into distribution networks,
significant challenges have affected voltage regulation and power quality maintenance.
To improve the flexibility and stability of system operation, a synergetic optimization
operation method based on PV and a flexible interconnection device (FID) is proposed.
Both PV and FID hold the capability of controlling active power and reactive power.
Besides the active power output of PV, three reactive power output schemes of power
factor controlling, direct reactive power output, and night static var generator scheme are
defined and analyzed. By adopting different schemes during the day or night, five reactive
power output modes were built. FID with four-quadrant power control ability was used to
coordinate with PV in system power balance. Different port numbers of FIDs are discussed.
An optimization model with the aim of reducing voltage deviation, network loss, and the
ratio of PV abandonment was constructed. Three algorithms were used for solving the
Academic Editor: Fabrice Goubard multi-objective optimization model. Simulation results verify that the proposed synergetic
Received: 2 February 2025 optimization method can obviously improve power quality and decrease network loss. The
Revised: 26 February 2025 optimal performance is obtained when PV operates in mode 5 and FID holds four ports.
Accepted: 5 March 2025 The proposed method shows potential in the coordinated operation of various resources
Published: 7 March 2025
and the flexible interconnection of the distribution network.
Citation: Li, Y.; Wang, J.; Zhang, Z.;
Xu, W.; Wu, M.; Niu, G. Study of Keywords: synergetic optimization; distribution network; photovoltaic (PV); reactive
Synergetic Optimization Operation for
power output mode; flexible interconnection device (FID)
Distribution Network Considering
Multiple Reactive Power Output
Modes of Photovoltaics and Different
Port Numbers of Flexible
Interconnection Devices. Appl. Sci. 1. Introduction
2025, 15, 2923. https://doi.org/ Owing to the development of distributed generations (DGs) and the requirement of
10.3390/app15062923
environment protection, more DGs are integrated into distribution networks [1,2]. Despite
Copyright: © 2025 by the authors. holding the advantages of being flexible, economic, and environmentally friendly, the
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. integration of DGs bring significant challenges to the stable operation of distribution
This article is an open access article
networks, resulting in the problems of bi-directional power flow, voltage out-of-limit, and
distributed under the terms and
line overload [3,4]. Traditional methods for voltage regulation includes on-load tap changer
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license
(OLTC) and capacitor bank (CB) [5,6]. However, utilizing OLTC requires abundant reactive
(https://creativecommons.org/ power in a system. CB may cause harmonic amplification and significant impact current.
licenses/by/4.0/). Thus, new methods have to be explored for distribution networks to improve power quality.

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 2923 https://doi.org/10.3390/app15062923

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 2923 2 of 19

A flexible interconnection device (FID) is a power electronic device. It can flexibly

control power flow through voltage source converter (VSC) technology. Thus, it is used for
feeder connection in distribution networks [7–9]. FID usually replaces the tie switches for
the connection of two or more feeders [10]. FID can control active and reactive power flow
separately. It shows the advantages of continuous adjustment and rapid response [11,12],
which are applicable for operation optimization. Ehsanbakhsh M. et al. [13] constructed a
stochastic scenario-based optimization model to simultaneously optimize the siting and
sizing of soft open points (SOPs) and tie switches. The optimal operation strategy of
these devices is obtained during the network reconfiguration process, thereby significantly
improving the operational efficiency and system stability of the distribution network.
Wang X. et al. [14] proposed a multi-objective robust optimization model based on various
controllable devices as a flexible distribution switch and energy storage. The proposed
method can obviously decrease network losses, increase the profit, and improve voltage
profiles. Ali Z.M. et al. [15] introduced a novel mathematical optimization algorithm for
maximizing hosting capacity (HC) through sequential network reconfiguration and SOP
placement. A new SOP allocation index is proposed, which effectively improves distribu-
tion network performance and optimizes DG penetration. Deakin M. et al. [16] designed a
hybrid multi-terminal soft open point (MT-SOP) to efficiently improve distribution system
interconnection capacity. A case study showed that the hybrid MT-SOP increased the
utilization of converters and reduced system loss. Shi M. et al. [17] presented a cooperative
control strategy of a flexible interconnection device and energy storage. The proposed con-
trol strategy can achieve power mutual aid between feeders, leading to the stable operation
of the power grid.
A photovoltaic (PV) system, as a typical DG, can selectively provide active power and
reactive power based on inverter control [18]. The IEEE 1547-2018 standard indicates that
inverter-based distributed energy resources can actively participate in voltage regulation by
modulating the active and reactive power output [19]. Several studies have concentrated on
the optimization of a PV inverter. Guo W. et al. [20] proposed a harmonic suppression and
reactive power compensation strategy for a distribution network based on a photovoltaic
multifunctional grid connected inverter. Except for the active power output of PV, the
remaining capacity of the inverter was utilized to offer reactive power compensation for
better power quality. Rahman M.M. et al. [21] propounded an advanced nonlinear control
scheme based on adaptive integral back stepping for the optimization of a three-phase
grid-connected photovoltaic inverter. The scheme aims to maximize the power output of
the photovoltaic system, precisely control active and reactive power, and reduce harmonic
injection. De Jesus V.M.R et al. [22] studied the PV inverter’s capability to provide harmonic
current compensation for nonlinear loads and proposed an algorithm to determine the
capability curves of a multifunctional inverter during the harmonic current compensation
process. Rossoni P. et al. [23] presented a hybrid approach considering both distribution
network reconfiguration and the reactive power of a PV inverter. The PV inverter control of
different power factors was discussed. The combination of PV inverter control and network
reconfiguration can reduce active power loss by more than 37%. Alrashidi M. et al. [24]
provided a voltage management strategy by the coordination of battery energy storage
systems and smart PV inverters.
To comprehensively improve stability and economy of the distribution network opera-
tion, the aforementioned PV and FID are simultaneously used. Due to the high R/X ratio of
distribution networks [25], both active power and reactive power will influence the voltage
profile and power quality. The optimization of active power and reactive power is required.
It is difficult to obtain satisfied performance when adjustment is carried out with a single
device. Thus, synergetic optimization is proposed. Active power control can be achieved by
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 2923 3 of 19

