Generative AI Notes

Definition:
“Generative AI is a form of artificial intelligence that
generates new and original content, such as text, images, or
sounds, based on the patterns it has learned from
existing data. It goes beyond simply recognizing patterns or
making predictions and can create content that is
entirely new.”

Breakdown:
Generative AI isn't a new concept:

Before large language models (LLMs) like GPT, statistical methods

were the main approach for tasks like machine translation. One such
method was Statistical Machine Translation (SMT), which relied on
learning from large collections of bilingual texts.

How SMT Works:

1. Alignment Model: Finds word correspondences between the source

(e.g., French) and target (e.g., English) languages, like aligning "Le"
with "The" or "chat" with "cat."
2. Translation Model: Learns translation patterns between phrases,
such as "le chat noir" translating to "the black cat."
3. Language Model: Ensures the translation sounds fluent and natural in
the target language, following its grammar and syntax.

Components of SMT:

 SMT combines these models to estimate the most likely translation

based on patterns learned from training data.
 Tools like Moses, Phrasal, and Apterium were commonly used to
build SMT systems.

In short, SMT translates by statistically analyzing patterns and probabilities

from large datasets, focusing on word alignments, translation patterns, and
language fluency.
Early versions of virtual assistants like Siri used machine learning techniques
to improve their ability to understand and respond to users. Here’s how
these techniques worked:

Key Techniques Used:

1. Hidden Markov Models (HMMs): Helped with recognizing speech by

modeling the probabilities of sounds and words. For example, they
would help Siri understand that "hello" is a greeting by recognizing the
sequence of sounds.
2. Supervised Learning Algorithms: Used to understand and
categorize user queries. When you asked a question like, "What's the
weather like today?" these algorithms, trained on many examples,
helped Siri understand the question and find the right answer.
3. Natural Language Processing (NLP) Techniques: Used to
understand the meaning of text input. For example, if you typed
"Remind me to buy milk tomorrow," NLP would help Siri grasp that you
wanted a reminder for the next day.
4. Feature Engineering: Involved extracting key information from input
data to improve accuracy. For instance, Siri would analyze sound
frequencies and pauses in speech to recognize spoken commands
more accurately.

Evolution:

While these methods were effective initially, modern virtual assistants

now use advanced deep learning techniques like RNNs, CNNs, and
transformers for higher accuracy and adaptability.
Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs):
Definition:
“Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs) are a type of artificial
intelligence that consists of two competing neural networks: a
generator that creates new data based on a probabilistic model and a
discriminator that tries to distinguish between the generated (fake)
data and real data. The generator and discriminator are trained
together, improving over time to produce increasingly realistic
outputs.”

Working of GANs:
1. Initialization: Two neural networks are set up: The Generator (G),
which creates new data like images or text, and the Discriminator
(D), which checks if the data is real or fake.
2. Generator’s First Move: The Generator (G) starts by taking
random noise as input and turning it into a new data sample, like a
fake image.
3. Discriminator’s Turn: The Discriminator (D) gets two types of
data: real data from a training set and the fake data created by G. D
tries to tell if each piece of data is real or fake by giving a score
between 0 (fake) and 1 (real).
4. Learning Process: If D correctly identifies real and fake data, it
and G receive small rewards, but the goal is for G to improve
enough to trick D into thinking its fake data is real.
5. Generator’s Improvement: When D gets fooled and thinks G's
fake data is real, G gets better feedback and learns to create even
more realistic data.
6. Discriminator’s Adaptation: When D correctly spots fake data, it
gets better at identifying fakes, making it harder for G to succeed.
7. Ongoing Duel: This back-and-forth battle between G and D
continues until G gets so good at creating realistic data that D can
no longer easily tell the difference. At this point, G is well-trained
and can be used to generate new, realistic data samples.

Applications of GANs:

Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs) have many applications

across different fields:

1. Image Synthesis and Generation: GANs create realistic images,

such as lifelike avatars, high-resolution photos, or new artwork, by
learning patterns from training data.
 2. Image-to-Image Translation: GANs can convert images from one
type to another, like turning a day photo into a night scene,
converting sketches into realistic images, or changing an image's
artistic style.
3. Text-to-Image Synthesis: GANs generate images from text
descriptions, creating visuals that match a given caption or phrase.
4. Data Augmentation: GANs generate extra data samples,
enhancing machine learning models' robustness and performance.
5. Improving Image Quality: GANs enhance low-resolution images,
making them high-resolution for better quality in areas like medical
imaging, satellite imaging, and video enhancement.

Best Explanation of GANs:

 YouTube

 Image Link
 Google Advance Course

Variational AutoEncoders (VAE):

Definition:
“Variational Autoencoders (VAEs) are a type of neural network
that learns patterns from data to create new, similar data. They
work by understanding the underlying structure of the data, allowing
them to generate new examples that look like the original training
data.”

