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 N ORTHE RN IRE LA N D
Feargal Cochrane is Emeritus Professor of International Conflict
Analysis and Senior Research Fellow at the Conflict Analysis Research
Centre, University of Kent. He is the author or co-author of eleven books,
including Breaking Peace: Brexit and Northern Ireland, Mediating Power-
Sharing and Migration and Security in the Global Age.

i
ii
NORTHERN
IRELAND
THE FRAGILE PEACE
N E W E D ITION

FEA RGA L CO CHRANE

YALE UNIVERSITY PRESS

NEW HAVEN AND LONDON

iii
Copyright © 2013 Feargal Cochrane

Chapters 10, 11 and Epilogue copyright © 2021 Feargal Cochrane

This new edition published in paperback in 2021

The right of Feargal Cochrane to be identified as author of this work has been
asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

Extracts on p. 119 from the poems ‘Ulster Names’ and ‘Postscript 1984’ by John
Hewitt are taken from John Hewitt, The Selected Poems of John Hewitt, ed. Michael
Longley & Frank Ormsby (Blackstaff Press, 2007) and reproduced by permission of
Blackstaff Press on behalf of the Estate of John Hewitt.

All rights reserved. This book may not be reproduced in whole or in part, in any form
(beyond that copying permitted by Sections 107 and 108 of the U.S. Copyright Law
and except by reviewers for the public press) without written permission from the
publishers.

For information about this and other Yale University Press publications, please
contact:
U.S. Office: [email protected] yalebooks.com
Europe Office: [email protected] yalebooks.co.uk

Set in Janson Text by IDSUK (DataConnection) Ltd

Printed in Great Britain by Clays Ltd, Elcograf S.p.A

Library of Congress Control Number: 2020947087

ISBN 978-0-300-17870-8 (hbk)

ISBN 978-0-300-20552-7 (new edn pbk)

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

iv
 For Oisín
and
In memory of Lyra McKee

v
vi
 CONTENTS

List of Illustrations viii

List of Abbreviations and Acronyms x
Acknowledgements xii

Introduction 1

1 The Collision of Religion and Politics: The Roots of the 7

Conflict

2 Why Politics Failed and Violence Began 31

3 The Rationality of War: The Troubles Generation 67

4 Direct Rule and the Growth of Informal Politics 89

5 Talking to the Enemy: Secret Dialogue Begins 121

6 Bringing the Outside In: The International Dimension 147

7 The Incomplete Agreement: The Good Friday 189

Compromise

8 Delivery, Delivery, Delivery: Implementing the Settlement 225

9 Dissenting Voices 261

10 Brexit and Beyond: Rupturing the Peace Process 283

11 Whither Northern Ireland: Birthday Party or Wake? 309

Epilogue 343

Notes 349
Bibliography 367
Index 371

vii
 ILLUSTRATIONS

Map of Northern Ireland xvii

Plate section

1. Sir Edward Carson signs the Solemn League and Covenant,

28 September 1912 (Linen Hall Library Postcard Collection)
2. Easter Rising mural on Beechmount Avenue (Rosaleen Duffy)
3. Provisional Irish Republican Army checkpoint in the Bogside, Derry,
1971 (Eamon Melaugh)
4. British army patrol carrying out stop and search on Westland Street in
the Bogside, August 1972 (Eamon Melaugh)
5. Martin McGuinness and Kay Duddy in front of Bloody Sunday mural
by the Bogside Artists’ collective, February 1997 (John Giles/PA
Archive/Press Association Images)
6. Rev. Ian Paisley protesting outside Canterbury Cathedral, July 1970
(Corbis Images)
7. Rioters attack the RUC in Belfast, undated 1970s (Fred Hoare)
8. Aftermath of Provisional IRA bomb in Donegall Street Belfast, March
1972 (Fred Hoare)
9. Betty Williams and Mairead Corrigan at the ‘Women for Peace’ Rally,
Belfast, August 1976 (Corbis images)
10. Sinn Fein President Gerry Adams and colleagues in front of 10
Downing St, December 1997 (Fiona Hanson/PA Archive/Press
Association Images)

viii
 L IST O F I L L U S T R AT I O N S | ix

11. Tony Blair, David Trimble and John Hume campaigning for a Yes
vote in the referendum on the Good Friday Agreement, May 1998
(Chris Bacon/PA Archive/Press Association Images)
12. Queen Elizabeth II shakes hands with Martin McGuinness, June 2012
(Paul Faith/PA Archive/Press Association Images)
13. Mural on the Falls Road linking the Falls Curfew in 1970 with
imprisonment of dissident republican Marian Price, in January 2013
(Rosaleen Duffy)
14. Loyalist mural on Dee Street off the Newtownards Road, January
2013 (Rosaleen Duffy)
15. Derry Peace Bridge, 2011 (Aaronwarduk/CC BY-SA 4.0)
16. Titanic Museum and cranes, 2012 (K. Mitch Hodge on Unsplash)
17. Sculpture for Derry’s Walls by Antony Gormley, 1987 (Rosaleen
Duffy)
18. ‘Hard Border, Soft Border, No Border’ sign (Rosaleen Duffy)
19. Arlene Foster, Theresa May and Martin McGuinness, 2016 (Prime
Minister’s Office, https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/pm-state
ment-in-northern-ireland-25-july-2016. Contains public sector infor-
mation licensed under the Open Government Licence v3.0)
20. McGuinness funeral, 2017 (Sinn Féin/CC BY 2.0)
21. ‘Salute the men and women of violence’ mural (Rosaleen Duffy)
22. ‘Peace cannot be kept by force’ mural (Rosaleen Duffy)
23. Lyra McKee (International Journalism Festival, Perugia/CC BY-SA
2.0)
24. Stormont (robertpaulyoung/CC BY 2.0)
 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

ANIA Americans for a New Irish Agenda

AOH Ancient Order of Hibernians
CLMC Combined Loyalist Military Command
CRC Community Relations Council
CRM Civil Rights Movement
CSI Cohesion, Sharing and Integration
CTA Common Travel Area
DSD Department for Social Development
DUP Democratic Unionist Party
EPA Emergency Provisions Act
ERG European Research Group
ERM Exchange Rate Mechanism
FAIT Families Against Intimidation and Terror
FARC Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia
FRU Force Research Unit
GAA Gaelic Athletic Association
GFA Good Friday Agreement
HET Historical Enquiries Team
IMC Independent Monitoring Commission
INC Irish National Caucus
INLA Irish National Liberation Army
IPP Irish Parliamentary Party
IRA Irish Republican Army
IRB Irish Republican Brotherhood
JRRT Joseph Rowntree Reform Trust