FID and PV. However, the curtailment of PV active power results in low a PV consumption
rate and additional economical loss. To take the PV consumption rate into consideration,
minimizing the ratio of PV abandonment is set as another optimization objective, except
for power quality. The reactive power control can also be realized by FID and PV. However,
the earlier reactive power optimization of PV mainly focuses on capacity constraint and
power factor constraint. The specific analysis of PV reactive power output mode needs
further study. In addition, different port numbers of FID and different solving algorithms
of the optimal model can also impact the operation, which requires more analysis.
In this paper, a synergetic optimization operation method of PV and FID is proposed.
Multiple scenarios are taken into consideration including different reactive power output
modes of PV, different port numbers of FID, and different algorithms for the solution. The
main contributions of this paper can be summarized as follows:
(1) A synergetic optimization operation method of PV and FID is constructed. Three
objectives of voltage deviation, network loss, and ratio of PV abandonment are
selected. To flexibly control active power and reactive power, multiple reactive
power output schemes of PV and multiple port numbers of FID are considered as
constraints. The proposed method enhances power flow controlling, which provides
better operation performance.
(2) Five reactive power output modes of PV are analyzed and simulated. Three reactive
power output schemes of power factor controlling, direct reactive power output, and
night static var generator (SVG) scheme are considered. According to the adoption of
different output schemes in different periods (day and night), five modes are built,
simulated, compared, and discussed. By adopting a direct reactive power output
scheme during daytime and the SVG scheme at night, PV is fully utilized in both
active power consumption and reactive power compensation, which also improves
the flexibility and stability of the system.
(3) Multiple operation and optimization situations are analyzed and compared to verify
the effectiveness of the proposed method. FIDs with different port numbers are taken
into account. Three algorithms for solving the optimization model are compared.
Cases with increasing permeability are simulated. Simulations show that the combi-
nation of FID with four ports, PV with operation mode 5, and the solving algorithm of
NSGA-II gives the best result, which is the most suitable for optimization operation.
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows: Section 2 introduces the modeling
of PV and FID. Multiple reactive power output modes of a PV inverter are considered.
Section 3 develops a synergetic optimization operation model of PV and FID. Section 4
introduces three algorithms for solving the proposed multi-objective optimization model.
Section 5 presents case studies. Section 6 gives the conclusion.

2. Modeling of PV and FID

2.1. Modeling of PV Considering Multiple Reactive Power Output Modes
A PV system mainly consists of the photovoltaic panel and the inverter. The photo-
voltaic panel transforms solar energy into electricity based on the photoelectric effect. The
inverter controls the power output. Both active power and reactive power can be provided.
The total output of active power and reactive power should not exceed the capacity of the
inverter at any time. The constraint can be described as follows:
q
( PPV.m )2 + ( QPV.n )2 ≤ SFV.n (1)

where PPV.m is the active power output of PVm . QPV.n is the reactive power output of PVm .
SFV.n is the capacity of PVm . m is the number of PV.
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 2923 4 of 19

The active power output is related to light intensity and environmental temperature.
Generally, a PV is operated under the maximum power point tracking (MPPT) mode. Thus,
maximum active power can be output, and a high consumption rate of PV is obtained.
However, owing to the big resistance/inductance ratio (R/X) of a distribution network,
the voltage is also sensitive to the change in active power. The injection of large amounts
of active power can cause the voltage rise or even voltage out-of-limit. The intermittence
and fluctuation of active power output also affect the power flow. Thus, the active power
output of PVm cannot exceed the active power of PVm under MPPT mode (PMPPT,m ). To
make full use of the PV and keep voltage within limits, the ratio of PV abandonment is set
as an objective function to be minimized. The optimization will obtain an optimal solution
for the whole system, instead of only for the PV.
According to the investigation of the product specifications of photovoltaic inverter
manufacturers and the technical specifications established by some countries, the reactive
power output by PV inverter holds three schemes. The first one is the power factor
controlling scheme. The power factor of a PV inverter is restricted to the range of −cos θ
to cos θ. This scheme can only be used during daytime. The reactive power is limited
as follows:
Q
− tan θ ≤ PV,m ≤ tan θ (2)
PPV,m
The second scheme is the direct reactive power output scheme. The reactive power
output is no more than ±tan θ of the rated power. The constraint is as follows:

− tan θ × SPV,m ≤ Q PV,m ≤ tan θ × SPV,m (3)

The third scheme is the night SVG scheme. The reactive power output is only limited
by the rated power. The following occurs:

−SPV,m ≤ Q PV,m ≤ SPV,m (4)

These last two schemes can be used during both daytime and nighttime. However,
during daytime, the active power and reactive power output should also satisfy the capac-
ity constraint.
The first two schemes are mainly used to satisfy the dispatching of reactive power.
The third scheme is utilized to compensate the reactive power of the devices. To evaluate
the performance of PV inverters’ participation in reactive power optimization, different
schemes are adopted at different time periods, such as during the day and night. Five
reactive power output modes are built. The reactive power output ranges of the PV inverter
in each mode are shown in Figure 1. The corresponding constraint equation selections are
listed in Table 1. In the paper, cos θ is set as 0.95.

Table 1. Constraint equations of five modes.

Night (PVs Do Not Output

Mode Day (PVs Output Active Power)
Active Power)
1 Equation (3) Equation (3)
2 Equation (3) Equation (4)
3 Equation (4) Equation (4)
4 Equation (3) Equation (5)
5 Equation (4) Equation (5)
 Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 19
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 2923 5 of 19

Figure 1. The reactive power output ranges of the PV inverter for five modes.
Figure 1. The reactive power output ranges of the PV inverter for five modes.
2.2. Modeling of FID
Table 1. Constraint equations of five modes.
FID is a fully controlled power electronic device. Two or more VSCs connect at the
DCMode
side, forming a back-to-back
Day (PVs Output Activestructure.
Power)Each VSC(PVs
Night forms
DoaNot
port. The port
Output connects
Active to
Power)
the DC
1 bus internally.Equation
The port(3)connects to distribution feeders externally,
Equation (3) achieving the
2
interconnection Equation
of different (3)
feeders. Equation (4)
3Generally, FID is Equation
operated in(4)PQ-Vdc Q control mode. Both Equation
the voltage(4) at the DC side
4 active/reactive
and the Equation
power are(3) controlled. The active power
Equation
satisfies(5)
the conservation
5 all ports of an Equation
law for FID. It can(4)
be described as follows: Equation (5)

