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with Unrelated Content
 While the sudden breaking in a circuit will produce a spark with either
the direct or the alternating currents, the direct is usually employed for
the make and break system, since batteries are used as the electrical
source.
On the other hand the jump spark method employs the alternating
current, because the high tension can be most effectively produced
through the use of induction coils, which will be explained in connection
with the jump spark method of ignition.
Generating Electricity.—There are two ways to produce a current for
operating an ignition system, one by a primary battery, and the other by
means of a magneto, a special type of dynamo, which will be fully
explained in its proper place.
Primary Battery.—As we are now concerned with the make and break
system, the battery type of generation, and method of wiring up the
same, should first be explained.
Thus, in Fig. 34, a primary battery is shown, in which the zinc cell A
has an upwardly-projecting wing B at one side, to which the conductor is
attached; and within, centrally, is a carbon bar C. An electrolyte, which
may be either acid or alkali, must be placed within the cell.
 Making a Dry Cell.—The zinc is the negative, and the carbon the
positive electrode. The best material for the electrolyte is crushed coke,
which is carbon, and dioxide of manganese is used for this purpose, and
the interstices are filled with a solution of sal-ammoniac.
The top of the cell is covered with asphaltum, so as to retain the
moistened material and the liquid within the cell, and thus constituted, it
is called a dry cell.
Energy in a Cell.—A battery is made up of a number of these cells.
Each cell has a certain electric energy, usually from one and a half to one
and three-quarter volts, and from twenty-five to forty amperes.
The amperage of a cell depends on its size, or rather by the area of
the electrodes; but the voltage is a constant one, and is not increased by
the change, formation, or size of the electrodes.
For this reason the cells are used in groups, forming, as stated, a
battery, and to get efficient results, various methods of connecting them
up are employed.

Wiring Methods.—As at least six cells are required to operate a coil, the
following diagrams will show that number to illustrate the different types
of connections.
Series Connection.—The six cells, Fig. 35, show the carbon electrodes A,
of one cell, connected by means of a wire B with the zinc electrode wing
C of the next cell, and so on, the cell at one end having a terminal wire D
connected with the zinc, and the cell at the other end a wire E connected
with the carbon electrode.
The current, therefore, flows directly through the six cells, and the
pressure between the terminal wires D, E, is equal to the combined
pressure of the six cells, namely, 11/2 × 6, which is equal to 9 volts. The
amperage, however, is that of one cell, which, in these diagrams, will be
assumed to be 25.

Parallel Connection.—Now examine Fig. 36. In this case the carbon

electrodes A are all connected up in series, that is, one following the
other in a direct line, by wires B, and the zinc electrodes C, are, in like
manner, connected up in series with each other by wires D. The difference
in potential at these terminals B, D, is the same as that of a single cell,
namely, one and a half volt.
The amperage, on the other hand, is that of the six cells combined, or
150. This method of connecting the cells is also called parallel, since the
two wires forming the connections are parallel with each other, and
remembering this it may be better to so term it.
Multiple Connections.—This is also designated as series multiple since
the two sets of cells each have the connections made like the series
method, Fig. 35. The particular difference being, that the zinc terminals of
the two sets of cells are connected up with one terminal wire A, and the
carbon terminals of the two sets are joined to a terminal B.
 The result of this form of connection is to increase the voltage equal
to that of one cell multiplied by the number of cells in one set, and the
amperage is determined by that of one cell multiplied by the two sets.
Each set of cells in this arrangement is called a battery, and we will
designate them as No. 1, and No. 2. Each battery, therefore, being
connected in series, has a voltage equal to 41/2 volts, and the amperage
50, since there are two batteries.
Now the different arrangement of volts and amperes does not mean
that the current strength is changed in the batteries or in the cells. If the
pressure is increased the flow is lessened. If the current flow, or the
quantity sent over the wires is increased, the voltage is comparatively
less.
Watts.—This brings in another element that should be understood. If
the current is multiplied by the amperes a factor is obtained, called Watts.
Thus, as each cell has 11/2 volts and 25 amperes, their product is 371/2
watts.
To show that the same energy is present in each form of connection
let us compare the watts derived from each:
Series connection: 9 volts × 25 amperes, equal 225 watts.
Parallel connection: 11/2 volts × 150 amperes, equal 225 watts.
 Series Multiple connection: 41/2 volts × 50 amperes, equal 225 watts.