x
 ABBRE V IATIONS A N D A CR O N YM S | xi

LVF Loyalist Volunteer Force

MLA Member of the Legislative Assembly
MLK Maze/Long Kesh
MLK DC Maze/Long Kesh Development Corporation
NICRA Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association
NILT Northern Ireland Life and Times
NIO Northern Ireland Office
NORAID Irish Northern Aid Committee
NUM National Union of Mineworkers
NUS–USI National Union of Students–Union of Students in Ireland
OFMDFM Office of the First Minister and Deputy First Minister
PD People’s Democracy
PfG Programme for Government
PIRA Provisional IRA
PLO Palestine Liberation Organization
PSNI Police Service of Northern Ireland
PTA Prevention of Terrorism Act
PUP Progressive Unionist Party
RAAD Republican Action Against Drugs
RCN Rural Community Network
RHC Red Hand Commando
RHI Renewable Heating Incentive
RIRA Real IRA
RNU Republican Network for Unity
RUC Royal Ulster Constabulary
SDLP Social Democratic and Labour Party
SPAD Special Adviser
TD Teachta Dála (Member of Dáil Éireann)
TUV Traditional Unionist Voice
UDA Ulster Defence Association
UDP Ulster Democratic Party
UDR Ulster Defence Regiment
UFF Ulster Freedom Fighters
UKUP UK Unionist Party
UUC Ulster Unionist Council
UUP Ulster Unionist Party
UUUC United Ulster Unionist Council
UVF Ulster Volunteer Force
UWC Ulster Workers’ Council
WA Withdrawal Agreement
WAB Withdrawal Agreement Bill
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

FIRST EDITION

T HERE ARE A number of people whose advice, encouragement and support

have been critical during the writing of this book. My editor at Yale,
Phoebe Clapham, has steered the project from its inception and has guided
me with consummate professionalism and care through the process of
producing and refining the manuscript; for this I am truly thankful. Thanks
are also due to my copy-editor, Clive Liddiard, for his sharp eye and atten-
tion to detail.
I began writing the book while working at Lancaster University, and am
indebted to my former colleagues and friends at Lancaster, in particular
Professor David Denver, who provided encouragement, friendship and, at
times, useful critical engagement throughout the project. I would also like
to thank all my students at Lancaster over the last fourteen years for their
engagement with the themes at the centre of the book.
I moved jobs while writing the book, and I would like to thank my new
colleagues at the School of Politics and International Relations at the
University of Kent for their friendship and collegiality. I would particu-
larly like to thank my Head of School, Professor Richard Sakwa, and
Professor Richard Whitman for easing me into my new role at Kent and
for helping me to balance my responsibilities within the School with
the process of finishing the book. My new colleagues at the Conflict
Analysis Research Centre at Kent have also provided me with new perspec-
tives on Northern Ireland, as well as on wider issues relating to political

xii
 ACKNO WL E D G E M E N T S | xiii

violence. I would particularly like to thank Dr Gulnur Aybet, Dr Ruth

Blakeley, Dr Govinda Clayton, Dr Philip Cunliffe, Dr Andrea den
Boer, Dr Neo Loizides, Professor Hugh Miall, Dr Doug Stokes and
Dr Harmonie Toros.
I would also like to thank a number of other colleagues and friends who
have helped me to clarify my thoughts on the wider debates surrounding
the dynamics of violent political conflict and the potential for overcoming
it, including: Dr Patrick Bishop, Dr Kynan Gentry, Dr Alan Greer,
Professor Terence Lyons, Dr Vicky Mason, Professor Gerd Nonneman,
Dr Eamonn O’Kane, Dr Graham Smith, Professor Ashok Swain and
Professor Jonathan Tonge. I would also like to thank Greg and Kathie
Irwin, Donald and Deborah McWhirter and Dr Alison Montgomery for
their friendship and advice. The anonymous readers of the initial proposal
and draft manuscript also provided useful criticisms and suggestions, for
which I am extremely grateful.
A number of people were kind enough to be interviewed in relation
to some of the themes within the book, and I would like to thank in partic-
ular Noel Doran, Stephen Farry, David Ford, Ciarnan Helferty, Conall
McDevitt, Joe O’Donnell, Quintin Oliver, Nigel Smyth and Peter Weir
for their time and valuable insights.
On a personal note, I want to thank family members Niall, Geraldine,
Eamonn, Peter and Sean and my mother and father, Roisin and Gerry
Cochrane, for their love and support. The most heartfelt thanks go to
my wife, Professor Rosaleen Duffy, who has perhaps suffered more than I
have through the writing process. Apart from acting as a constant sounding-
board for my arguments, she has had to endure listening to the minutiae
of Northern Ireland’s painful political history more than any person should
reasonably be expected to. Rosaleen has been particularly tolerant of the
time the book has taken to write when there have been other priorities
in our lives, such as a new-born baby to feed, nappies to change and new
jobs to start. I thank Rosaleen for her constant patience, advice, love and
encouragement. The book also benefits from Rosaleen’s talent as a photog-
rapher, though spending New Year’s Day 2013 on the Newtownards Road
was not the holiday she had initially envisaged.
The book is dedicated to our beautiful son Oisín, who arrived midway
through the writing of Chapter 3. As Gaelic legend has it, Oisín was both
a warrior and a poet. While he was not thus christened with this book in
mind, these two traits seem particularly appropriate for the subject matter
contained within its pages.
xiv | AC K N OWL E DGE ME NTS

SECOND EDITION

Both editions of this book have been a labour of love to write. This second
edition is a significant revision of the issues covered in the first, some of
which are either outdated or, more rarely, resolved. Others, such as Brexit,
were barely a gleam in the eye of the most ardent Eurosceptic when the first
edition was published in 2013. But so much has changed since then that a
major overhaul of the book was needed. We are about to mark the centenary
of Northern Ireland which has witnessed partition, endemically troubled
political institutions and even more troubled human relationships within
Ireland and between Ireland and Britain. Despite the passage of time, the key
questions endure. Can Northern Ireland govern itself in a manner that is
capable of securing community consent? Can it do so effectively in a way that
represents the political and cultural identities of the people who live there?
Traditionally, these communities have been defined as unionist/British and
nationalist/Irish – but those of neither identity have been an increasing
demographic as well in recent years. More fundamentally, does Northern
Ireland actually have a viable political future? Or will Irish political reunifica-
tion or some other constitutional formula dominate its next hundred years?
This edition examines these themes and updates the original book with a
number of revised chapters and two new entries, one on Brexit and another
that looks ahead to the medium-term future for Northern Ireland.
While I changed jobs during the writing of the first edition of the book,
I retired as Professor of International Conflict Analysis at the University
of Kent while working on the second and joined the ranks of professors
emereti, which provided much-needed time and space to accomplish the
updates. The editions therefore bookend my professional career, and my
life more broadly, as they map my early years growing up in Belfast, my
move from Northern Ireland to Britain in the 1990s, and thirty years of
writing about the political conflict in the place I still call home. Northern
Ireland both inspires and frustrates me, exerting a gravitational pull that is
hard to justify, but impossible to resist. My partner tried to explain this
once to a Danish colleague whose other half was also a ‘Nordie’, with
whom I was talking about going ‘home’. ‘They’re like salmon,’ was her
explanation – and she was right.
All of those thanked in the first edition stay thanked, but there are addi-
tional people who need to be acknowledged here. My editor at Yale, Joanna
Godfrey, has been immensely helpful in guiding this project along and
seeing it through to completion. My colleagues and friends at the
 ACKNO WL E D G E M E N T S | xv