2.2. Modeling of FID k

∑ PVSC,i = 0 (5)
FID is a fully controlled power electronic
t =1 device. Two or more VSCs connect at the
DC side, forming a back-to-back structure. Each VSC forms a port. The port connects to
Therein, PVSC,i is the active power of VSCi . The k is the amount of FID ports.
the DC bus internally. The port connects to distribution feeders externally, achieving the
The reactive power output is controlled independently for each port. The total active
interconnection of different feeders.
power output and reactive power output should not exceed the port capacity. The constraint
Generally, FID is operated in PQ-VdcQ control mode. Both the voltage at the DC side
is as follows:
and the active/reactive power are controlled. The active power satisfies the conservation
P2 + Q2vsc.i ≤ Svsc.i2
(6)
law for all ports of an FID. It can bevsc.i
described as follows:
where Qvsc.i is the reactive power of VSCi . kSvsc.i is the rated capacity of VSCi .
 PVSC,i = 0 (5)
t =1
3. Synergetic
Therein, POptimization Operation
is the active power of VSCModel of PV and FID
i. The k is the amount of FID ports.
VSC,i
3.1. Objective Function
The reactive power output is controlled independently for each port. The total active
Multi-objective optimization
power output and reactive powercan provide
output a comprehensive
should optimal
not exceed the solution for
port capacity. Theprob-
con-
lems, which
straint is adopted in this paper. The optimization objectives of distribution network
is as follows:
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 2923 6 of 19

operation include reducing network loss and operation cost, improving power quality,
balancing load, increasing the ratio of clean energy, and so on. Among them, three objective
functions of voltage deviation (F1 ), network loss (F2 ), and the ratio of PV abandonment (F3 )
are selected. The objective function is defined as follows:

min f = ( F1 , F2 , F3 ) (7)

(1) Voltage is one of the most important quality indicators for a distribution network.
The voltage quality is closely related to a network’s safe operation, network loss, and
consumers’ electricity utilization. The line drop, the load fluctuation, and the connec-
tion of PV increase the difficulty in maintaining qualified voltage. Thus, minimizing
voltage deviation is chosen as an objective function, representing the power quality.
The voltage deviation is defined as follows:

n
Vi − ViN
F1 = ∑ ViN
(8)
i =1

where Vi is the actual voltage of node i. ViN is the rated voltage of node i. n is the
quantity of the nodes.
(2) Network loss is one of the most important economic indicators for a distribution
network. By active and reactive power optimization, network loss can be minimized.
The network loss is defined as follows:

2
2 !
Pij + Qij
F2 = ∑ Rij (9)
ij∈Ω0 (Vi )2

Therein, Pij and Qij are the active power and the reactive power flowing through
branch ij, respectively. Rij is the resistance of branch ij. Ω0 is the set of all branches.
(3) Environmental friendliness is an important requirement for sustainable development.
PV belongs to clean energy and the permeability of PV continually increases. Large
amounts of active power injections will cause voltage rise. Voltage regulation can be
realized by the curtailment of PV active power output. However, the curtailment of
PV active power will not only reduce the consumption rate of PV but also decrease
the benefit of PV systems. To balance voltage quality and PV consumption rate,
minimizing the ratio of PV abandonment is chosen as an objective function. The ratio
of PV abandonment is defined as follows:
m m
∑ PMPPT,i − ∑ PPV,i
i =1 i =1
F3 = m (10)
∑ PMPPT,i
i =1

m m
Therein, ∑ PMPPT,i is the sum of all PVs’ active powers of MPPT. ∑ PPV,i is the sum
i =1 i =1
of all PVs’ active power outputs.

3.2. Constraints
To ensure the safe and stable operation of the distribution network, four constraints
should be satisfied.
(1) Power flow constraint
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 2923 7 of 19

For node i, there is the following:


 Pi = Vi ∑ Vj Gij cos θij + Bij sin θij



j ∈ Ωi
(11)
 Qi = Vi ∑ Vj Gij sin θij − Bij cos θij



j ∈ Ωi

Therein, Pi is the active power injected to node i. Qi is the reactive power injected
to node i. θij is the phase angle difference between node i and node j. Gij and Bij are the
conductance and susceptance of branch ij, respectively. Ωi is the set of nodes adjacent to
node i.
For each node, power conservation law must be satisfied. The power of PV, FID, and
load are all taken into account. The following occurs:
(
i + Pi i


Pi = η PPV VSC
− PLoad (12)
i i i
Qi = η QPV + QVSC − QLoad

Therein, PPV i and QPV i are the active power and reactive power of PV in node i,
i
respectively. PVSC and QVSC i are the active power and reactive power of VSC in node i,
i i
respectively. PLoad and QLoad are the active load and reactive load of node i, respectively. η
is the efficiency. It is used to quantify the losses during energy conversion and transmission
in the power system. The value is set as 0.9.
(2) Node voltage constraint
The node voltage cannot exceed the setting range to ensure safe and reliable operation.
The following occurs:
Vi,min ≤ Vi ≤ Vi,max (13)

where Vi,min and Vi,max are the allowed minimum voltage and the allowed maximum
voltage of node i.
(3) Constraints of PV
The capacity constraint must be met as Equation (1). The active power output con-
straint must be met as follows:
PPV,m ≤ PMPPT,m (14)

For different reactive power output modes, the constraints should be met, as listed in
Table 1.
(4) Constraints of FID
The active power conservation constraint and the port capacity constraint must be
satisfied as Equations (5) and (6).

4. Solution Method for Optimization Model

The proposed optimization problem can be solved either by being transformed into
a single-objective optimization problem or by utilizing multi-objective optimization algo-
rithms. The former method is easily attained by adding weight for each objective. However,
the weight value is difficult to determine. Thus, multi-objective optimization algorithms
are adopted to find the Pareto solution set.