From the foregoing, it will be seen that the changes in the wiring did
not affect the output, but it enables the user of the current to effect such
changes that he may, for instance, in case a battery should be weak, or
have but little voltage, so change connections as to temporarily increase
it, although in doing so it is at the expense of the amperage, which is
correspondingly decreased.
It would be well to study the foregoing comparative analysis of the
three forms of connections, so far as the energy is concerned, because
there is an impression that increasing the voltage, is adding to the power
of a current. It does nothing but increase the pressure. There is not one
particle of increase in the energy by so doing.

Testing a Cell.—The cells should be frequently tested, to show what

loss there is in the amperage. This is done by putting an ammeter in the
circuit. If a meter of this kind is not handy, a good plan is to take off one
of the wire connections, and snap the wire on the terminal, and the
character of the spark will show what energy there is in the cell.
Testing With Instruments.—The method of testing with voltmeter and
ammeter, is shown in Fig. 38. The voltmeter is placed in a short circuit
between the two terminal wires, whereas the ammeter is placed in circuit
with one of the wires. The reason for this is that the voltmeter registers
the pressure, the power, or the difference of potential between the two
sides of the cell, and the ammeter shows the quantity of current flowing
over the wire.
In practice batteries are not used continuously for igniting. They are
temporarily employed, principally for starting, because their continued use
would quickly deplete them.

Simple Battery Make and Break System.—In order to show this method in
its simplest form, examine Fig. 39, which diagrams the various parts
belonging to the system.
We have illustrated it with two cylinders, portions of the heads being
shown by the outlines A, A. B, B represent terminals which project into
the cylinders, and are insulated from the engine heads. Through the sides
of the engine heads are rock shafts C, the ends within the cylinder having
fingers D which are adapted to engage with the inner ends of terminals B,
B.
On the ends of the rock shafts outside of the cylinders, they are
provided with levers E, E, one end of each being attached to a spring F,
so that the tension of the spring will normally keep the upper end of the
finger D in contact with the terminal B. The cut shows one finger
engaging with B, and the other not in contact.
The other end of the lever E rests beneath a collar or shoulder G on a
vertical rod H. The lower end of this rod engages with a cam I on a shaft
J, and when the cam rotates the rod drops off the elevated part of the
cam, and in doing so the shoulder G strikes the end of the lever E and
causes the finger to rapidly break away from the terminal B, where the
spark is produced.
To Advance the Spark.—For the purpose of advancing or retarding the
spark, this rod has, near its lower end, a horizontally-movable bar K,
which may be moved to and fro a limited distance by a lever L, this lever
being the substitute in this sketch of the lever on the steering wheel of an
automobile.
The spark is advanced or retarded by causing the lower end of the rod
H to be moved to the left or to the right, so that it will drop off of the
raised portion of the cam earlier or later.
The wiring up is a very simple matter. The battery M has one end
connected up with one terminal of a switch N, while the other terminal of
the switch has a wire connection with the terminal plugs B, B, in the
cylinder heads.
The other end of the battery is connected with the metal of the
engine, which may be indicated by the dotted line O which runs to the
rock shaft C, and thus forms a complete circuit.
The operation is as follows: When the key P of the switch is moved
over so that it contacts with the terminal N, the battery is thrown into the
circuit, and the current then passes to the plug B of the first cylinder, as
the finger D in that cylinder is in contact with that terminal, and it passes
along the finger D, and rock-shaft C, to the metal of the engine, and
passes thence to the battery, this course being indicated by the dotted
line O.
At the same time, while cylinder No. 2 is also connected up with the
battery, the shoulder of the rod H has drawn the finger D from its contact
with the plug B, hence the current cannot pass in that direction.
 As the cam I, of cylinder No. 1, turns in the direction of the arrow, the
rod drops down and suddenly makes a break in the terminal of this
cylinder, causing the ignition, to be followed by a like action in No. 2.
The Magneto in the Circuit.—To insure the life of the battery, so that it
may be in service only during that period at the starting, when the
magneto is not active, the latter is so placed in the circuit, that, at the
starting, when, for instance, the automobile is being cranked, it is cut out
by the switch on the dash board.