Why VAEs Were Introduced:

Variational Autoencoders (VAEs) were created to improve on traditional
autoencoders, which only learn fixed representations of data and can't
generate new samples flexibly. VAEs provide a way to generate new
data by learning a probabilistic distribution of the data, allowing for
more diverse and realistic outputs.
VAE Architecture:
1. Encoder Network: Maps input data to a distribution in a low-
dimensional space (latent space).
2. Latent Space: Represents the underlying patterns or features of
the data in a compressed form.
3. Decoder Network: Reconstructs the original data or generates
new samples from the latent space distribution.
Examples:
A VAE trained on handwritten digits can create new images of digits by
understanding and capturing the variability in how each digit is written.
This allows it to generate new digits that look realistic, unlike
traditional autoencoders that can only recreate specific inputs .

1. Real-World Use Case - Drug Discovery:

VAEs can generate new molecular structures by learning the
variations in molecules, helping in drug discovery by creating
potential new drugs.
2. Medical Imaging Analysis:
In healthcare, VAEs can help analyze medical images like MRIs or
CT scans. They can learn the distribution of healthy tissue and
detect abnormalities, reconstruct missing parts of images, or
generate synthetic medical images for training purposes.
3. Music and Audio Generation:
VAEs can be used for generating music or audio signals. They
learn to encode the structure and patterns in music data,
allowing for the generation of new, unique compositions or for
filling in missing parts of audio tracks.

Best Explanation of VAEs:

 YouTube


 Image Link
 Medium Article Link
Autoregressive Models:
Definition:
“Autoregressive Models are statistical models used for
predicting future elements in a sequence by relying on the
previous elements in the same sequence. The model learns patterns
and dependencies from past data to generate or forecast new data
points.”

Explanation:
Autoregressive models predict each element in a sequence based on
the elements that came before it. They work by learning how the
earlier parts of the data relate to later parts, making them useful for
tasks like time series analysis and generating text or other sequential
data.

Examples:

1. ARIMA (Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average):

 Use Case: Forecasting time series data like stock prices or

weather patterns.
 How It Works: ARIMA models use past values of a time series
(autoregressive part) and past prediction errors (moving average
part) to make future predictions.

2. Autoregressive Language Models (e.g., GPT-3):

 Use Case: Generating text, such as completing sentences or

creating coherent paragraphs.
 How It Works: The model predicts the next word in a sentence
based on the previous words, using patterns learned from a large
corpus of text.

3. AR (Autoregressive) Model:

 Use Case: Predicting future values in a simple time series, like

monthly sales figures.
 How It Works: The model uses a weighted average of previous
values in the series to forecast future values, with the weights
determined during training.
Large Language Models:
Definition:
“A Large Language Model (LLM) is a powerful artificial
intelligence model designed to understand and generate human-like
text. Using deep learning techniques, typically based on neural
networks, LLMs are trained on vast datasets containing diverse text,
learning to capture complex patterns and structures of natural
language. They can perform various language-related tasks such as
text generation, summarization, translation, and question answering,
significantly advancing the field of natural language processing (NLP).”

Explanation:

Large Language Models (LLMs) are advanced AI models trained on vast

datasets to understand and generate human-like text. They use deep
neural networks to learn complex patterns and structures in language,
making them capable of performing diverse tasks such as text
generation, summarization, translation, and question answering.

The term "language model" highlights their function: modeling the

probability of word sequences to predict and generate coherent text.
The "large" aspect refers to their extensive size in terms of parameters
and the breadth of data they are trained on, which allows them to
capture nuanced meanings and contexts across various language
tasks. LLMs have revolutionized natural language processing, enabling
more sophisticated applications in content creation, virtual assistance,
and information retrieval.

Neural Network (Neuron Processing Workflow):

Definition:
“Neural Networks are computer models inspired by the brain,
made up of connected nodes (neurons) that learn from data. They
recognize patterns, classify information, and make predictions by
adjusting their internal connections. Neural networks are used in tasks
like image recognition and language processing because they can
learn and adapt to new data.”

Breakdown of Neural Networks:

A neuron in a neural network receives input, processes it, and
produces an output. This process is divided into three main steps:
receiving input, computing a weighted sum, and applying an activation
function.
1. Input:
Each neuron receives inputs from the neurons in the previous layer or
directly from the input data. These inputs are numerical values that
represent features or attributes of the data. For example, in image
classification, the inputs could be pixel values of an image.