University of Kent have also been hugely supportive and I thank them for
their collegiality and friendship – and for their patience every time I
compared political disputes, wherever they were taking place, to conflict
dynamics in Northern Ireland. Special mention has to go to my colleagues
in the Conflict Analysis Research Centre (CARC) in the School of Politics
and International Relations at the University of Kent, and to scholars with
whom I worked most closely and who have helped shape my thinking
about political institution-building in deeply divided societies. In partic-
ular, Dr Nadine Ansorg, who joined the School after the first edition was
published – a living example to all of us in academia of the fact that you can
be a research star as well as a collegial and civic-minded colleague.
Over the last few years I have worked particularly closely in CARC with
Professor Neophytos Loizides, Dr Edward Morgan-Jones and Dr Laura
Sudulich (now at the University of Essex) on a research project funded by
the United States Institute of Peace (USIP). This project was entitled
‘Citizen Preferences in the Design of Effective Peace Settlements’ and
used a pioneering conjoint survey methodology to look at the trade-offs
citizens may make when considering the potential options available to
them in peace negotiations. This has been a wonderful research collabora-
tion, not just in terms of the survey methodology and data produced, but
equally valuable has been the wealth of informal discussion and delibera-
tion that helped to shape the project. I would like to thank USIP for the
support it has given to this project and to my friends and colleagues for
such a rewarding collaborative experience. Many of the arguments within
this second edition have been shaped by this research and informed my
own thinking and understanding.
My son Oisín was born while the original book was being written, and
he will be ten years old when the second edition is published. He is a
wonderful human being who both inspires and challenges me every day,
and while the first edition was accompanied by me trying to put nappies on
the right way round, the second featured a stint of home-schooling as a
result of the Covid-19 pandemic in 2020. I would like to thank Oisín for
his patience and for helping me to improve my times tables. I also want to
thank my partner Professor Rosaleen Duffy for sharing this experience
with me while we were both writing books, and while she was also
completing work on her fantastic European Research Council (ERC)
BIOSEC project at the University of Sheffield. I owe a debt of thanks to
Rosaleen, and to my parents Roisin and Gerry Cochrane and my brother
Niall Cochrane, and I thank them for their continued love and support.
Other documents randomly have
different content
CHAPTER XIII. AN ELECTRIC
BATTERY MOTOR.

AN electric motor has two essential parts. These are a field magnet
for furnishing a strong magnetic field and a revolving armature.

It is an easy matter to make a strong electric motor suitable to

operate on batteries by the exercise of a little careful workmanship.

The field frame and armature of the motor shown in Figure 133
are laminated, that is, built up of separate sheets of iron. They may
be made out of sheet tin or ordinary stove pipe iron. The cheapest
and simplest method of securing good flat material is to get some
old scrap from a tinner’s or plumbing shop.

*The Details of the Field* are shown in Figure 134. The exact
shape and dimensions can be understood by reference to the
illustration. Lay out one lamination very carefully as a pattern. Cut it
out and smooth up the edges, making certain that it is perfectly true
to size and shape. Then use it as a template to lay out the other
laminations by placing it on the metal and scribing a line around the
edges with a sharp pointed needle. Enough laminations should be
cut out to make a pile five-eighths of an inch high when tightly
pressed together.

[Illustration: FIG. 133.—The completed Electric Motor.]

*The Armature* is made in exactly the same manner as the field

frame, that is, by cutting out a pattern according to the shape and
dimensions shown in Figure 136 and using it as a template to lay out
the other laminations. Enough should be cut to make a pile five-
eighths of an inch high when tightly squeezed together.

[Illustration: FIG. 134.—Details of the Field Frame.]

[Illustration: FIG. 135.—The Assembled Field ready for Winding.]

The armature is one and three-sixteenths inches in diameter. The

hole in the field frame which accommodates the armature is one
inch and one-quarter in diameter so that there is a space in between
for the armature to revolve in.

The hole through the center for the shaft should be of such
diameter that the laminations will force very tightly on a shaft one-
eighth of an inch in diameter. The laminations should be very
carefully flattened and then forced over the steel shaft which is two
and one-eighth inches long. Clean up all the rough edges with a file
and smooth the outside so that it will revolve properly in the field
without scraping.

[Illustration: FIG. 136.—Details of the Armature Lamination.]

[Illustration: FIG. 137.—The Armature assembled on the Shaft

ready to
Wind.]
 Figure 137 illustrates the armature assembled on the shaft and
ready to be wound.

*The Armature Windings* consist of four layers of No. 22 B. & S.

Gauge double cotton covered magnet wire wound around each leg.
The iron should be very carefully insulated with shellaced paper
before the wire is put in position so that there will not be any danger
of short circuit due to the sharp edges of the metal cutting through
the insulation. Each leg should contain the same number of turns of
wire and all should be wound in the same direction.

The Commutator is illustrated in Figure 138. It consists of a piece

of brass tubing seven-sixteenths of an inch long, five-sixteenths
inside and three-eighths of an inch outside. It should be forced onto
a piece of fibre five-sixteenths of an inch in diameter and seven-
sixteenths of an inch long. Split the tube into three equal parts by
dividing it longitudinally with a hack-saw. Make a fibre ring which will
force onto the tube very tightly when it is in position on the fibre
core and so hold the three commutator sections firmly in position.
The sections should be so arranged that there is a small space
between each two and they are perfectly insulated from each other.
The fibre core should have a one-eighth inch hole through the centre
so that it may be forced tightly onto the shaft and up against the
armature after the windings are in position. The commutator should
be in such a position that the split between each two sections come
directly opposite the centre of each winding. Suppose that the
windings are lettered A, B, and C, the commutator section between
A and B is numbered 1, that between A and C is No. 2, and the one
between C and B is No. 3. Then the inside terminal of B is connected
to the outside terminal of A and soldered to the end of commutator
section No. 1 close to the winding. The inside end of B is connected
to the outside terminal of C and to commutator section No. 2. The
inside end of winding C is connected to the outside of B and to
commutator section No. 3. The connection of the armature windings
to the commutator are represented by the diagram in Figure 139.

[Illustration: FIG. 138.—The Commutator.]