In Fig. 40, a simple two-pole switch is used. With the magneto it is

necessary to have a three-point switch, R, and a plain coil S is placed
between the switch and battery.
One side of the magneto T is connected by wire U with one of the
points of the switch R, and the other side of the magneto is connected
with the metal of the engine, which is indicated by the dotted line V.
In all other respects the mechanism is the same. The starting
operation has been explained with reference to the preceding figure, and
when the engine has picked up, and is properly started, the switch bar is
thrown over so it contacts with the point connected up with the wire U
leading to the magneto.
 This, of course, cuts out the battery, and the engine is now running on
the magneto alone. The object of the coil S is to oppose a rapid change of
the current at the moment of the interruption. The coil induces a counter
current the moment the break is made, and as the current continues to
flow for a very short period after the break a spark of greater intensity is
produced than if the circuit should be permitted to go from the battery to
the sparker directly, as in the previous illustration.
The best spark is produced by quickly making the break between the
points B, D, so that particular attention has been given to mechanism
which will do this effectively.
Magneto Spark Plug.—One of the devices to obviate the difficulty of
providing moving mechanism outside of the engine cylinder, is shown in
Fig. 41. In this the coil A is connected with a terminal B at the head of the
device and the other is connected to the plug C which screws into the
cylinder head.
 Within the core is a pivotally-mounted lever D, the upper end E of
which is attracted by the tubular metallic core F, and the lower end having
a contact point G, which is adapted to engage with a stationary point H.
The pivot I, on which the lever D is mounted, provides a means
whereby the lever swings, and a spring J is so arranged that when the
lower end of the lever is disengaged from the contact, the spring will
return it to its normal position.
In its operation when a contact is formed by the timing device of the
magneto, so as to give a spark, the circuit passes to the terminal B, coil
A, and plug C, thus forming a complete circuit. This energizes the core A,
pulling the upper end of the lever, and at the same time causes the lower
end to disengage the two contacts G, H, which breaks the circuit and
produces a spark.
The breaking of the circuit deënergizes the core, and the spring again
draws the lever back to its normal position, ready for the next completion
of the circuit by the timing device.
Such an arrangement is as simple as the spark plug usually employed
in the use of the high tension system, although it is more expensive than
the plug.

CHAPTER VIII

IGNITION. HIGH TENSION

This system is used to the largest extent, so that we ought to have a
full explanation of the devices which are required to do the work. While
magnetos are used with the low tension system, for the reasons stated,
they are especially necessary with the Jump Spark method.
Magnetos.—The most important element in this system is the magneto,
so we shall try and make the subject as explicit as possible. As stated, a
magneto is a special type of dynamo which will now be explained. For this
purpose it will be necessary to show the elementary operation of an
alternating current dynamo.
Alternating Current.—In Fig. 42 A is a bar of soft iron, around which is
a coil of wire B, the wire being insulated, so that it will not touch the bar.
There is no magnetism in this bar, and this simple form of structure is
shown, merely to represent what is called the field of a dynamo.
The object of the coil of wire is to make a magnet of the bar, for the
moment a current is sent over the wire, a magnet is formed, and the
magnetism leaves the bar the moment the current ceases to flow. If this
bar should be of hard steel it would retain the magnetism.

Now, the primary difference between the magneto and the dynamo, is
that this field bar is a permanent magnet in the magneto, whereas the
field is only a temporary magnet in the dynamo. This should always be
kept in mind.
The end of a magnet, whether it is a temporary one, or permanent,
has a magnetic field of force at the ends as well as at all parts of it,
exterior to the surface of the bar. Such a field is indicated, and in the
dynamo, no such field exists unless a current is passing over the wire B,
which is called the field winding.
 The U-shaped piece of metal C represents the armature. It is shown
hinged to the top of two posts, for clearness in understanding, and is
adapted to turn to the right, and in turning the loop passes the end of the
field bar B, and passes through the magnetic field which is indicated by
the dotted lines D.