2. Processing:
What is a Neuron in a Neural Network?
Think of a neuron in a neural network like a tiny decision-maker. It
takes some information (inputs), processes it, and then decides what
the output should be.
Here's how this process works:
Step 1: Inputs and Weights
Imagine you have three pieces of information coming into the neuron.
Let's call these pieces x1, x2, and x3 (like three different features of
data).
Each piece of information has a weight (let’s call them w1, w2, and
w3) that tells the neuron how important that piece of information is.
For example, if w1 is big, it means x1 is very important in deciding the
output, while if w2 is small or negative, x2 is less important or has an
opposite effect.
Step 2: Calculating the Weighted Sum
The neuron first multiplies each input by its corresponding weight.
Then, it adds all these values together, plus a little extra number called
the bias (b, which helps to finetune the output.
Here’s what that looks like as a simple formula:

z=(w1×x1) +(w2×x2) +(w3×x3) +b

Think of this like a recipe: each input is an ingredient, each weight is
how much of that ingredient you use, and b is like a pinch of salt
added for flavor.
Step 3: Applying the Activation Function
Now, the neuron has this combined value, z. But, to decide the final
output, it needs to pass z through something called an activation
function.
An activation function is like a special filter that helps the neuron
decide if it should "fire" or not (meaning, whether it should pass a
strong signal to the next layer of neurons).
One common activation function is the sigmoid function, which
squashes any number between 0 and 1, making it easier to interpret
as a probability.
The formula for the sigmoid function is:

σ(z)=1/1+e^-z
This formula uses the mathematical constant e (about 2.718).
Step 4: Example Walkthrough
Let's use your example to see this in action:
1. Inputs: x1=2, x2=3, x3=1
2. Weights: w1=0.5, w2=−1, w3=0.3
3. Bias: b=1
Calculating the Weighted Sum

z= (0.5×2) +(−1×3) +(0.3×1) +1

z= 1−3 +0.3 +1= −0.7
So, the weighted sum, z, is -0.7.
Applying the Activation Function
Now, let's apply the sigmoid function to z:

σ(z)=1/1+e^-z
σ(z)=1/1+e^-(-0.7)
σ(z)=1/1+e^0.7
σ(z)≈ 1/1+2.013 ≈ 1/3.013 ≈ 0.332
So, the neuron's output, y, is about 0.332. This number represents
how strongly this neuron "fires."
Why Use an Activation Function?
An activation function makes the neuron’s output non-linear, allowing
it to model complex patterns.
 Example of Why We Need This:
 Imagine you have data points arranged in two circular shapes (one
inside the other). A linear function (like a straight line) won't be able
to separate them effectively.
 However, using a non-linear activation function (like ReLU or
sigmoid) allows the neuron to learn more complex boundaries and
better separate these kinds of patterns.
3. Why Use an Activation Function?
The activation function allows the neural network to model non-linear
relationships between inputs and outputs. For example, in a
classification problem with data points arranged in concentric circles, a
linear function would not effectively separate the classes. A non-linear
activation function like ReLU enables the network to find more complex
decision boundaries, making it more suitable for such tasks.

3. Output:
The result of the activation function becomes the output of the neuron,
which is then passed as input to the next layer's neurons. In a multi-
layer network, this process is repeated across multiple layers to
transform the data progressively and learn complex patterns.

Neural Network Basics: Weights, Bias, and

Learning Rate:
1. Weights:
Think of weights like the strength of a friendship between two people.
In a neural network like ChatGPT-3, weights are numbers that tell us
how important one piece of information is when predicting the next
piece.
Imagine you have a friend who loves cats. If they say "cat," there's a
good chance they'll next say "meowed." The "weight" between "cat"
and "meowed" is strong. Weights in a neural network work similarly:
they help the model decide which words or pieces of information are
likely to follow each other.
When the model is being trained, it keeps adjusting these weights, just
like you might adjust your guesses about your friend's behavior based
on new information, to make its predictions better and more accurate.
 2. Bias:
Bias is like an extra adjustment knob in the neural network. It’s used to
make fine adjustments to the model's predictions. Think of it like
setting up a thermostat in your home.
Imagine the thermostat is a basic model that only considers the
outside temperature to decide the inside temperature. But there are
other factors that could affect how warm or cold your house feels, like
the number of people inside, whether the windows are open, etc.
The bias acts like an adjustment knob on the thermostat. Even if the
model thinks your house should be at 70 degrees because of the
outside temperature, you can tweak it up or down a little to make it
more comfortable. In a neural network, the bias helps to adjust
predictions in cases where the input features alone don’t tell the whole
story.

3. Learning Rate:
Think of the learning rate like a teacher’s patience when helping you
learn something new.
If the learning rate is too high, it’s like the teacher is moving too fast
for you to understand, and you might miss some important details. The
neural network might adjust the weights and biases too quickly and
overshoot the best settings, leading to poor performance.
If the learning rate is too low, it’s like the teacher is going too slowly,
and it takes a long time for you to learn. The model makes only tiny
adjustments, and it takes a long time to reach the best solution.
The learning rate helps the neural network find a balance: adjusting
the weights and biases enough to make progress, but not so much that
it overshoots the best settings.