[Illustration: FIG. 139.—Diagram showing how the Armature Coils

are connected to the Commutator Sections.]

[Illustration: FIG. 140.—The Bearings.]

*The Field Winding* consists of five layers of No. 18 B. & S.

double cotton covered wire. A much neater job may be made of this
part of the work if two fibre heads are cut to slip over the field and
support the ends of the winding as shown in the illustration in Figure
133.

*The Bearings* are illustrated in Figure 140. They are made out of
three-eighths inch brass strip one-sixteenth of an inch thick by
bending and drilling as shown in the illustration. The location of the
holes is best understood from the drawing. The larger bearing is
assembled on the field at the side towards the commutator.

Assembling the motor is a comparatively easy matter if it is done

properly and carefully. The bearings are mounted on the field frame
by screws passing through the holes B and B into a nut on the
outside of the bearing at the opposite side of the field.

The armature should revolve freely without binding and without

any danger of scraping against the field. Slip some small fibre
washers over the ends of the shaft between the armature and the
bearings so as to take up all end play.

*The Brushes* are made of spring copper according to the shape

and dimensions shown in Figure 141. They can be cut out with a
pair of snips.

Each brush is mounted on a small fibre block supported on the

large motor bearing. The holes marked A and C in the illustration
should be threaded with a 4-36 tap. The hole B should be made
one-eighth of an inch in diameter and drilled all the way through the
block.

The holes A and C are used to fasten the blocks to the bearing.
The brushes are fastened to the blocks by means of a 6-32 screw
with a nut on the lower end.

*The Base* is a rectangular block, three inches wide, three and

one-half inches long and three-eighths of an inch thick. The motor is
fastened to the base by four small right angled brackets bent out of
strip brass and secured to the field frame by two machine screws
passing through the holes H and H into a nut at the opposite end.

[Illustration: FIG. 141.—The Brushes.]

One terminal of the field winding is connected to a binding post

mounted on the base. The other terminal of the field is connected to
the right hand brush. The end of the wire should be placed under
the head of the screw which holds the brush to the fibre block. The
brush should be on the under side of the block so that it bears
against the under side of the commutator.
 The left hand brush bears against the upper side of the
commutator and is connected to a second binding post on the base
of the motor. This makes it a "series" motor, that is, the armature
and the field are connected in series.

[Illustration: FIG. 142.—The Fibre Block for supporting each

Brush.]

The motor is now ready to run. Put a drop of oil on each bearing
and make certain that the curved portion of the brushes bear firmly
against the centre of the commutator on opposite sides. The
armature having three poles, should start without assistance and run
at high speed as soon as the current is applied. Two cells of dry or
other battery should be sufficient. The motor may be fitted with a
small pulley so that its power may be utilized for driving small
models.
CHAPTER XIV. HOW TO BUILD AN
ELECTRIC ENGINE.

An Electric engine is really a form of electric motor but differs from

the most common form of the latter in that the armature, instead of
revolving, oscillates back and forth, like the piston of a steam or
gasoline engine. Electric engines are not as efficient as electric
motors from the standpoint of the amount of power delivered in
proportion to the current used, but they make very interesting
models and the young experimenter will derive fully as much
pleasure in constructing one as from the construction of an electric
motor. Various forms of electric engines were made before the first
practical electric motor was invented. They amounted to little more
than curiosities, however, and could only be used where the expense
of electric current was not to be regarded.

[Illustration: FIG. 143.—Completed Electric Engine.]

The engine illustrated in Figure 143 is of the double action type. It

is provided with two electromagnets arranged so that one pulls the
armature forward and the other pulls it back. The motion of the
armature is transmitted to the shaft by means of a connecting rod
and crank. It is very simple to build and the design is such that it will
operate equally well whether it is made large or small. If you do not
happen to have all the necessary materials to build an engine
according to the dimensions shown in the drawings you can make it
just one-half that size and it will work equally well although it will of
course not give as much power.

The complete engine is shown in Figure 143. All the various parts
have been marked so that you can easily identify them in the other
drawings. It is well to study this illustration carefully first so that you
will understand just how all the parts are arranged.

*The Base* is illustrated in Figure 144. It is made of a piece of

hardwood, seven inches long, three and one-half inches wide and
one-half an inch thick.

[Illustration: FIG. 144.—The Engine Base.]

*The Magnets*. The size of the electromagnets will largely

determine the dimensions of the rest of the engine. The magnets
shown in Figure 145 are made of three-eighths inch round iron, two
and one-half inches long, provided with two fibre washers one and
one-eighth inches in diameter. One end of each of the steel cores is
drilled and tapped to receive an 8-32 iron screw. The experimenter
may possibly be able to secure some old magnet cores fitted with
fibre heads from an old telephone bell or "ringer" as they are
sometimes called. A suitable bolt can be made to serve the purpose
by cutting it off to the right dimensions with a hack saw. If a drill
and a tap are not available for drilling and tapping the end so that
the core can be properly mounted in the frame of the engine it is
possible by the exercise of a little ingenuity to use the threaded
portion of a bolt to good advantage. The hole in the frame should
then be made larger so that the end of the bolt will slip through
instead of an 8-32 screw and the core clamped in position by a nut
on each side.

The fibre washers are spaced two and one-sixteenth inches apart.
The space in between should be wound full of No. 18 B. & S. Gauge
cotton covered magnet wire. Before winding in the wire, cover the
core with a layer of paper so that the wire does not touch the metal.
The ends of the wire should be led out through small holes in the
fibre heads.

[Illustration: FIG. 145.—Details of the Electromagnet Bobbin.]

It is not absolutely necessary to use No. 18 B. & S. Gauge wire in

winding the magnets but this is the size which will give the best
results on the average battery.

[Illustration: FIG. 146.—Details of the Engine Frame.]

If you use larger wire, the engine will require more current from
the battery. If you use finer wire, a battery of a higher voltage will
be necessary. The current consumption will, however, be less.

*The Frame.*—The electromagnets are mounted in the frame of

the engine by means of two screws passing through the holes E and
D. The details of the frame are illustrated in Figure 146. It is made
of a strip of wrought iron or cold rolled steel, nine and one-quarter
inches long, an inch or an inch and one-eighth wide and one-eighth
of an inch thick. The material for making this part of the engine and
also the bearings can probably best be obtained at some blacksmith
shop or hardware store. Heavy galvanized iron can be used but it is
not usually thick enough and it may be necessary use two
thicknesses. The ends of the strip are rounded and bent at right
angles so as to form a U-shaped piece with sides one and three-
quarters inches high. The holes D and E should be large enough to
pass an 8-32 screw. The holes A, B and C should be about one-
eighth of an inch in diameter. They are used to pass the screw which
hold the frame of the engine to the wooden base.

[Illustration: FIG. 147—The Bearings.]