Now, if the loop is simply permitted to remain in the position shown in

Fig. 42, a current would flow through the loop, this transference of the
current being called induction, and this characteristic of the flow of
electricity will be explained and its utility explained.
Cutting Lines of Force.—The loop will now be turned to the right so that
it passes the magnetic field and goes beyond it in its revolution. This
motion of passing the armature through the magnetic field is called
cutting the lines of force. While the loop was lying within the magnetic
field, and also when it was moving through the field, the current set up in
the loop flowed in the direction of the darts F, or to the right, through the
pivots D.
In Fig. 43 the loop is shown as having made a quarter turn, and it is
now vertical, or at right angles to its former position. The loop in thus
passing away loses its force, until it reaches the position shown in Fig. 44,
when there is a surging back of the current to the opposite direction, as
indicated by the arrows.
 When the loop reaches the lowest position, shown in Fig. 45, it again
begins to get the influence of the magnetic field, and a reversal back to
its former direction takes place, this surging movement back and forth
being due to the reversal of the polarity in the coil brought about by the
position in which it is placed relative to the magnetic field.
It is now an easy matter to connect the ends of the loop with wire
conductors. This is shown in Fig. 46, where a small metal wheel G is
placed on each end of the spindle, and in having a strip of metal bearing
H on the wheel. These are not commutator brushes, but are merely
wiping brushes to take the current from the turning parts. Wires I connect
with these wiping bars, and through them the current is transmitted to
perform the work.

Plurality of Loops.—The dynamo may have a plurality of loops, which

are called coils, and there may be a single magnet or any number of
magnets. Instead of driving these coils past the face of the magnet, or
magnets, the latter may be driven past the coils. In fact with most of the
alternating current machines the fields are the rotating parts and the
armatures, or the coils, are fixed.
The voltage is increased if the coils have a large number of turns on
the armature, and also if the armature, or the turning part, is speeded up.
Voltage will also be higher if larger or more powerful magnets are used in
the magnetos.
The Electro-Magnet.—The permanent magnet, such as is used in the
magneto, is distinguished by the fact that it contains a permanent charge
of magnetism, but this is not an electro-magnet. This is a magnet made
of soft iron, so it will be readily demagnetized. While not shown in the
diagrams, an iron core may be placed within the loop or coil, and this is
done in all dynamos, because the iron core acts as a carrier of the
magnetism, concentrating it at the center, because it is a much better
conductor than air.

The Dynamo Form.—Consult the diagram, Fig. 47. The iron heads A
represent the bar in the previous diagrams, and B the wire around the
bar. C is the armature, which in this case represents a number of loops, or
coils, and D is the commutator, which is used in the direct current
machine to correct the alternations referred to in the previous diagrams,
so as to send the current in one direction only, the commutator brushes E
being used to carry off the current for use.
The Magneto Form.—The metal loop F, in Fig. 48, being a permanent
magnet, the armature, G, formed of a plurality of loops, has no field wires
to connect with it, as in the case of the dynamo.
Advantage of the Magneto.—The magneto has a pronounced advantage
over the dynamo, as a source of power for ignition purposes, in the
particular that the strength of the magnetic field is constant. In a dynamo
this varies with the output, because when used on an automobile where
the speed is irregular, the voltage will vary. The voltage of the magneto is
a constant one, and is thus better adapted to meet the needs of ignition.
Induction Coil.—The induction coil is a device which is designed to
produce a very high voltage from a low tension, so that a current from it
will leap across a gap and make a hot spark.
 We stated in a previous section that a current leaps across from one
conductor to another, so that electricity can be transferred from a wire to
another not touching it, by means of induction.
Look at Fig. 49, which represents two wires side by side. The current
is flowing over one wire A, and by bringing wire B close to A, but not
touching it, a current will be induced to leap across the gap and the wire
B will be charged. If the ends of the wire B are brought together, so as to
form a circuit, and a current detector is placed in the circuit it will be
found that a current is actually flowing through it, but it is now moving in
a direction opposite to the current flowing through A.