Components of Decoder Architecture in Sequence

Generation:
1. Initial State Initialization:
Explanation: The decoder starts by setting up its initial hidden state.
This state can come from the encoder if one is used (in tasks like
translation) or from a fixed vector in other tasks. This helps the
decoder know where to start generating the output sequence.

2. Token Embedding:
Explanation: Each word or piece of text in the output sequence is
converted into a dense vector using an embedding layer. This vector
represents the token in a high-dimensional space, where similar words
are positioned close to each other.

3. Positional Encoding:
Explanation: To give the model information about the position of
each token in the sequence, positional encoding is added to the token
embeddings. This helps the model understand the order of tokens.

4. Multi-Head Attention:
Explanation: Multi-head attention allows the decoder to look at
different parts of the input or previous tokens simultaneously. This
means the model can focus on various aspects of the data, capturing
different types of information.
Example: When translating "The cat sits on the mat" into French,
different attention heads might focus on different parts of the sentence
to understand the meaning better and generate a more accurate
translation.

5. Decoder Self-Attention:
Explanation: During the generation of the output sequence, self-
attention helps the decoder look back at the tokens it has already
generated. This ensures that the new token being generated fits well
with the previous ones.
Example: If the model has already translated "Le chat" (The cat) in
French, it will use self-attention to generate the next word in context
with "Le chat."

6. Masking:
Explanation: Masking is used to prevent the model from seeing future
tokens during training. This ensures that predictions are made based
only on the tokens that have been generated so far.
Example: When predicting the next word, masking makes sure the
model can't see words that come after the current one, avoiding
"cheating" and focusing only on the previous context.

7. Position-wise Feedforward Networks:

Explanation: These networks apply fully connected layers to each
position in the sequence independently. This allows the model to learn
complex patterns and relationships between tokens.
Example: Think of these networks as magnifying glasses examining
each word individually to understand how it relates to others in the
sentence.
8. Output Layer:
Explanation: The output layer produces probabilities for each token in
the vocabulary to determine what the next token should be. This is
typically done using a SoftMax function, which helps in selecting the
most likely next token.

9. Sampling:
Explanation: During inference (when generating text), sampling
methods like greedy decoding or beam search help in choosing the
next token based on the probabilities provided by the output layer.

Beam Search:
Definition:

“Beam search is a method used by models to generate the

most likely sequence of words in a sentence. Instead of just
choosing the highest probability word at each step (which is
called greedy decoding), it considers several possible sequences
of words at once and keeps the most promising ones.”

Understanding Beam Search in Text Generation

Let’s walk through an example:

Step 1: Start with the Prompt:

 The prompt is "The cat".

 The model calculates the probabilities for all possible next
words.
o Let's say the top three words are:
 "is" with a probability of 0.6
 "sat" with a probability of 0.3
 "runs" with a probability of 0.1

What Happens Next?

 The model expands "The cat" by adding each of the three

possible words.
 Now we have three new sequences:
o "The cat is" (Probability: 0.6)
o "The cat sat" (Probability: 0.3)
o "The cat runs" (Probability: 0.1)
Step 2: Expand Each Sequence

Now, the model calculates the probabilities for the next word for
each of these sequences.

For "The cat is":

 Possible next words:

o "sleeping" with a probability of 0.7
o "eating" with a probability of 0.2
o "running" with a probability of 0.1

For "The cat sat":

 Possible next words:

o "on" with a probability of 0.5
o "next" with a probability of 0.4
o "down" with a probability of 0.1

For "The cat runs":

 Possible next words:

o "fast" with a probability of 0.6
o "slowly" with a probability of 0.3
o "away" with a probability of 0.1

What Happens Next?

 The model expands each sequence by adding the next

most likely word.
 It then multiplies the probabilities of the expanded
sequences.

Calculating Updated Sequences:

 "The cat is sleeping": 0.6 (previous) * 0.7 (next) = 0.42

 "The cat is eating": 0.6 (previous) * 0.2 (next) = 0.12
 "The cat is running": 0.6 (previous) * 0.1 (next) = 0.06

Step 3: Retain Top Sequences

The model keeps expanding sequences step-by-step, calculating

probabilities for the next words at each step. It retains only the
top sequences with the highest overall probabilities (calculated
by multiplying probabilities at each step).
 The process continues until a stopping criterion is met, like:

 Reaching a maximum sentence length.

 Generating an end-of-sequence token (like a period or a
special end token)

Tokenization in Language Models:

Introduction:

When language models like GPT-3 process text, they need to break it
down into smaller parts called tokens. Tokens can be whole words,
parts of words (subwords), or even single characters. Different ways of
breaking down text (tokenization) help the model understand and learn
from the data better. Here's a quick overview of the different types:

1. Word-based Tokenization:

 Treats each word as a single token.