4.1. NSGA-II
NSGA-II (Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm-II) is a multi-objective evolution-
ary algorithm based on elitist strategy. Owing to non-dominated sorting, crossover, and
mutation, the diversity of the population is maintained, improving the convergency and
 tionary algorithm based on elitist strategy. Owing to non-dominated sorting, crossover
and mutation, the diversity of the population is maintained, improving the convergency
and searching efficiency. The application process of NSGA-II in solving the proposed
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 2923 8 of 19
model is illustrated in Figure 2. The procedures are listed as follows:
(1) Initialization: Each individual (solution) is encoded as a real-valued vector, including
daytime/night
searching efficiency. The reactive power
application output
process mode ofinPV,
of NSGA-II p and
solving theQ set points
proposed of FID
model is ports
and the
illustrated active2.power
in Figure curtailment
The procedures ratioas
are listed offollows:
PV. Randomly generate an initial popula
tion, ensuring
(1) Initialization: Each that all solutions
individual satisfy
(solution) constraints.
is encoded Set the parameters
as a real-valued of population
vector, including
size as 100, maximum
daytime/night reactive poweriterations
outputas 200,
mode crossover probability
of PV, p and as 0.9,
Q set points andports,
of FID the mutation
and the activeas
probability power curtailmentof
the reciprocal ratio
theofvariable
PV. Randomly generate an initial population,
quantity.
(2) Fitness evaluation: Make power flow calculations for each of
ensuring that all solutions satisfy constraints. Set the parameters population
solution andsize
further cal
as 100, maximum iterations as 200, crossover probability as 0.9, and
culate the objective function. Use a penalty function to remove solutions that exceed the mutation
probability as the reciprocal of the variable quantity.
constraints.
(2) Fitness evaluation: Make power flow calculations for each solution and further calculate
(3) Non-dominated sorting: Sort the population into multiple Pareto fronts based on ob
the objective function. Use a penalty function to remove solutions that exceed constraints.
jective function values.
(3) Non-dominated sorting: Sort the population into multiple Pareto fronts based on
(4) objective
Crowding distance
function values.calculation: Calculate the crowding distance in the objectiv
space to measure
(4) Crowding the distribution
distance calculation: Calculatedensity of the solutions.
the crowding Select
distance in solutions
the objective with large
space
crowding
to measure distances
the distributionto maintain
densitypopulation diversity.
of the solutions. Select solutions with larger
(5) Selection, crossover, and mutation: Select parent individuals through binary tourna
crowding distances to maintain population diversity.
(5) Selection, crossover,
ment selection. Use and mutation:binary
simulated Select parent individuals
crossover through
(SBX) with binary tourna-
a crossover distribution
ment selection. Use simulated binary crossover (SBX) with a crossover
index of 20. Use polynomial mutation with a mutation distribution index of 20, en distribution
index
suringofvariables
20. Use polynomial
remain within mutation
feasiblewith a mutation distribution index of 20,
bounds.
ensuring variables remain within feasible bounds.
(6) Iteration and termination: Combine parent and offspring populations. Perform non
(6) Iteration and termination: Combine parent and offspring populations. Perform non-
dominated sorting and crowding distance calculation and retain the best N individ
dominated sorting and crowding distance calculation and retain the best N individuals.
uals. When
When the maximum
the maximum number number of iterations
of iterations is reachedis orreached or the convergence
the convergence conditions condi
tions
are are achieved,
achieved, the iterations
the iterations terminate.terminate.

Figure2.2.Flow
Figure Flowchart of solving
chart proposed
of solving model
proposed by NSGA-II.
model by NSGA-II.
 Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 2923 9 of 19

4.2. NSGA-III
NSGA-III (Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm-III) is a modified algorithm of
NSGA-II, which shows advantages in handling complex problems with high-dimensional
objective spaces. Instead of sorting by crowded distance as NSGA-II, reference point set and
hierarchical strategy are used in NSGA-III. The reference points are uniformly distributed
in the normalized objective space, guiding the algorithm to preserve solutions that cover a
broad and balanced range of the Pareto front. This approach enhances diversity, particularly
in scenarios where objectives are numerous or conflicting, ensuring that the optimization
process does not prematurely converge with the localized solutions. With the hierarchical
strategy, the solutions within each front are associated with the nearest reference points.
Individuals are selected to ensure the proportional representation of each reference region.
This method effectively improves the convergence and solving efficiency.
The overall application process of NSGA-III is similar with that of NSGA-II. Both of
them hold the procedures of population initialization, fitness evaluation, non-dominated
sorting, crossover, mutation, and iterative refinement. The distinction is that before pop-
ulation initialization, the reference point set is selected. During the solving process, the
dominant individuals and the next generation are selected out based on the reference points.

4.3. MOPSO Algorithm

MOPSO (Multi-Objective Particle Swarm Optimization) is developed from PSO. The
key strategy is using a non-dominated set to maintain and update the frontier solution.
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Thus, the problem of local optimum can be avoided. The application process of MOPSO in
solving the proposed model is shown in Figure 3. The procedures are listed as follows.

Start

Initialize the population

Update individual optimal solution pbest

and global optimal solution gbest

Update particles velocities

and positions

Calculate the objective

function value

Non-dominated sorting and

crowding degree calculation

Select particle swarm of the

next generation

Meet the terminal condition? N

End

Figure 3. Flow chart of solving proposed model by MOPSO.

Figure 3. Flow chart of solving proposed model by MOPSO.

4.4. Comprehensive Evaluation of Solutions

In this paper, the promotion ratio and its weighted average are calculated
obtaining a compromised optimal solution. The promotion ratio is defined as foll
f −f
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 2923 10 of 19

(1) Initialize the population: Randomly generate N initial solutions as the population of
the first generation. Randomly generate the velocity and position of the initial particle.
N is set as 300. The maximum number of iterations is set as 100.
(2) Update individual optimal solution pbest and global optimal solution gbest : The pre-
vious best position of a particle is pbest . If the pbest of the updating particle is non-
dominated with the previous best position, make a selection between them with the
probability of 0.5. Find the current best particle set by Pareto front. Select the least
crowded particle as the best particle.
(3) Update the particles’ velocities and positions: Update the particles’ velocities accord-
ing to the current velocity, pbest and gbest . Update the particles’ positions.
(4) Calculate the objective function value: Calculate the power flow. Check the con-
straints. Make modifications for individuals not meeting the constraints. Calculate
the objective function value.
(5) Non-dominated sorting according to the individual fitness: Calculate the crowding degree.
(6) Select the particle swarm of the next generation according to the results of step (5).
(7) Judge the terminal condition. If the condition is met, end the solving process. If not,
repeat step (2)–(6).

4.4. Comprehensive Evaluation of Solutions

In this paper, the promotion ratio and its weighted average are calculated out for
obtaining a compromised optimal solution. The promotion ratio is defined as follows:

f init − f x
µ= (15)
f init

Therein, µ is the promotion ratio, which is used to evaluate the improvement degree of
the objective functions before and after optimization. f init and f x are the objective function
value before and after optimization, respectively. For each solution in the Pareto front
and for each objective function, the promotion ratio is calculated and forms a promotion
ratio matrix.
The normalized promotion ratio can be calculated as follows:

µ − µmin
µnorm = (16)
µmax − µmin

where µnorm is the normalized promotion ratio. µmax and µmin are the maximum and
minimum promotion ratios in the promotion ratio matrix, respectively.
For each objective function, all the normalized promotion ratios are summarized
and averaged. By subjective decision or objective weighting methods, the weight of each
objective function is given. The compromised optimal solution is obtained by the weighted
calculation of the averaged promotion ratio.