Changing the Current.—But we have still another thing to learn. If the

two wires are not of the same thickness it would not prevent the current
from leaping across, but another astonishing thing would result.
First, we shall use a wire B double the thickness of wire A. If now, we
had an instrument to test the voltage and the amperage, it would be
found that the voltage in B is less than that in A, and also that the
amperage is greater.
Second, if the conditions are reversed, and the wire A is thicker than
B, the latter will have an increase of voltage, but a lower ampere flow
than in A.
Now this latter condition is just what is necessary to give a high
tension. Voltage is necessary to make a current leap across a gap. By this
simple illustration we have made an induction coil which may be used for
making a high tension jump spark.
Construction of a Coil.—Two wires side by side do not have the
appearance of a coil, and even though such an arrangement might make
a high tension current, it would be difficult to apply. To put the device in
such a shape that it can be utilized, a spool is made, as shown in Fig. 50.
 This spool A has a number of layers of thick, insulated wire B first
wound around it, the layers being well insulated from each other, and the
opposite ends brought out at one end or at the opposite ends, as shown
at C, D. On this is a layer of finer wire, also insulated, this wire E having
its terminals also brought out at the ends of the spool, and after the
whole is thus wound, the outside of the coil is covered with a moisture
proof material.
The Primary Coil.—The winding of thick wire is called the primary coil.
The current from the battery or the electric generator is led to this inner
coil.

The Secondary Coil.—The fine wire wrapping represents the secondary

coil, which is raised to a high voltage, and this actuates the sparking
mechanism.
In the art it is customary to illustrate the various contrivances by
certain conventional forms. Fig. 51 shows the manner of designating an
induction coil in a diagram, in which the heavy zig-zag line indicates the
primary, and the lighter zig-zag lines the secondary coil.

Contact Maker.—A simple little device used in the primary circuit of an

induction coil, is known as a contact maker. This, as shown in Fig. 52, is
merely a case A, through which is a shaft B that carries within the shell a
cam C. A spring finger D has its free end normally bearing against the
cam, and when the nose on the cam moves out the spring finger, the
latter is moved outwardly so it contacts with a plug E in the side wall of
the case, although it is insulated therefrom. This contact establishes a
current through the plug, spring finger and case.
The diagram, Fig. 53, illustrates the principles of construction and
arrangement of a high tension jump spark ignition, in which the electrical
source is a battery actuating an induction coil.
High Tension With Battery and Coil.—The battery A has one side
connected up by wire B with one terminal of the primary C in the
induction coil, and the other side of the battery has a wire D leading to
the contact maker. A switch E is placed in the line of this wire.
 The other terminal of the primary has a wire F leading to the insulated
contact plug G of the contact maker. This completes the generating
circuit. The cam H is on a shaft I, which travels one half the speed of the
engine shaft.
One side of the secondary coil J has a wire K leading to the spark
plug, while the other terminal of the secondary has a wire L which is
grounded on the engine M.
When the nose of the cam pushes over the spring finger and closes
the cam, the circuit through the finger flows through the primary coil and
excites the secondary. When the cam again immediately breaks the circuit
a high tension current is momentarily induced in the secondary, so that
the current leaps the gap in the spark plug and makes the spark.
 Metallic Core for Induction Coil.—In the previous description of the
induction coil it was stated that the spool might be made of wood. These
coils are also provided with metal cores, which can be used to make what
is called a vibratory coil.
The Condenser.—A necessary addition to the circuiting provided by an
induction coil, is a condenser. This is used in the primary circuit to absorb
the self-induced current of the primary and thus cause it to oppose the
rapid fall of the primary current.
The condenser is constructed of a number of tinfoil sheets, of suitable
size, each sheet having a wing at one end, and these sheets are laid on
top of each other, with the wings of the alternate sheets at opposite ends.
Very thin sheets of waxed paper are placed between the tin foil sheets so
that they are thus insulated from each other.
The wings at the ends are used to make connections for the
conducting wires. The device is not designed to conduct electricity, but to
act as a sort of absorbent, if it might so be termed. The large surface
affords a means where more or less of the current moves from the
conductor at one end to the conductor at the other end, and as it is
designed to absorb a portion of the current in the line it is merely bridged
across from one side of the circuit to the other.