 Works well for common words but struggles with rare or complex
words.
 Has a large vocabulary size and cannot handle new or unseen words
effectively. For example, a word like "deoxyribonucleic" would be
treated as a single token, leading to an unnecessarily large
vocabulary.

2. Character-based Tokenization:

 Breaks down text into individual characters, like "d", "e", "o", etc.
 Captures every detail but creates very long sequences, which
may not be meaningful by themselves.
 Makes it hard for the model to learn meaningful patterns,
especially in longer, complex words.

3. Subword-based Tokenization:

 Finds a middle ground by breaking down words into meaningful

smaller parts (subwords).
 For example, "unbelievable" could be broken down into "un",
"believe", and "able".
 Reduces vocabulary size and helps the model handle new words
better by using known subword parts.
 Common subword-based tokenization methods include Byte-
Pair Encoding (BPE), Word Piece, and Unigram.
4. Byte-Pair Encoding (BPE):

 A specific type of subword-based tokenization.

 Repeatedly replaces the most common pairs of characters or
bytes with new symbols until no more replacements are possible.
 Helps to represent frequent words with single tokens while
breaking rare words into subwords.

Example:
Suppose we have data aaabdaaabac which needs to be encoded
(compressed). The byte pair aa occurs most often, so we will
replace it with Z as Z does not occur in our data. So we now have
ZabdZabac where Z = aa. The next common byte pair is ab so let’s
replace it with Y. We now have ZYdZYac where Z = aa and Y = ab.
The only byte pair left is ac which appears as just one so we will not
encode it. We can use recursive byte pair encoding to encode ZY as
X. Our data has now transformed into XdXac where X = ZY, Y = ab,
and Z = aa. It cannot be further compressed as there are no byte
pairs appearing more than once. We decompress the data by
performing replacements in reverse order.

Why Subword-based Tokenization is Useful:

 Handles New Words: Subword tokenization can represent new

words by combining known subwords, reducing the number of
unknown words (out-of-vocabulary or OOV tokens).
 Reduces Vocabulary Size: By using subwords, it avoids having
a huge vocabulary of every possible word form.
 Captures Word Variations: It can recognize that words like
"run", "running", and "ran" share a common root ("run"), allowing
the model to understand them better.

Example:

If the word "university" isn't frequently seen during training, word-

based tokenization would mark it as unknown. However, with subword-
based tokenization, it can be broken down into "uni" and "versity",
both of which might already be in the model's vocabulary. This helps
the model understand and learn from unseen or rare words.

In summary, subword-based tokenization, like BPE, helps language

models like GPT-3 efficiently understand and generate text by using a
mix of full words and smaller subword parts, making it more flexible
and effective in handling a variety of texts.
Best Explanations of Tokenization:
 YouTube


Facts:
 GPT-3 has a vocabulary of 50,257 tokens, and each token is
represented by a vector of 12888 elements.
 This vector representation is called an embedding, an important
concept, that helps to capture the semantic meanings of the
tokens.


Multi-Head Attention Mechanism:
Introduction:
Multi-head attention is an important technique used in machine
learning, especially in tasks where we work with sequences of data,
like translating sentences from one language to another.
Imagine you want to translate the English sentence "The cat sat on the
mat" into French. To do this, a computer uses an encoder-decoder
model that reads the entire English sentence (encoder) and then
generates the French translation word by word (decoder).
Now, when the decoder starts generating the French sentence, it
needs to know which words in the English sentence are most relevant
for translating each French word. This is where the attention
mechanism helps. It allows the decoder to "pay attention" to different
words in the input sentence at different times.

What is Multi-Head Attention?

Think of multi-head attention as having multiple "minds" or "heads"
that can look at different parts of the input sentence simultaneously.
Each head focuses on a different aspect of the input sentence, helping
the model understand the meaning better.

How Does Multi-Head Attention Work?

1. Focusing on Different Parts: When translating a word, multi-
head attention allows the model to look at different parts of the
input sentence at the same time. For example, one head might
focus on the word "cat," another on the word "sat," and another
on "mat." This helps the model get a fuller understanding of the
sentence's meaning.
2. Generating Attention Scores: Each head calculates "attention
scores" for the words in the input sentence. These scores tell the
model how important each word is when translating the current
word. For example, when generating the word "Le" in French, the
model might give higher attention scores to "The" and "cat" from
the English sentence.
3. Combining the Information: After all the heads have
calculated their attention scores, the model combines the
information from all heads to create a comprehensive
understanding of the sentence. This combined information is
then used to help generate the next word in the translation.
 Why is Multi-Head Attention Useful?
By allowing the model to look at multiple parts of the input sentence at
once, multi-head attention helps capture different aspects of the
sentence's meaning, leading to a more accurate and fluent translation.