5. Case Simulation
5.1. Setting of Cases
The simulation is conducted based on a modified IEEE 33-node system. The voltage
level is 12.66 kV. The total active power and total reactive power are 3715 kW and 2300 kVar,
respectively. PVs and FIDs with different port numbers are connected to the system. Seven
cases are simulated and analyzed. The diagrams of the seven cases are shown in Figure 4.
The parameter settings are listed in Table 2. The simulation is completed with MATLAB
R2023b on a platform named PlatEMO [26].
 Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 19

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 2923 11 of 19

Figure 4. The parameter settings are listed in Table 2. The simulation is completed with
MATLAB R2023b on a platform named PlatEMO [26].

(a) Case 1 (b) Case 2

(c) Case 3 (d) Case 4

(e) Case 5 (f) Case 6

(g) Case 7

Figure4.4.The
Figure Thediagrams
diagramsof
ofthe
the simulation
simulation cases.
cases.

Table 2. Parameter settings of seven cases.

Case Parameter Settings

Number FID PV
Two ports: between node 33 and node 18
1
Capacity of each port: 500 kW
Three ports: among node 33, node 18, Six PVs
2 and node 22 PV1: at node 9, 400 kW
Capacity of each port: 500 kW PV2: at node 13, 600 kW
PV3: at node 18, 500 kW
Four ports: among node 33 (port 1), PV4: at node 20, 300 kW
node 18 (port 2), node 22 (port 3), and PV5: at node 26, 300 kW
3
node 11 (port 4) PV6: at node 31, 400 kW
Capacity of each port: 500 kW
4 None
 1
Capacity of each port: 500 kW
Six PVs
Three ports: among node 33, node 18, and
PV1: at node 9, 400 kW
2 node 22
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 2923 PV2: at node 13, 600 kW 12 of 19
Capacity of each port: 500 kW
PV3: at node 18, 500 kW
Four ports: among node 33 (port 1), node 18
PV4: at node 20, 300 kW
Table 2.3 Cont. (port 2), node 22 (port 3), and node 11 (port PV5: at node 26, 300 kW
4)
PV6: at node 31, 400 kW
Case Capacity of each port: 500Parameter
kW Settings
Number
4 None FID PV
55 None
None
Three PVs
Three PVs
PV1: at node 8, 400 kW
66 Four ports: among node 33 (port 1), node 18 PV1: at node 8, 400 kW
Four ports: among node 33 (port 1), PV2:
(port 2), node 22 (port 3), and PV2:atatnode
node16,
16,500
500kWkW
node 18 (port 2), node 22node
(port11
3),(port
and PV3: at node 30, 300 kW
PV3: at node 30, 300 kW
node4)11 (port 4) Eight PVs
Capacity of each
Capacity port:
of each 500500
port: kWkW Eight PVs
PV1–6:
PV1–6: the
thesame
sameas ascase
case11
77
PV7:
PV7: at node 25, 400kW
at node 25, 400 kW
PV8:
PV8:atatnode
node29,
29,300
300kWkW

5.2. Comparison
5.2. Comparison of of Different
Different Algorithms
Algorithms
Taking PV
Taking PV reactive
reactive power
power output
outputmode
mode1 1asas anan
example,
example, optimization
optimizationresults at dif-
results at
ferent time periods, by different algorithms, with different reactive power
different time periods, by different algorithms, with different reactive power optimization optimization
conditions and
conditions and for
for different
different FIDFID port
port numbers
numbers areare compared
compared and and displayed
displayed inin Figure
Figure 5.
5.
The daytime corresponds to 8:00–18:00, as shown in Figure 1, during which
The daytime corresponds to 8:00–18:00, as shown in Figure 1, during which the PVs output the PVs out-
put active
active power.power. The night
The night refersrefers to 0:00–7:00
to 0:00–7:00 and 19:00–24:00,
and 19:00–24:00, duringduring which
which the thepower
active active
power output of the PVs is 0. Three algorithms of MOPSO, NSGA-II, and
output of the PVs is 0. Three algorithms of MOPSO, NSGA-II, and NSGA-III were compared. NSGA-III were
compared.
The “Yes” inThe “Yes” in the
the horizontal axis horizontal
representsaxis
thatrepresents
the reactive that the reactive
power power of PV
of PV is optimized. is
The
optimized. The “No” in the horizontal axis represents that the reactive power
“No” in the horizontal axis represents that the reactive power of the PV is not optimized. of the PV is
not FID
The optimized. The FID
of two ports, of ports,
three two ports, threeports
and four ports,
areand
alsofour ports are
compared. also
The compared.
voltage The
deviation
voltage deviation and network loss are displayed. The ratio of PV abandonment
and network loss are displayed. The ratio of PV abandonment is very low for all the cases, is very
low forisall
which notthe cases,inwhich
shown Figureis5.not shown in Figure 5.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5.
Figure 5. Optimization
Optimization results
results obtained
obtained by
by different
different algorithms
algorithms forfor FID
FID with
with different
different number
number of
of
ports.“No”
ports. “No”in
in horizontal
horizontalaxis
axismeans
meansthat
thatreactive
reactivepower
powerof
ofPVs
PVs is
is not
not optimized.
optimized. “Yes”
“Yes”in
in horizontal
horizontal
axis means that reactive power of PVs is optimized. (a) FID of two ports. (b) FID of three ports.
(c) FID of four ports.

By comparing the results of day and night, it can be seen that the voltage deviation
and network loss are both lower during daytime than during night. It indicates that the
active power and reactive power adjustment of PV improves power quality. The effect of
synergetic optimization is better than that of FID optimization alone.
During the night, the active power output of PV is 0. The reactive power output
is also 0 in reactive power output mode 1. Thus, optimizing PV output does not have
an impact on optimization results. The optimization results of the three algorithms are
basically consistent. However, during the daytime, PVs can output both active power
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 2923 13 of 19

and reactive power, leading to the difference in PV optimization. If there are m PVs, the
dimension of searching space increases by 2 m when the PV is optimized. The global
searching ability of MOPSO is limited. The voltage deviation and network loss increase
when the PV is optimized. The optimization performance of NSGA-II and NSGA-III shows
the same changing trend. The power quality is better by synergetic optimization of the
FID and PV than by FID optimization only. In further comparison, the searching ability of
NSGA-II is better in dealing with problems of multi-port FID. The voltage deviation and
network loss are lower. Thus, NSGA-II is chosen for later simulations.
In addition, by comparing the results in Figure 5a–c, the increase in FID port number
also reduce voltage deviation and network loss. Owing to the increase in FID port number,
active power can be transformed among the ports flexibly. The reactive power output of
the ports provides a more reactive power adjustment for the network. The distribution
network is more flexible. It is beneficial to improve the power quality of the system.