*The Bearings* are shown in Figure 147. They are U-shaped and
are made out of a strip of iron or steel in the same manner as the
frame of the engine but are three-quarters of an inch wide instead
of an inch and one-eighth. The dimensions will be understood best
by referring to the drawing. The 3/32 inch holes near the top of each
side are the bearing holes for each end of the shaft. The one-eighth
inch holes below are used to fasten the brush holder in position. The
holes in the bottom serve to fasten the bearings to the base.

[Illustration: FIG. 148.—Details of the Shaft.]

*The Shaft* will probably prove the most difficult part of the
engine to make properly. The details are given in Figure 148. It is
made of a piece of one-eighth inch steel rod bent so that it has a
"throw" of one-half an inch, that is, is offset one-quarter of an inch
so that the connecting rod moves back and forth a distance of one
half an inch. The finished shaft should be three inches long. The
piece of steel used should be longer than this, so that it can be cut
off to exact dimensions after the shaft is finished. A second crank
should be bent in one end of the shaft so as to form an offset
contact for the brushes. This second crank will have to be at right
angles to the first one and should be much smaller. The ends of the
shaft are turned or filed down to a diameter of three-thirty second of
an inch for a distance of about the same amount so that they will fit
in the bearing holes and turn freely but not allow the whole shaft to
slip through. The work of making the shaft will require a small vice,
a light hammer, files and a couple of pairs of pliers. One pair of
pliers should be of the round nosed type and the other a pair of
ordinary square jawed side cutters. It may require two or three
attempts before a perfect shaft is secured. When finished it should
be perfectly true and turn freely in the holes. The bearings can be
adjusted slightly by bending so that the shaft will fit in the holes and
be free but yet not be loose enough to slip out.

*The Armature* is a strip of soft iron, two and one-eighth inches

long, seven-sixteenths of an inch wide and three-sixteenths of an
inch thick. A one-sixteenth inch slot, three-eighths of an inch long is
cut in one end. A one-sixteenth inch hole is drilled through from one
side to the other, one-eighth of an inch from each end. The hole
which passes through the slot is used to pass the pin which pivots
the armature to the connecting rod. The other hole is used to mount
the armature in its bearing. The armature bearing is a small edition
of the one which is used to support the engine shaft. The details and
the dimensions are given in the lower left hand side of Figure 149.
The armature is shown in the centre of the same illustration. The
connecting rod is illustrated at the right. This is made from a strip of
three-sixty-fourths inch brass, three-sixteenths of an inch wide and
one and five-eighths inches long. A one-eighth inch hole should be
drilled close to one end and a one-sixteenth inch hole close to the
other.

[Illustration: FIG. 149.—The Armature, Armature Bearing and

Connecting
Rod.]
 *The Brushes* are two strips of thin phosphor bronze sheet, two
and three-sixteenths inches long and nine-thirty-seconds of an inch
wide. They are illustrated in Figure 150. The block upon which they
are mounted is hard fibre. It is one and five-eighths inches long and
three-eighths of an inch square.

[Illustration: FIG. 150.—The Brushes.]

*The Flywheel*. It may be possible to secure a flywheel for the

engine from some old toy. It should be about three and one-half
inches in diameter. A flywheel can be made out of sheet iron or steel
by following the suggestion in Figure 151, which shows a wheel cut
out of one-eighth inch sheet steel. It is given the appearance of
having spokes by boring six three-quarter inch holes through the
face as shown. The hole in the centre of the wheel should be one-
eighth of an inch in diameter. The wheel is slipped over the shaft
and fastened in position by soldering.

The parts are now all ready to assemble into the complete engine.
Mount the electromagnets in the frame and fasten the frame down
to the wooden base so that one end of the frame comes practically
flush with the left hand edge of the base. Fasten the bearing across
the frame at right angles by a screw passing through the centre hole
in the bottom of the bearing, through the hole A and into the base.
The bottom of the bearing should be bent slightly so as to straddle
the frame. The bearings should be secured and prevented from
turning or twisting by two screws passed through the other two
holes in the bottom. Use round-headed wood screws in mounting
the bearing and the frame. The armature bearing should be
mounted on the frame directly between the two electromagnets.
Then place the armature in position by slipping a piece of one-
sixteenth inch brass rod through the bearing holes and the hole in
the lower part of the armature.

[Illustration: FIG. 151.—A Flywheel may be cut from sheet iron.]

Solder the flywheel in position on the shaft and snap the latter
into the bearings. Adjust the bearings so that the shaft will turn
freely. The connecting rod should be slipped over the shaft before it
is placed in the bearings. Fasten the other end of the connecting rod
to the armature by means of a piece of one-sixteenth inch brass rod
which passes through the small holes bored for that purpose. When
the flywheel is spun with the fingers, the armature should move
back and forth between the two electromagnets and almost but not
quite touch the two magnet poles. All the moving parts should be
fitted firmly together but be free enough so that there is no
unnecessary friction and so that the engine will continue to run for a
few seconds when the flywheel is spun with the fingers.

The brushes, supported on their fibre block should be mounted on

the bearing by means of two screws passing through the holes in
the bearing into the block. The position of the brushes should be
such that the shaft passes between the two upper ends but does not
touch them unless the small contact crank mentioned above is in
proper position to do so. The proper adjustment of the brushes, so
that they make contact with the shaft at the proper moment, will
largely determine the speed and power which the finished engine
will develop.

Two binding posts should be mounted on the right hand end of

the base so that the engine can be easily connected to a battery.
Connect one terminal of the right hand electromagnet to one of the
binding posts. Run the other terminal of the electromagnet to the
brush on the opposite side of the shaft. Connect one terminal of the
left hand electromagnet to the other binding post and run the other
terminal to the brush on the opposite side of the shaft. Save for a
few minor adjustments, the engine is now ready to run. Connect two
or three cells of dry battery to the two binding posts and turn the
flywheel so that it moves from right to left across the top. Just as
the crank passes "dead centre" and the armature starts to move
back away from the left hand magnet, the small contact crank
should touch the left hand brush and send the current through the
right hand magnet. This will draw the armature over to the right.
Just before the armature gets all the way over to the right, the
contact should break connection with the left hand brush and
interrupt the current so that the inertia of the flywheel will cause it
to keep moving and the armature to start to move over towards the
left hand magnet at which point the contact on the shaft should
commence to bear against the right hand brush, thus throwing the
left hand magnet into circuit and drawing the armature over to that
side. If the brushes and the cranks are in proper relation to each
other the engine will continue to repeat this operation and gradually
gain speed until it is running at a good rate.

The appearance of the engine can be improved by painting the

metal parts black and the flywheel red. The magnets can be
wrapped with a piece of bright red cloth to protect the wire against
injury and brighten the appearance of the engine.
CHAPTER XV. MINIATURE BATTERY
LIGHTING.