The diagram, Fig. 55, represents the conventional form of illustrating it

in sketching electrical devices.
Operation of a Vibrator Coil.—The illustration, Fig. 56, shows the
manner in which a vibrator coil is constructed and operated. The coil
comprises a metal core A, the primary winding B being connected at one
terminal, by a wire C, with a post D, and the other terminal by a wire E
with one side of a battery F. A switch G is in the line of this conductor.
 The post D holds the end of a vibrating spring H, which has a hammer
H´ on its free end, which is adapted to contact with the end of the metal
core A, but is normally held out of contact, so that it rests against the end
of an adjusting screw I which passes through a post J.
The post J is connected up with the battery by a wire K, and a wire L
also runs from the wire K to the conductor C, through a condenser M.
The secondary coil N, has the outlet wires O, P, which run to the spark
plug Q on the engine.
The operation is as follows: When the switch G closes the circuit, the
battery thus thrown in the primary coil magnetizes the core A, and the
hammer H´ is attracted to the end of the core, thus breaking the circuit
at the contact screw I. The result is that the core is immediately
demagnetized, and the spring H draws the hammer back to be again
attracted by the core which is again magnetized, so that the hammer on
the vibrator arm H goes back and forth with great rapidity.
From the foregoing explanations it will be understood how the primary
induces a high tension current in the secondary, and in order that the
spark may occur at the right time, a timer for closing and opening the
primary circuit must be provided. By this means an induced high tension
current is caused to flow at the time the spark is needed in the cycle of
the engine operation.
The Distributer.—The distributer is a timing device which controls both
the primary and the secondary currents, and it also has reference to the
revolving switch on the shaft of a magneto whereby the current is
distributed to the various cylinders in regular order.
Fig. 57 shows a form of distributer which will illustrate the
construction. A is the shaft which is driven at one half the engine speed.
It is usually run by suitable gearing direct from the shaft of the magneto.

Its outer end rests in a bearing plate B, of insulating material, which

plate serves as the disk to hold the contact plates, 1, 2, 3, 4, to
correspond with the four cylinders to which the current is to be
distributed.
Wires 5, 6, 7, and 8, run to the respective spark plugs C from these
contact plates. The projecting end of the shaft A carries thereon a contact
finger D, which is designed to contact with the respective plates, and an
insulating ring E is interposed between the shaft and finger so as to
prevent short circuiting of the high tension current.
On the side of the finger is a hub F, integral therewith, and a wiper
attached to a post bears against the hub so as to form continuous
contact. A wire leads from the post to one terminal of the secondary coil.
 Circuiting With Distributer.—The diagram Fig. 58 shows the complete
connections of a system which comprises a magneto, induction coil,
condenser, and a distributer. The magneto A has on its armature shaft B
two revolving disks C, D, one of which must be insulated from the shaft,
and one end of the coil E of the armature is connected with one of these
disks, and the other end of the coil is attached to the other disk.
Alongside of these disks is another disk F which has projecting points
G to engage with and make temporary contact with a spring finger which
actuates the interrupter I, this being a contact breaker which breaks the
primary current at the time a spark is required.
One terminal of this interrupter is connected by a wire J with one end
of the primary winding K, of the induction coil, and the other end of the
primary has a wire L which runs to the disk C.
The other terminal of the interrupter has a wire M leading to a
condenser N, and from the other side of the condenser is a wire O leading
to the wire J before described. The wiper of the other disk D has a wire
connection with the wire M.
The distributer shaft P is so mounted that it may receive its motion
from the shaft of the magneto, and for this purpose the latter shaft has a
gear Q one half the diameter of the gear R on the distributer shaft.
The distributer S has been described with sufficient clearness in a
preceding diagram, to show how the wires T lead therefrom and connect
up with the spark plugs U. One terminal of the secondary coil V is
connected by a wire W with the wiper X which contacts with the hub of
the distributer finger X´, and the other terminal of the primary is
grounded at Y, which represents the metal of the engine.

CHAPTER IX

MECHANICAL DEVICES UTILIZED IN

POWER
One of the most important things in enginery is the capacity to
determine the power developed. Although the method of ascertaining this
appears to be somewhat complicated, it is really simple, and will be
comprehended the more readily if it is constantly borne in mind that a
certain weight must be lifted a definite distance within a particular time.
The Unit of Time.—The unit of time is either the second, or the minute,
usually the latter, because it would be exceedingly difficult to make the
calculations, or rather to note the periods as short as a second, and a
very simple piece of mechanism to ascertain this, is to mount a horizontal
shaft A, Fig. 59, in bearings B, B, and affix a crank C at one end.
It will be assumed that the shaft is in anti-friction bearings so that for
the present we shall not take into account any loss by way of friction.
 A cord, with one end attached to the shaft and the other fixed to a
weight D, the latter weighing, say 550 pounds, is adapted to be wound on
the shaft as it is turned by the crank.
Knowing the length of the cord and the time required to wind it up, it
will be an easy matter to figure out the power exerted to lift the weight,
which means, the power developed in doing it.