5.3. Discussion of Reactive Power Output Ratio by PV Inverter

The influence of the reactive power output ratio restriction by the PV inverter is dis-
cussed. The active power output of the PV operates at the rated power before optimization.
It can be optimized together with reactive power, under the circumstance of satisfying the
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 19
capacity constraint. The reactive power output ratio restriction of the PV can be adjusted
from 0.01 to 0.31 by an increment of 0.01, composing 31 scenarios. Each scenario is simu-
lated five times. The results are the average value of the five simulations. NSGA-II is used
The reduction
for solving in network
problems. FIDs loss
withslightly
differentincreases. The voltage
port numbers are also deviation
simulated.isThe
obviously re-
simulation
duced, representing
results are shown in better
Figurepower
6. The quality.
reference value used in Figure 6 is the voltage deviation
and network loss without PV reactive power optimization.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure
Figure 6.
6. Optimization
Optimization result
result comparison
comparison by by setting
setting allowed
allowed ratio
ratio of
of PV
PV reactive
reactive power
power output.
output. Blue
Blue
line—FID
line—FID with
with two
two ports;
ports; red
red line—FID
line—FID with
with three
three ports;
ports; green
green line—FID with four ports. (a)
(a) Active
Active
power loss of PV. (b) Voltage
power Voltage deviation.
deviation. (c)
(c) Reduction
Reduction inin network
network loss.
loss.

As seen from
5.4. Comparison Figure 6, with
of Optimization the increase
Operation in PV
Results reactive
Under power
Different output
Reactive ratioOutput
Power restriction,
the active power
Modes of PV Inverter loss of the PV increases. Owing to the objective function of minimizing
PV abandonment ratio, the active power loss of the PV cannot increase without limit.
The synergetic optimization of FID and PV under five PV reactive power output
The active power loss does not exceed 70 kW. The whole PV rated capacity is 2500 kW.
modes is simulated. The results are listed in Table 3 and shown in Figure 7. Because the
The ratio of PV abandonment is lower than 2.8%. Because the promotion ratio of the PV
ratio of PV abandonment was analyzed above, it is not listed. It can be seen that the net-
abandonment ratio is relatively small, the compromised optimal solution tends to the
work loss of the different modes is nearly the same. The range of network loss is 0.0043,
minimization of voltage deviation and network loss.
which is very small. The difference focuses on the voltage deviation. The range of voltage
The reduction in network loss increases with the increase in reactive power output ratio
deviation is 0.1217.
restriction. However, it is less than 10 kW. It indicates that the optimization performance
for network
Table loss isresults
3. Simulation limitedof due to the injection
five reactive pointmodes.
power output of PV.

Mode Voltage Deviation (Ranking) Network Loss (Ranking)

Mode 1 0.8355 (5) 0.0945 (3)
Mode 2 0.7976 (4) 0.0933 (2)
Mode 3 0.7883 (3) 0.0927 (1)
Mode 4 0.7253 (2) 0.0970 (5)
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 2923 14 of 19

The voltage deviation is reduced when the reactive power output ratio restriction
increases. The injection of reactive power improves the power factor of the distribution
(a) line. The voltage loss is reduced,
(b) and better power quality is obtained. (c)
The optimization results are also compared for different FID port numbers. When the
Figure 6. Optimization result comparison by setting allowed ratio of PV reactive power output. Blue
FID port number increases, the active power loss of the PV is substantially unchanged. The
line—FID with two ports; red line—FID with three ports; green line—FID with four ports. (a) Active
reduction in network loss slightly increases. The voltage deviation is obviously reduced,
power loss of PV. (b) Voltage deviation. (c) Reduction in network loss.
representing better power quality.

5.4. Comparison
5.4. Comparison of
of Optimization
Optimization Operation
Operation Results
Results Under
Under Different
Different Reactive
Reactive Power
Power Output
Output
Modes of PV Inverter
synergeticoptimization
The synergetic optimization of of
FIDFID
andand PV under
PV under five PVfivereactive
PV reactive
powerpower
output output
modes
modes
is is simulated.
simulated. The are
The results results areinlisted
listed Tablein3 Table 3 andin
and shown shown
Figurein7.Figure
Because 7. Because
the ratiothe
of
PV
ratioabandonment was analyzed
of PV abandonment above, itabove,
was analyzed is not listed.
it is notIt listed.
can be Itseen
canthat the network
be seen that the loss
net-
of the loss
work different
of themodes is nearly
different modesthe same. the
is nearly Thesame.
rangeThe of network
range of loss is 0.0043,
network which
loss is is
0.0043,
very
which small. The
is very difference
small. focuses onfocuses
The difference the voltage
on thedeviation. The rangeThe
voltage deviation. of voltage
range ofdeviation
voltage
is 0.1217. is 0.1217.
deviation

Table 3. Simulation results of five reactive power output modes.

Table 3. Simulation results of five reactive power output modes.
Mode
Mode Voltage
Voltage Deviation
Deviation (Ranking)
(Ranking) Network
Network LossLoss (Ranking)
(Ranking)
Mode
Mode 1 1 0.8355 0.8355
(5) (5) 0.0945
0.0945 (3) (3)
Mode 2 2
Mode 0.7976
0.7976 (4) (4) 0.0933 (2) (2)
0.0933
Mode
Mode 3 3 0.7883
0.7883 (3) (3) 0.0927
0.0927 (1) (1)
Mode 4 4
Mode 0.7253
0.7253 (2) (2) 0.0970 (5) (5)
0.0970
Mode 5 0.7138 (1) 0.0963 (4)
Mode 5 0.7138 (1) 0.0963 (4)