In Simple Terms:
Think of it like having multiple pairs of eyes looking at a picture, each
focusing on a different detail. Together, they provide a clearer and
more complete understanding of the whole picture. Similarly, multi-
head attention helps the model understand the context of the input
better and produce a more accurate output.

Best Explanations of Multi-Head Attention:

 YouTube


 Article Link

How AI Models Learn (Training):

1. Training Data and Parameters:
GPT-3 is a model with over 175 billion parameters (weights), which are
like tiny settings that help it understand language. To train GPT-3,
engineers provided it with a vast amount of text data (over 45
terabytes!) from different sources like books, websites, and Wikipedia.
This training data helped the model learn about language, grammar,
facts, and even some common sense.

2. Two Stages of Training: Unsupervised and Supervised

Learning
 Unsupervised Learning (Pre-training): In the first stage,
GPT-3 learns in an "unsupervised" way. This means that it
doesn't need any specific labels or instructions. The model is fed
tons of text data and tries to figure out patterns and
 relationships by itself. For example, it might learn what words
usually come after "The cat is on the...". This stage is like reading
a lot of books without anyone guiding you, just understanding
the language and the context on your own.
 Self-Supervised Learning: A type of unsupervised learning is
called "self-supervised learning." Here, the model creates its own
tasks from the input data. For instance, the model might try to
predict the next word in a sentence or fill in missing parts of text
or images. This is like solving puzzles that the model creates for
itself. It uses these puzzles to improve its understanding of
language and context.
 Fine-tuning with Supervised Data: After learning general
patterns in the first stage, the model undergoes "fine-tuning."
This involves training on specific tasks using labeled data (data
with correct answers provided). For example, if you want the
model to answer questions, it will be trained with questions and
answers. This is like a teacher giving you a specific topic to learn,
with examples and feedback to help you improve.

3. Prompt-based Learning:
GPT-3 can also be learned from "prompts." Prompts are like specific
instructions or examples given to the model to guide its response. For
example, if you want the model to write a poem, you might provide a
starting sentence or a specific format. This helps guide the model's
output to be more relevant to what you want.

Self-Supervised Learning:
What is Self-Supervised Learning?
Self-supervised learning is a way for computers to learn from data
without needing humans to provide labels or answers. Instead, the
model creates its own learning signals from the data itself. The main
goal is for the model to learn useful patterns or features in the data,
which it can later use to perform specific tasks.

How Does Self-Supervised Learning Work?

1. Transforming the Input Data: The input data is modified in a
certain way to create a challenge or task for the model to solve.
For example, in text data, some words might be hidden, and the
model's job is to predict the missing words. Similarly, in images,
parts might be masked, and the model has to predict the missing
 parts. These tasks help the model learn to understand the
structure and patterns in the data.
2. Learning Useful Patterns: The model trains itself by trying to
predict the modified or missing parts of the data. Through this
process, it learns important features and representations of the
data, like the meaning of words in a sentence or the objects in an
image.
3. Applying What It Learned to Other Tasks: Once the model
has learned these useful patterns, it can be adapted (fine-tuned)
for more specific tasks, like translating a sentence, summarizing
a document, or recognizing objects in a picture. This fine-tuning
process uses a smaller labeled dataset to help the model
specialize in the new task.

Why is Self-Supervised Learning Important?

Self-supervised learning has become popular because it allows models
to learn from large amounts of unlabeled data, which is often easy to
find. This learning approach helps the model discover rich and
meaningful patterns in the data, making it perform better on various
tasks, like understanding natural language, recognizing images, or
even identifying sounds.

Fine-Tuning a Pretrained Model:

Once a model has been pretrained using self-supervised learning, it
can be fine-tuned to perform specific tasks, such as translation,
summarization, and more. Fine-tuning involves adjusting the
pretrained model with a smaller amount of labeled data to make it
even better at the specific task.

InstructGPT: Aligning LLMs with Human Feedback:

Introduction:
Large Language Models (LLMs), like GPT, are incredibly powerful at
handling various language tasks. However, they can sometimes
behave in unintended ways, such as fabricating false information,
pursuing incorrect objectives, or producing harmful and biased
outputs. This happens because LLMs are typically trained using a word
prediction objective that doesn’t consider human values like
helpfulness, honesty, and harmlessness. To address these issues,
researchers have developed methods to align these models with
human expectations, one of which is InstructGPT.
 What is InstructGPT?
InstructGPT is a technique created by OpenAI to guide LLMs in
generating more accurate, appropriate, and aligned responses. It
leverages a method called Reinforcement Learning with Human
Feedback (RLHF), which involves three key steps:
1. Supervised Fine-Tuning (SFT):
The process begins with a team of humans providing examples
of how the model should ideally respond to different inputs. The
model is trained on this data using supervised learning, where it
learns to match these desired behaviors.
2. Reward Model Training (RM):
Humans then compare different model outputs and indicate
which ones they prefer. A reward model is trained on this
feedback to predict which outputs are more likely to be favored
by humans.
3. Reinforcement Learning Fine-Tuning (RL):
Finally, the language model is further refined using
reinforcement learning, where it is trained to maximize the
reward predicted by the reward model. This step helps the model
learn to generate outputs that align more closely with human
preferences.