Suppose the cord is 100 feet long, and it requires one and a half
minutes to raise the weight the full limit of the cord. It is thus raising 550
pounds 100 feet in 45 seconds.
One horse power means that we must raise 550 pounds one foot in
one second of time, hence we have developed only 1/45th of one horse
power.
Instead of using the crank, this shaft may be attached to the engine
shaft so it will turn slowly. Then add sufficient weight so that the engine
will just lift it, and wind the cord on the shaft.
You can then note the time, for, say, one minute, and when the weight
is lifted, make the following calculation: Weight lifted one hundred feet in
one minute of time was 825 pounds. Multiply 100 by 825, which equals
82,500. This represents foot pounds.
 As there are 33,000 foot pounds in a horse power, 82,500 divided by
this figure will show that 21/2 horse power were developed.

The Proney Brake.—Such a device is difficult to handle, but it is

illustrated merely to show the simplicity of the calculation. As a substitute
for this mechanism, a device, called the Proney brake has been devised,
which can be used without rewinding of a cord. This is accomplished by
frictional means to indicate the power, and by the use of weights to
determine the lift.
The following is a brief description of its construction: The engine
shaft A, Fig. 60, which is giving out its power, and which we want to test,
has thereon a pulley B, which turns in the direction of the arrow. Resting
on the upper side of the pulley is a block C, which is attached to a
horizontal lever D by means of bolts E, these bolts passing through the
block C and lever D, and having their lower ends attached to the
terminals of a short sprocket chain F.
Block segments G are placed between the chain and pulley B, and
when the bolts E are tightened the pulley is held by frictional contact
between the block C and the segments G.
The free end of the lever has a limited vertical movement between the
stops H, and a swinging receptacle I, on this end of the lever, is designed
to receive weights J.
The first thing to do is to get the dimensions of the pulley, its speed,
and length of the lever. By measurement, the diameter of the pulley is six
inches. To get the circumference multiply this by 3.1416. The distance
around, therefore, is a little over 18.84 inches. The speed of the pulley
being 225 times per minute, this figure, multiplied by 18.84, gives the
perimeter of the pulley 4239 inches.
As we must have the figures in feet, dividing 4239 by 12, we have
353.25 feet.
The length of the lever from the center of the pulley to the suspension
point of the receptacle, is 4 feet, and this divided by the radius of the
pulley (which is 6 inches), gives the leverage. One half of six inches, is
three inches, or 1/4 of one foot, and 4 divided by this number, is 1' 4", or
11/3 feet, which is the leverage.

Now, let us suppose the weight J is 1200 pounds. This must be

multiplied by the leverage, 11/3 feet, which equals 1800, and this must be
multiplied by the feet of travel in the pulley, namely, 353.25, which is
equal to 635,850. This represents foot pounds.
Now, following out the rule, as there are 33,000 foot pounds in a
horse power, the foregoing figure, 635,850, divided by 33,000, equals 19
horse power within a fraction.
Reversing Mechanism.—A thorough knowledge of the principles
underlying the various mechanical devices, and their construction, is a
part of the education belonging to motors. One of the important
structures, although it is very simple, when understood, requires some
study to fully master.
This has reference to reversing mechanism, which is, in substance a
controllable valve motion, whereby the direction of the valve is regulated
at will.
All motions of this character throw the valve to a neutral point which is
intermediate the two extremes, and the approach to the neutral means a
gradual decrease in the travel of the valve until the reciprocating motion
ceases entirely at the neutral position.
 Double Eccentric Reversing Gear.—A well known form of gear is shown
in Fig. 61, in which the engine shaft A has two eccentrics B, C, the upper
eccentric B being connected with the upper end of a slotted segment D by
means of a stem E, and the other eccentric C is connected with the lower
end of the segment by the stem F. The eccentrics B, C, are mounted on
the shaft so they project in opposite directions.
The slotted segment carries therewith the pin G of a valve rod H, and
the upper end of the segment has an eye I, to which eye is a rod J
operated by a lever.
 By this arrangement the link may be raised or lowered, and as the
valve rod pin has no vertical movement, either the connecting link E or F
may be brought into direct line with the valve rod H.
Fig. 61 shows the first position, in which the valve rod H is in direct
line with the upper connecting rod E, actuated by the cam B.
Fig. 62 shows the neutral position. Here the pin G serves as a fulcrum
for the rocking movement of the segment; whereas in Fig. 63 the valve
rod H is in line with the lower connecting rod F, so that the valve is
pushed to and fro by the eccentric C.
 It is more desirable, in many cases, to use a single eccentric on the
engine shaft, which can be done by pivoting the segment L, Fig. 64, to a
stationary support M, and connecting one end of the segment by a link N
with the single eccentric O.
In this construction the valve rod P is shifted vertically by a rod Q,
operated from the reversing lever, thus providing a changeable motion
through one eccentric.
Balanced Slide Valves.—In the chapter pertaining to the steam engine, a
simple form of slide valve was shown, and it was stated therein that the
pressure of the steam bearing on the valve would quickly grind it down.
To prevent this various types of balanced valves have been made, a
sample of which is shown in Fig. 64.
The valve chest A has in its bottom two ports C, D, leading to the
opposite ends of the cylinder, and within is the sliding valve E, which
moves beneath an adjustable plate F connected with the top or cover G of
the valve chest.