Figure 7. Optimization results under five modes and with different FID port numbers.
Figure 7. Optimization results under five modes and with different FID port numbers.
Different from mode 1, mode 2 can provide reactive power of no more than 0.31 pu
during the night. The injection of reactive power during the night reduces both voltage
deviation and network loss.
Different from mode 2, mode 3 canceled the power factor limitation of the PV inverter
during the daytime. The adjustment range of reactive power output is 0.31 pu during the
daytime. The voltage deviation and network loss are further reduced.
Compared with mode 2, mode 4 utilizes the night SVG scheme for PV inverters.
The adjustment range of reactive power output increases to 1 pu. The voltage deviation
is reduced from 0.7976 to 0.7253. The drop proportion is 9.06%. The voltage quality is
obviously improved. However, due to the injection of reactive power, the network loss is
slightly increased from 0.0933 to 0.0970. The overall level of power quality is ameliorated.
 adjustment range of reactive power output increases to 1 pu. The voltage deviation is re-
duced from 0.7976 to 0.7253. The drop proportion is 9.06%. The voltage quality is obvi-
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 2923 ously improved. However, due to the injection of reactive power, the network loss is19
15 of
slightly increased from 0.0933 to 0.0970. The overall level of power quality is ameliorated.
Compared with mode 3, mode 5 also utilizes the night SVG scheme for PV inverters.
Comparedare
The conclusions with mode 3,
similar. Themode 5 also
voltage utilizes the
deviation night SVG
dropped scheme
by 9.45%. for PVnetwork
Though inverters.
The conclusions are similar. The voltage deviation dropped
loss is slightly increased, the overall level of power quality is improved. by 9.45%. Though network
lossAs
is slightly
seen from increased,
Figure 8,thetheoverall level
increase inof
FIDpower
port quality
numbers is improved.
improves the flexibility of
As seen from Figure 8, the increase in FID port
power control, leading to higher power quality. The conclusion numbers improves the for
is suitable flexibility
all fiveof
power However,
modes. control, leading
an FIDto higher
with morepower quality.
ports The conclusion
is more expensive.isThus,
suitable for all five
in actual modes.
analysis,
However, an FID with more ports is more expensive. Thus, in actual analysis,
many aspects including network flexibility, power quality, and cost of investment and many aspects
includinghave
operation network
to be flexibility, power quality,
comprehensively and cost of investment and operation have to
considered.
be comprehensively considered.
5.5. Performance of Proposed Optimization Operation Method
5.5. Performance of Proposed Optimization Operation Method
As analyzed above, the proposed optimization method obtains the best power qual-
ity whenAs an
analyzed above,
FID holds theports
four proposed
and aoptimization
PV operates method
in modeobtains
5. Thus,the best power
under the best quality
op-
when an FID holds four ports and a PV operates in mode 5. Thus, under the
eration conditions, the voltage distribution of all nodes, the PV output, and the FID power best operation
conditions,
control the voltagediscussed.
are specifically distributionTheofoptimization
all nodes, theresults
PV output, and the FID
are displayed power control
in Figures 8–10.
are specifically discussed. The optimization results are displayed in Figures 8–10.

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 19

The optimization results of PVs are shown in Figure 9. The active power output ap-
proximately equals the value of MPPT for all the PVs, as shown by the black line in Figure
9. Owing to the setting of the PV abandonment ratio as an objective function, the active
power output of the PV is optimized to minimize the PV abandonment ratio. The PV
abandonment ratio does not exceed 3%.
The reactive power output is displayed with a red line in Figure 9. During the day-
time, the reactive power output is mainly limited by capacity constraints. Due to the in-
jection of the PV active power, reactive power compensation is required to stabilize the
voltage. During the night, the active power of the PV is 0. The reactive power output of
(a) the PV is used to compensate the reactive power of the devices.
(b) The reactive power output
is related to the position of the PV, the position of the FID, and the distribution of the load.
Figure 8.8.Voltage
Figure Voltagedistribution
distributionwith
with(a)
(a)and
andwithout
without(b)
(b)synergetic
synergeticoptimization
optimizationofofPV
PVand
andFID.
FID.

Simulations are carried out for case 4 (before optimization) and case 3 (after optimi-
zation). As seen from Figure 8a, the voltage reduces to 0.9130 pu at some nodes and some
moments. Due to the injection and fluctuation of PVs, voltage is occasionally out-of-limit.
The power quality turns bad, which further impedes the consumption of the PV. When
the synergetic optimization of the PV and FID is utilized, the voltage amplitude is stabi-
lized. The minimum voltage is 0.9615 pu. The voltage deviation is 0.2004 pu and the net-
work loss is 0.0289 MW. It indicates that the power quality is improved.

(a) PV1 (b) PV2 (c) PV3

(d) PV4 (e) PV5 (f) PV6

Figure9.9. Active
Figure Active power
power (black)
(black) and
andreactive
reactivepower
power(red)
(red)output
outputcurves
curvesof
ofPVs.
PVs.

The optimization result of the FID is also analyzed. The active power flow is shown
in Figure 10a. Owing to the four ports of the FID, the active power flows more flexibly.
The active power flows among the four ports according to the PV access position, output,
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 19

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 2923 16 of 19

(a) (b)