Examples of (Training):
This analogy is a great way to illustrate the concepts of Supervised Fine-
Tuning (SFT), Reward Model Training (RM), and Reinforcement Learning
Fine-Tuning (RL). Here's a quick breakdown of how each step relates to
the process of teaching a pet to fetch a ball:
1. Supervised Fine-Tuning (SFT): This is like the initial training
phase where you demonstrate the desired behavior to your pet. By
showing them how to fetch the ball, you're providing clear examples
of the actions you want them to learn. The pet practices these
actions and improves its performance based on the demonstrations.
2. Reward Model Training (RM): In this phase, you get feedback
from others on your pet's fetching behavior. This feedback helps
you understand which aspects of the behavior are more desirable.
By analyzing the feedback, you create a model of what fetching
behavior is preferred, which guides how you’ll further train your pet.
3. Reinforcement Learning Fine-Tuning (RL): Using the reward
model, you refine your pet’s fetching behavior by providing rewards
 (treats or praise) based on how well the pet’s actions align with the
preferred behavior. This reinforcement helps your pet learn to
adjust its actions to maximize rewards, improving its fetching
performance over time.
This step-by-step approach effectively combines demonstrations,
feedback, and rewards to teach and refine complex behaviors.

Prompt Engineering:
Definition:
“Prompt engineering is the process of designing and refining
prompts to effectively communicate with AI models, like GPT, to get
desired outputs. A prompt is the input or instruction you provide to an
AI to generate a specific response.”

Explanation:
Imagine the AI as a talented chef who can cook any dish, but you must
give clear instructions on what you want. If you just say "food," the
chef might make anything. But if you say, "I want a spicy vegetable
curry with a hint of coconut," the chef knows exactly what to make.
Similarly, with prompt engineering, you craft specific instructions for
the AI. For example:
 Basic Prompt: "Tell me about Python."
 Refined Prompt: "Explain Python programming language for
beginners, including its uses and main features."
By refining prompts, you guide the AI to give more accurate and
relevant answers. It’s about figuring out the best way to ask the AI to
get the results you want.
1. Structured Text:
Structured text prompts are organized in a clear format, often using
bullet points, numbered lists, or sections to specify what you want from
the AI. This approach helps ensure that the response is detailed and
covers all the necessary points.

2. Flipped Approach:
The flipped approach starts with the result or desired output and works
backward to create a prompt that will lead to that specific response.
This method helps clarify what you want by envisioning the final
answer first. For example, if you want a story that ends with a
surprising twist, you might prompt: “Write a short story that starts with
a peaceful family dinner but ends with a surprising twist.”

3. Reflect Review Prompt:

A reflect review prompt encourages the AI to review or reflect on its
initial response to improve the quality and depth of the answer. This
can involve asking the AI to reconsider, expand, or provide more
evidence for its initial answer. For example:
  Initial Prompt: "Explain the benefits of meditation."
 Reflect Review Prompt: "Review your answer and include
scientific studies or evidence to support the benefits you listed."

Chain of thought (CoT):

Chain of Thought (CoT) prompting is a technique used with Large
Language Models (LLMs) to improve how they generate answers by
explaining their reasoning process.

What is Standard Prompting?

In standard prompting, you ask a question, and the model
provides a direct answer without detailing its thought process.
Example:
 Prompt: "Is the number 27 prime?"
 Model Response: "No."
The model gives a straightforward answer without explaining
how it arrived at it.

What is Chain of Thought (CoT) Prompting?

With Chain of Thought (CoT) prompting, you ask the model not
only for an answer but also to explain its reasoning step-by-step.
This method encourages the model to lay out its thought process
clearly.
Example:
 Prompt: "Explain step-by-step whether the number 27 is
prime."
 CoT Response: "A prime number has only two factors: 1
and itself. The number 27 has more factors (1, 3, 9, 27).
Therefore, 27 is not a prime number."
Here, the model explains the reasoning behind the answer,
making the process and conclusion clearer.
Another Example:
Standard Prompt:
 Prompt: "What is 15 divided by 3?"
 Model Response: "5."
The model provides a direct answer without explanation.
 Chain of Thought Prompt:
 Prompt: "What is 15 divided by 3? Explain your reasoning."
 CoT Response: "To find 15 divided by 3, we need to determine
how many times 3 fits into 15. 3 fits into 15 five times, so the
answer is 5."
In this case, the model not only gives the answer but also describes
the steps it used to arrive at it.