This is also modified, as shown in Fig. 66, in which case the slide valve
H bears against the cover I at two points, so that as there is steam on the
upper surface to a slightly greater area than on the lower side, there is
sufficient downward pressure to hold it firmly on its seat, and at the same
time not cause any undue grinding. This valve also has double exhaust
ports J, J.
Balanced Throttle Valve.—Fig. 67 will give a fair idea of the construction
of throttle valves, the illustration showing its connection with a simple
type of governor.
 Engine Governors.—Probably the oldest and best known governor for
regulating the inlet of steam to an engine, is what is known as the Watt
design. This is shown in Fig. 68.
The pedestal A which supports the mechanism, has an upwardly-
projecting stem B, to the upper end of which is a collar C, to which the
oppositely-projecting pendent arms D are hinged. These arms carry balls
E at their free ends.
 The lower part of the stem has thereon a sliding collar F, and links G,
with their lower ends hinged to the collar, have their upper ends attached
to the swinging arms D. The collar has an annular groove at its lower end,
to receive therein the forked end of one limb of a bell-crank lever H, the
other limb of this lever being connected up with the engine throttle, by
means of a link L.
Centrifugal motion serves to throw out the balls, as indicated by the
dotted lines J, and this action raises the bell-crank lever, and opens the
throttle valve.
Numerous types of governors have been constructed, some of which
operate by gravity, in connection with centrifugal action. Some are made
with the balls adapted to swing downwardly, and thrown back by the
action of springs. Others have the balls sliding on horizontally-disposed
arms, and thrown back by the action of springs; and gyroscopic governors
are also made which are very effective.

Fly wheel governors are not uncommon, which are placed directly on
the engine shaft, or placed within the fly wheel itself, the latter being a
well known form for engines which move slowly.
Injectors.—The Injector is one of the anomalies in mechanism. It
actually forces water into a boiler by the action of the steam itself, against
its own pressure. It is through the agency of condensation that it is
enabled to do this.
The illustration, Fig. 69, which represents the original type of the
device, comprises a shell A, within which is a pair of conically formed
tubes, B, C, in line with each other, the small ends of the tubes being
pointed towards each other, and slightly separated. The large end of the
conical tube C, which points toward the pipe D, which leads to the water
space of the boiler, has therein a check valve E.
The steam inlet pipe F, has a contracted nozzle G, to eject steam into
the large end of the conical tube B, and surrounding the nozzle F is a
chamber which has a pipe H leading out at one side, through which cold
water is drawn into the injector.
Surrounding the conical pipes B, C, is a chamber I, which has a
discharge pipe J. The action of the device is very simple. When steam is
permitted to flow into the conical tube B, from the nozzle G, it passes out
through the drain port J, and this produces a partial vacuum to form in
the space surrounding the nozzle G.
As a result water is drawn up through the pipe H, and meeting with
the steam condenses the latter, thereby causing a still greater vacuum,
and this vacuum finally becomes so great that, with the inrushing steam,
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