Figure
Figure 10. Optimal scheme
Optimal scheme ofof FID.
FID. In In
(a),(a), positive
positive value
value means
means activeactive
powerpower flowport;
flow from from port; negative
negative
value means
value means active
activepower
powerflow into
flow port.
into (a) Active
port. power
(a) Active flowsflows
power among ports. (b)
among Reactive
ports. power power
(b) Reactive
output of ports.
output of ports.
Simulations are carried out for case 4 (before optimization) and case 3 (after optimiza-
tion).With the from
As seen development
Figure 8a,of the
the PV and
voltage the requirement
reduces to 0.9130 pu of environmental
at some nodes and friendliness,
some
more
moments. Due to the injection and fluctuation of PVs, voltage is occasionally grows
PVs are connected to the distribution network. PV permeability quickly. To
out-of-limit.
testify the applicability
The power of the
quality turns bad, proposed
which further method,
impedes thetheconsumption
optimization ofunder
the PV.the
Whenconditions
the of
different
synergeticPV permeabilities
optimization of theisPV
simulated.
and FID isSimulations of casesamplitude
utilized, the voltage 3, 5, 6, and 7 are compared.
is stabilized.
The results
The minimum arevoltage is Table
listed in 0.9615 4.
pu. The voltage deviation is 0.2004 pu and the network
loss is 0.0289 MW. It indicates that the power quality is improved.
TableThe optimizationresult
4. Optimization results of PVs are
comparison of shown
different inPV
Figure 9. The active power output
permeability.
approximately equals the value of MPPT for all the PVs, as shown by the black line in
PV Permeability
Figure Voltage
9. Owing to the setting of Deviation Network
the PV abandonment Loss
ratio as an Ratio of PV
objective Abandonment
function, the
active power 0 output of the PV is0.9010
optimized to minimize 0.1071
the PV abandonment ratio.- The PV
32.3% ratio does not exceed
abandonment 0.37193%. 0.0475 0.0082
The67.3%
reactive power output0.2004is displayed with a red0.0289
line in Figure 9. During the 0.0250
daytime,
the reactive
86.1% power output is mainly 0.1138limited by capacity constraints. Due to the
0.0169 injection
0.0251
of the PV active power, reactive power compensation is required to stabilize the voltage.
During
With thethe
night, the active
increase in PV power of the PV isthe
permeability, 0. The reactive
voltage power output
deviation and theofnetwork
the PV isloss are
used to compensate the reactive power of the devices. The reactive
both reduced. When the PV permeability reaches 86.1%, the reduction ratio power output is related
of voltage
to the position of the PV, the position of the FID, and the distribution of the load.
deviation and network loss is 87.4% and 84.2%, respectively. The power quality is obvi-
The optimization result of the FID is also analyzed. The active power flow is shown
ously improved. When the PV permeability increases, the ratio of PV abandonment in-
in Figure 10a. Owing to the four ports of the FID, the active power flows more flexibly.
creases slightly. However, the ratio of PV abandonment does not exceed 2.51%. The con-
The active power flows among the four ports according to the PV access position, output,
sumption
and the load.ratePort
of the PVs
1 and can
port be kepttoatthe
2 connect a high level.
terminal Thus,
nodes the feeders.
of two proposed method
Thus, duringis appli-
cable for cases
the night, activewith
powerhigh PV permeability,
is transformed which
from port shows
3/port 4 tothe potential
port 1/port 2,inensuring
operationtheoptimi-
zation inutilization
effective the future.of active power. During the daytime, the PVs output active power. The
access position of PV3 and PV4 is close to port 2 and port 3. Active power flows from port
6.2/port
Conclusions
3 to port 1/port 4 for active power balance.
The
In reactive
this paper,power flow is shown
a synergistic in Figure operation
optimization 10b. During most time
method forperiods, the FIDs
a distribution network
output reactive power. The reactive power output is limited by the port capacity. It is
is proposed. Owing to the multi-mode output of PVs and the flexible power control capa-
also influenced by the output of the PVs and the distribution of the load. Due to the close
bility of FIDs, PVs and FIDs are simultaneously optimized for active power and reactive
connection of the PVs to port 2 and port 3, the reactive power output of port 2/port 3 is
power output.
lower than that Taking power4.quality, economy, and environmental friendliness into con-
of port 1/port
sideration, minimizing
With the development voltage
of thedeviation,
PV and thenetwork
requirementloss,ofand the ratio offriendliness,
environmental PV abandonment
are
moreselected
PVs areasconnected
the objective
to thefunctions. The
distribution constraints
network. of power flow,
PV permeability growsvoltage,
quickly.and
To device
operation are set in the optimal model. Different reactive power output modes of PVs and
different port numbers of FIDs were analyzed and compared. NSGA-II, NSGA-III, and
MOPSO were adopted for solving the proposed model. Simulations indicate that the pro-
posed synergetic optimization operation method can provide satisfied results in decreas-
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 2923 17 of 19

testify the applicability of the proposed method, the optimization under the conditions of
different PV permeabilities is simulated. Simulations of cases 3, 5, 6, and 7 are compared.
The results are listed in Table 4.

Table 4. Optimization result comparison of different PV permeability.

Ratio of PV
PV Permeability Voltage Deviation Network Loss
Abandonment
0 0.9010 0.1071 -
32.3% 0.3719 0.0475 0.0082
67.3% 0.2004 0.0289 0.0250
86.1% 0.1138 0.0169 0.0251

With the increase in PV permeability, the voltage deviation and the network loss are
both reduced. When the PV permeability reaches 86.1%, the reduction ratio of voltage
deviation and network loss is 87.4% and 84.2%, respectively. The power quality is obviously
improved. When the PV permeability increases, the ratio of PV abandonment increases
slightly. However, the ratio of PV abandonment does not exceed 2.51%. The consumption
rate of the PVs can be kept at a high level. Thus, the proposed method is applicable for
cases with high PV permeability, which shows the potential in operation optimization in
the future.

6. Conclusions
In this paper, a synergistic optimization operation method for a distribution network is
proposed. Owing to the multi-mode output of PVs and the flexible power control capability
of FIDs, PVs and FIDs are simultaneously optimized for active power and reactive power
output. Taking power quality, economy, and environmental friendliness into consideration,
minimizing voltage deviation, network loss, and the ratio of PV abandonment are selected
as the objective functions. The constraints of power flow, voltage, and device operation are
set in the optimal model. Different reactive power output modes of PVs and different port
numbers of FIDs were analyzed and compared. NSGA-II, NSGA-III, and MOPSO were
adopted for solving the proposed model. Simulations indicate that the proposed synergetic
optimization operation method can provide satisfied results in decreasing voltage deviation
and network loss. The best performance is obtained by the PV operating in reactive power
output mode 5, the FID with four ports, and utilizing NSGA-II. Due to the participation
of the PV in active and reactive power optimization, the proposed method shows better
optimization results with the increase in PV permeability. The proposed method indicates
the potential of application in the dispatching center and also provides an effective means
for the integration of more renewable energy resources. It is applicable for modern and
smart grids.
Though the coordination of PVs and FIDs is simulated and verified, the intermittence
and uncertainty of PVs and load are not considered. This paper focuses on the improvement
of power quality and PV consumption, without considering the cost of FID investment
and system operation. In subsequent research, the influence of source-load uncertainty
will be discussed. The objective function will be adjusted for practical applications. More
flexible resources will be integrated into the grid to enhance the flexibility and stability of
the system.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Y.L., M.W. and G.N.; methodology, Y.L. and G.N.; software,
J.W., Z.Z. and W.X.; validation, J.W., Z.Z. and W.X.; formal analysis, J.W., Z.Z. and W.X.; investigation,
J.W., Z.Z. and W.X.; resources, J.W., Z.Z. and W.X.; data curation, J.W., Z.Z. and W.X.; writing—original
draft preparation, Y.L.; writing—review and editing, Y.L. and G.N.; visualization, Y.L.; supervision,
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 2923 18 of 19

G.N.; project administration, G.N.; funding acquisition, G.N. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.

Funding: This work was supported by the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities
(No. 2022YQJD13), and the Program for Outstanding Academic/Technical Leaders at Science and
Technology Commission of Shanghai Municipality (China) (No. 22XD1430400).

Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest: Authors Ming Wu and Geng Niu were employed by the company China Electric
Power Research Institute. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the
absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict
of interest.

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