The tungsten lamp has opened wonderful possibilities in the field of

electric lighting by means of miniature lamps operated from
batteries.

The tungsten lamp uses less than one third the amount of current
required by the old-fashioned carbon filament lamps in producing
the same candle power. This means that the battery will last three
times as long.

Miniature lighting is one of the most practical phases of

experimental electricity to which the experimenter can apply his
time. Battery operated lamps will be found invaluable in many places
for lighting dark corners, hallways, barns, garages, camps,
bungalows, workshops, etc.

*Tungsten Battery Lamps* are made in a great many different

styles and sizes.

The smallest sizes are used for flashlights, hand-lanterns, etc.

These are not rated according to their candlepower, but to the
voltage which they should be operated on. Flashlight lamps will be
found satisfactory as a means of illuminating closets, cellars,
stairways, etc., but do not give sufficient light for reading or any
purpose of that sort. The light which they give varies from one to
three candle-power according to the size of the lamp. They are
made for 1.5, 2.8, 3.8 and 5.8 volts or respectively one, two, three
and four dry cells. Flashlight lamps are provided with what is known
as a miniature base only.

A very simple lighting arrangement which will prove exceedingly

useful for illuminating a dark closet, a coal bin or the face of a clock,
etc., consists of a 1.5 volt lamp, a single cell of dry battery and a
suitable switch and wire. Such an installation may be made at a cost
of less than seventy-five cents.

[Illustration: FIG. 152.—Small Tungsten Battery Lamps.]

The lamp is mounted in what is known as a miniature porcelain

base receptacle. The switch may most conveniently be the type
termed a "wood base" switch. In case the lamp is installed for
illuminating a clock, a "pear push" and a flexible cord may be
substituted for turning the light off and on in place of the switch. It
can then be suitably hung alongside of the clock or bed as desired.

The wire should not be smaller than No. 18 B. & S. Gauge or else
it will offer too much resistance to the electric current and full
benefit of the candle-power of the lamp will not be secured.
Annunciator wire is preferable. It has good insulation and at the
same time is not too large to be easily run through corners, cracks,
etc.
 The diagram in Figure 153 shows how to connect the lamp to the
battery and switch. Figure 156 shows two dry cells connected in
series for use with a 2.8 volt lamp.

[Illustration: FIG. 153.—A Simple Lighting Arrangement.]

When more illumination is desired than that furnished by flashlight

lamps greater candle-power will be required. The following table
shows the voltages and candle-powers of those lamps which are
most suitable in such an instance:

· G6….4 volts 4 candle-power

· G6….6 volts 4 candle-power
· G8 6 volts 6 candle-power

They may also be operated from dry cells. If they are intended to
be in use for other than a few minutes at a time it will be well to use
a battery consisting of two sets of cells connected in series multiple.
The method of connecting cells in series multiple has already been
illustrated in Figure 35. This will lighten the strain on the battery and
it will be found that two sets of batteries used in series multiple will
last *more than twice* as long as one set used alone.

[Illustration: FIG. 154.—Showing the differences between the

Candelabra,
Single Ediswan and Double Ediswan Types of Lamp Bases.]

Six volt lamps of more than six candle-power are best operated on
storage batteries because the current required is too great for dry
cells to give efficient service in such a case.
 The tungsten lamps made for automobiles are ideal for miniature
lighting plants operated by storage batteries. The list below shows
some of the sizes on a current of six to eight volts.

The bases are made of brass and come in four different styles,
miniature, candelabra, single Ediswan and double Ediswan. The
single and double Ediswan are used on automobiles because the
construction of the base and the socket or the receptacle into which
it fits is such that the lamp cannot jar loose.

[Illustration: FIG. 155.—Miniature Sockets of the types known as

"Flat
Base Porcelain," "Pin" and "Weatherproof."]

The candelabra base is probably the type best adapted to

miniature lighting elsewhere than on an automobile.

The letter "G" and the number in the first column indicates the
size of the glass globe or bulb of the lamps.

You can compute the approximate amount of current drawn from

a battery by a tungsten lamp, by dividing the candle-power by the
voltage. The result is the current in amperes. For example, a 6 volt,
12 candle-power lamp will consume 12 divided by 6, or 2 amperes.

[Illustration: FIG. 156.—Connections for a 2.8 Volt Lamp.]

Storage batteries are rated by their output in *ampere hours*. An

ampere hour is the amount of current represented by one ampere
flowing for one hour. A forty ampere hour cell will deliver one
ampere for forty hours, 4 amperes for ten hours or 5 amperes for
eight hours. The ampere hour capacity of a storage cell divided by
the amount of current being used will determine how long that
current can be drawn before recharging is necessary.

The maximum amount of current it is safe to draw from a storage

cell without impairing its life and efficiency is the maximum current
which that cell can deliver continuously for eight hours. In order to
determine this current simply divide the manufacturer’s rating of the
battery in ampere hours by eight. The answer is the maximum
current you should require from the battery if you wish to obtain
good service from it. For example, the maximum safe discharge rate
of a 40 ampere hour battery is 40 divided by 8 or 5 amperes.

[Illustration: FIG. 157.—A Miniature Base Tungsten Filament

Battery Lamp for small lighting.]

The method of computing the current required by a lamp and the

method for determining the maximum safe discharge rate of a
battery will enable you to figure the size of the smallest battery it is
desirable to use in a lighting plant.

Suppose that you intend to use three 6 volt 12 candlepower

lamps. Each lamp will require two amperes or a total of six when all
three lamps are burning at the same time. Six amperes multiplied by
eight ampere hours equals 48 ampere hours. This is the smallest
size of battery which should be used. If it is larger, it will be
advantageous, because it will supply the lamps a correspondingly
longer time without recharging.

Figure 155 shows some of the sockets or receptacles which are on

the market. The illustration to the left is a "flat base receptacle." It
will be found most useful when the lamp is to be mounted directly
on the wall or ceiling. The weatherproof type of socket may be
secured with either a fibre or a porcelain shell.

[Illustration: FIG. 158.—A Tungsten Automobile Lamp with

Ediswan Base.]

The brass shell socket is the best wherever appearance counts. It

is patterned after the standard Edison sockets and is made so that it
will screw onto several different sizes and styles of brackets which
may be mounted on either the ceiling or the wall. This type of socket
is also made with a small switch built inside so that the lamp may be
turned on or off directly at the socket.

*The Wire* used to connect the system will depend upon where
the lamps are located. Annunciator or office wire as it is sometimes
called will serve in most cases where the wires are to be run entirely
indoors. The largest size made is No. 16 B. & S. Gauge. This is the
size which should be used. Annunciator wire is made in various
colors so that it can be more easily concealed.