Why Use CoT?

 Improves Accuracy: By breaking down the problem, the
model is less likely to make mistakes.
 Makes Reasoning Clearer: It helps users understand how
the answer was reached, which builds trust in the result.
By asking for explanations or step-by-step reasoning, CoT
prompting helps models provide more accurate and transparent
answers.

Things Affecting CoT:

 Model size:
o CoT seems to be more effective for larger LLMs with
stronger reasoning capabilities. Smaller models might
struggle to follow the prompts or generate their own
reasoning chains.
 Prompt Design:
o Ambiguous or Vague Prompts: Prompts that are
unclear or lack specificity can confuse the model, leading
to incomplete or inaccurate reasoning chains.
 Training Data:
o Limited or Poor-Quality Data: Models trained on limited
or low-quality data may not have sufficient knowledge or
context to generate reliable reasoning, affecting the
quality of CoT responses.

Self-Consistency with CoT:

Introduction:
Chain of Thought with Self-Consistency is a method used to
improve the answers given by language models (like ChatGPT) by
making sure they are more accurate and reliable. Here’s how it works:
 1. Ask Step-by-Step: Start by asking a question and tell the
model to think through the problem step-by-step.
2. Repeat the Question: Ask the same question multiple times
(let's say, 5 times) and gather all the answers it gives each time.
3. Vote for the Best Answer: After collecting all the answers, you
choose the one that appears most frequently. This means you
take a vote and pick the answer that the model gave the most
often.
4. Final Answer: The chosen answer is considered the most
reliable because it’s the one the model most frequently arrives at
after thinking through the problem.

Why Use This Method?

 Overcoming Greedy Decoding: Normally, when the model
generates text, it picks the next word based on what seems best
at that moment, which can sometimes lead to missing the big
picture or making decisions that seem good in the short term but
aren't the best overall.
 Reducing Randomness: If the model randomly picks different
words, it might produce varied answers, some of which might not
make sense. By asking the question multiple times and using the
most common answer, you reduce the impact of these random
errors.

Example:
Question: "What is a fun way to celebrate a birthday?"
Step-by-Step Process:
1. Ask the Question Repeatedly:
o 1st Attempt: "A fun way to celebrate a birthday is to have
a surprise party with friends and family."
o 2nd Attempt: "Hosting a surprise party with friends and
family is a fun way to celebrate a birthday."
o 3rd Attempt: "Celebrating with a surprise party involving
friends and family can be very enjoyable."
o 4th Attempt: "A birthday can be celebrated in a fun way
by organizing a surprise party with loved ones."
 o 5th Attempt: "One of the best ways to celebrate a
birthday is by throwing a surprise party with your friends
and family."
2. Collect Answers:
o Most answers mention having a surprise party with friends
and family.
3. Vote for the Best Answer:
o The common theme across answers is celebrating with a
surprise party involving friends and family.
4. Final Answer:
o "A fun way to celebrate a birthday is to have a surprise
party with friends and family."
Why This Works: By asking the question multiple times and getting
similar answers about a surprise party, you can confidently conclude
that this is a popular and effective way to celebrate a birthday. This
method helps you avoid random or less common suggestions and
focuses on the most consistently recommended idea.

Tree Of Thoughts (ToT):

Introduction:
The Tree of Thoughts (ToT) framework is a method for solving
problems that allows a model to explore multiple possible solutions.
Think of it like a tree with many branches: each branch represents a
different way to approach the problem. The model tests each branch,
checking if it’s a good path to follow. If a branch isn’t helpful, it’s
discarded, and the model tries other branches. This way, ToT helps find
the best solution by considering and evaluating different options
thoroughly.

Difference from Chain of Thoughts (CoT):

In contrast, the Chain of Thoughts (CoT) framework takes a linear
approach, following a single, predetermined path of reasoning. While
CoT is efficient and straightforward, it may lack the flexibility needed
for complex scenarios. ToT, with its branching structure and evaluative
process, offers a more adaptable and thorough method for tackling
intricate problems, allowing for a more comprehensive exploration of
potential solutions.
Example:
Imagine you're trying to decide which new smartphone to buy.
With Tree of Thoughts (ToT), you would start by listing several
options: Phone A, Phone B, Phone C. For each phone, you would
explore different factors such as price, battery life, camera quality, and
features. If Phone A turns out to have a poor battery life, you would
discard it and focus on Phones B and C. You continue evaluating and
branching out until you find the phone that best meets your needs.
With Chain of Thoughts (CoT), you would follow a single path: first,
compare prices of all phones. Once you decide based on price, you
would then look at battery life for the selected phone. This method is
simpler but might not consider all aspects as thoroughly.