If the wires are run outdoors, or somewhat exposed to the

weather, as on a porch or in a barn, it is advisable to use
weatherproof or rubber covered wire. Lead covered twin conductor
is recommended for use aboard boats or wherever the wire is liable
to abrasion.

[Illustration: FIG. 159.—Lamps Controlled by One Switch.]

If the lamps are larger than eight candle-power, or several are to

be used on the same line, the wires should be larger than No. 16.
When a battery is connected to a system of wires, the voltage at the
end of the line is much lower than it is at the battery terminals. This
is due to the resistance of the wire and is called "voltage drop." The
lamps at the end of the line will not burn as brilliantly as those close
to the battery. This can be partially overcome by using large wire.

The lamps may be either connected in series or in multiple. When

a six volt battery is used, it will be necessary to connect them in
multiple. Figure 159 shows how several lamps may be connected in
multiple and controlled by one switch. Figure 160 shows the same
lamps with three separate switches so that each lamp may be turned
on or off individually.

[Illustration: FIG. 160.—Lamps Controlled by Separate switches.]

It is possible to arrange a lamp and two switches so that it can be

turned on or off at either switch independently of the other. This is a
very convenient method of installing a light on a stairway or in a
hall. One switch may be placed at the top of the stairs and the other
at the bottom. A person going either up or down stairs can light the
lamps ahead and turn it out as he passes the last switch regardless
of its position at the other end.

The switches must be of the type called "two point" or "double

throw single pole" and the levers must always rest on one of the
contacts and never be left in between.

[Illustration: FIG. 161.—Double Control System.]

CHAPTER XVI. COHERER OUTFITS
FOR WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY.

Making a Coherer. How to Adjust the Instruments.

MANY experimenters desire some device by which wireless signals

may be made clearly audible without the necessity of holding a
telephone receiver to the ear. It is not possible for the amateur to
make such an arrangement which will receive signals over long
distances. It is, however, possible to arrange a "coherer" so that
signals coming from a nearby station may be indicated by the
ringing of a bell.

[Illustration: FIG. 162.—The Coherer Details.]

Such a "coherer" outfit will receive messages coming within a

radius of one mile and may also be used for demonstrating the
principles of wireless telegraphy when both the receiving and
transmitting station are located in the same room or building.

In order to secure these results it will be necessary to substitute a

device called a "coherer" for the detector in the receiving apparatus.
 A coherer consists essentially of a few metal filings between two
metal plugs. The filings are made part of a circuit which includes a
relay and a battery. Under ordinary conditions the filings lie loosely
together and their resistance to an electric current is so great that
they will not allow enough energy to flow to operate the relay. If,
however, the two plugs are connected to the aerial and ground so
that the currents of the incoming wireless signals also pass through
the filings, they will suddenly "cohere" or stick together and permit
sufficient current to pass to operate the relay.

[Illustration: FIG. 163.—The Complete Coherer.]

A "tapper," or as it is also sometimes called a "decoherer," is also

arranged in the circuit so as to automatically shake the filings up and
restore them to their loose state as soon as each signal is received.
The decoherer consists simply of an ordinary bell mounted so that
the hammer will strike the coherer and jar it.

The first thing required in order to make a coherer is a pair of

double binding posts. These should be mounted on a wooden base
six inches long and four inches wide as shown in Figure 163.

A piece of glass tubing about one and one-half inches long and
one-eighth of an inch in diameter inside together with some brass
rod which will just slip into the tube tightly will be required.

Cut two pieces of the brass rod one and three-quarters inches
long and face off the ends perfectly square and smooth.

Slip these rods through the upper holes in the binding posts and
into the glass tube as shown in Figure 163. Be sure that everything
lines up perfectly and then remove one of the plugs.
 Before putting the plug back in place put some nickel and silver
filings in the tube so that when the rods are pushed almost together,
with only a distance of three-sixty-fourths to one-sixteenth of an
inch between, the filings will about half fill the space.

[Illustration: FIG. 164.—Pony Type Relay.]

The filings are a mixture of silver and nickel and must be very
carefully prepared. The mixture should be nine-tenths nickel and
one-tenth silver. The filings may be secured by holding a five cent
piece over a clean sheet of paper and filing it with a coarse file. The
silver filings are made in the same way by using a ten cent piece or
a quarter in place of the nickel.

Do not use the fine dust and powder which is formed, but only the
coarse filings.

The success of the coherer will depend upon its adjustment and it
will probably be necessary for the beginner to experiment
considerably to find out just the right amount of filings to place in
the tube and how far apart the brass plugs should be placed.

The decoherer is made by removing the gong from an old electric

bell and mounting the bell on the base in the position shown in
Figure 163. The hammer should be bent so that it will tap the
coherer lightly when a battery is connected to the bell binding posts.

The only thing required to complete the apparatus is a relay.

A relay of the "Pony" type such as that shown in Figure 164 will
serve for ordinary work. It should be wound to at least 150 ohms,
for to a certain extent, the higher the resistance, the more sensitive
it will be.

When it is desired to secure the maximum possible distance with

the coherer a "polarized" relay will be necessary. A polarized relay is
much more sensitive than the ordinary sort. The polarized relay
should be wound to 1000 ohms.

[Illustration: FIG. 165.—Connections for the Receiving Set.]

Figure 165 illustrates how the coherer, decoherer and relay should
be connected. Two wires connected to the coherer posts lead to the
magnets of the relay in series with a single dry cell. The contact
posits of the relay are connected to the decoherer in series with
another dry cell.

When wireless signals pass through the relay they will cause the
resistance to drop and allow sufficient current from the dry cell to
pass through the coherer to energize the magnets of the relay and
draw the armature in, thus closing the decoherer circuit. When the
armature of the relay is drawn in towards the magnets the relay
contacts are brought together. This closes the decoherer circuit and
starts the hammer to tapping the coherer, thus restoring the filings
to their former loose state. The decoherer will tap the coherer as
long as the incoming signals continue. By breaking the signals up
into dots and dashes of the telegraph code a message may be easily
transmitted and read from the tapping of the decoherer.

[Illustration: FIG. 166.—Coherer, Decoherer and Relay

Connections.]
 The best results are secured from a coherer outfit if it is
connected to the aerial and ground by substituting it for the detector
in a circuit employing a double slide tuning coil and a fixed
condenser. The two wires that would ordinarily be connected to the
detector terminals are simply connected to the coherer posts.

When the apparatus is to be used for demonstration or

experiment and the transmitting and receiving stations are both
located in the same room or house it will not be necessary to use an
aerial and ground but merely to attach two copper wires about 18 or
24 inches long to the opposite sides of the coherer as shown in
Figure 163.

In such a case the transmitter should be arranged as in Figure

167.

A spark gap made especially for this purpose is illustrated in

Figure 168. Some of the details of the gap are shown in Figure 169.

[Illustration: FIG. 167.—How the Transmitter is Connected.]

The ball may be made in the form of a complete sphere or else

consist simply of half of one as illustrated. It should have a radius of
about five-eighths of an inch and arranged so that it may be
mounted upon the end of a "catch-wire."

[Illustration: FIG. 168.—The Complete Spark Gap.]

The "catch-wires" are mounted in two standards similar in

construction to a large binding post three and one-quarter inches
high. The standards should be mounted by screwing them on top of
the secondary terminals of the spark coil. The spark balls should be
adjusted so that the distance between them is not over one-eighth
of an inch.

The coherer apparatus will probably require to be very accurately

adjusted before it will work properly.

Patience and a little experience will soon enable one to overcome

the difficulties and to put the apparatus in sensitive condition
without much trouble.

[Illustration: FIG. 169.—Details of Spark Gap.]

The coherer will be found to be the most sensitive when only a

very few filings are used.

The adjustment desired in the relay is the one in which the

armature is given the smallest possible amount of motion and the
spring which pulls the armature away from the magnets, the least
tension.

The best method of finding the most sensitive adjustment for the
apparatus is to place the transmitting and receiving stations only a
few feet apart from each other in the same room. After you learn
how to adjust the coherer and relay properly you will then find that
you can move the transmitter quite a distance away from the
coherer and it will still operate.

Of course a coherer outfit is not very satisfactory and reliable for

the regular reception of wireless signals even over short distances
because of its irregular working. It is, however, very useful for sort
of a calling or signal outfit. It may be connected to the tuning coil by
means of a double-pole, double-throw switch and left in the circuit
so as to indicate by the working of the tapper when any of the other
stations in the near neighborhood are sending. The detector can
then be quickly inserted in the circuit in place of the coherer by
throwing the switch in the opposite direction and the signals read in
the telephone receiver.
CHAPTER XVII. HOW TO BUILD A
TESLA HIGH FREQUENCY COIL.

IF the discharge from a Leyden jar or a condenser is passed through

a coil of wire acting as a primary and the primary is provided with a
secondary coil of a larger number of turns, a peculiar current known
as high frequency electricity is generated in the secondary. Such a
device is known as a Tesla Coil or Transformer.

[Illustration: FIG. 170.—Tesla Coil Circuits.]

When a Leyden jar or a condenser discharges through a coil of

wire, the spark which takes place does not consist simply of a single
spark passing in one direction only, but is really made of a number
of separate sparks passing alternately in opposite directions at the
tremendous rate of from one hundred thousand to one million times
per second.

A Tesla high frequency coil opens a field of wonderful possibilities

to the amateur experimenter and brings innumerable weird and
fascinating experiments within his reach.
 The Tesla coil described in the following pages will give sparks of
high frequency electricity two or three inches long from the
secondary, when used in connection with a two inch spark induction
coil. If used in connection with a small high potential wireless
transformer, the high frequency discharge can be increased to six or
eight inches.

A Tesla coil, suitable for use with a smaller spark coil, say one
capable of giving sparks from one-half to one inch in length can be
made by following the same plans but cutting all of the dimensions
in half. Make the secondary six inches long and one and one-half
inches in diameter instead of twelve inches long and three inches in
diameter, etc.

[Illustration: FIG. 171.—Secondary Tube.]

*The Secondary* winding consists of a single layer of No. 28 B. &

S. Gauge double cotton covered wire wound over a cardboard tube,
twelve inches long and and three inches in diameter. The tube must
be thoroughly dried before using it, by baking in an oven. A coat of
shellac, both inside and out, will avoid the possibility of having to
rewind the tube because of the wire becoming loose, due to drying
out of the tube later. The wire should be wound on in a smooth,
even layer to within about one-quarter of an inch from the ends and
given a coat of hot paraffine when finished. The ends of the tube are
fitted with circular wooden heads having a half inch flange.

*The Base* is a rectangular piece of wood, fifteen inches long and

six inches wide.

The secondary is supported in position by two hard rubber

uprights, four inches high, seven-eighths of an inch wide and one-
half an inch thick. A round-headed brass wood screw is passed
through the top part of each of the supports into the centre of each
one of the wooden secondary heads. High frequency currents are
very hard to insulate and wood does not possess sufficient insulating
value to fit it for use as supports. Hard rubber or glass are the most
satisfactory materials for the supports.

[Illustration: FIG. 172.—Details of the Secondary Heads.]

The secondary terminals are connected to two brass rods, five

inches long and having a small brass ball at the upper end, mounted
on the top of each of the hard rubber supports.

The lower ends of the hard rubber supports are fastened to the
base by means of screws passing upwards through the base into a
threaded hole in the bottom of each support.

[Illustration: FIG. 173.—Details of the Primary Head.]

The secondary passes through the centre of the primary. The

primary consists of eight turns of heavy copper wire wound around a
wooden drum or frame. The wire should be No. 8 or No. 10 B. & S.
Gauge. Flat copper or brass ribbon one-quarter of an inch wide can
be used in place of the wire. The stranded copper wire, consisting of
seven No. 22 B. & S. Gauge wires twisted together and commonly
employed for wireless aerials can be used to good advantage in
winding the primary, the idea of using a large wire, stranded wire, or
ribbon being to obtain a conductor having as much surface as
possible. High frequency currents travel only on the surface of wires
and conductors. A hollow tube is just as good a conductor for high
frequency currents as a solid rod of the same diameter.
 [Illustration: FIG. 174.—Primary Cross Bar.]

[Illustration: FIG. 175.—Front View of the completed Tesla Coil.]

[Illustration: FIG. 176—Side View of the completed Tesla Coil.]

The heads of the primary drum are wooden rings, seven inches in
diameter outside, four and one-half inches inside and one-half an
inch thick. Six cross bars, two and one-half inches long, three-
quarters of an inch thick and one-half an inch wide are required to
support the wire. They are spaced equidistantly around the rings
and held in position by means of brass screws passing through the
rings. Do not use iron screws, because iron is magnetic and should
be entirely avoided in the construction of a Tesla coil. Small notches
should be cut in the outside edge of the cross bars to accommodate
the wires. The wires should pass around the drum in the form of a
spiral with one-quarter to five-sixteenths of an inch space between
the turns. The completed drum will somewhat resemble a squirrel
cage. The ends of the primary winding should terminate in two large
binding posts mounted on the primary heads. The heads are
fastened to the centre of the base by a couple of large wood screws
passing upwards though the bottom.

[Illustration: FIG. 177.—Diagram of connections for operating the

Coil.]

The illustration in Figure 177 shows how to connect the Tesla coil.
The primary should be in series with a condenser and a spark gap.
The condenser should consist of two or three Leyden jars or several
glass plates coated with tinfoil. It is impossible to determine just
how much capacity the condenser should have in advance, because
the length of the conducting wires, adjustment of the spark gap,
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