Early Earth (4.6 – 3.

8 Billion Years Ago)

 Frequent asteroid impacts and volcanic eruptions.
 The atmosphere was not suitable for life.
 Zircon crystals (the oldest and most durable crystals) formed when magma cooled,
indicating Earth was cooling down.

First Lifeforms (3.5 Billion Years Ago – Proterozoic Era)

 Life first appeared in sedimentary rocks.
 Prokaryotes: The earliest life forms (simple, single-celled organisms).
 Stromatolites: Structures made by microorganisms; earliest evidence of life, found in
Africa and Australia.
 Cyanobacteria began photosynthesis around 3 billion years ago, releasing oxygen.

Eukaryotes (2 Billion Years Ago)

 Complex cells with a nucleus.
 Biomarkers show evidence of eukaryotes.
 Some eukaryotes evolved into multicellular organisms about 1.2 billion years ago,
leading to early plants and animals in water.
 Prokaryotes combined to form organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts.

Paleozoic Era (500 Million Years Ago)

1. Cambrian Period (540 Million Years Ago)
o Rapid diversification of multicellular life (“Cambrian Explosion”).
o Trilobites were the dominant species.
2. Ordovician Period (488 Million Years Ago)
o Modern marine invertebrates and early fish appeared.
o Plants started growing on land.
o A massive extinction event (climate and sea level changes) wiped out most
species.

Mesozoic Era (251 – 65.5 Million Years Ago)

“Age of Reptiles”

1. Triassic Period (250 Million Years Ago)

o Reptiles dominated land, amphibians ruled the waters.
o Dinosaurs and small mammals appeared.
 o Triassic Extinction wiped out 80% of marine species due to volcanic activity.
2. Jurassic Period (199 Million Years Ago)
o Warm climate, pine trees, ferns, and conifers grew.
o Coral reefs supported marine life.
o Large dinosaurs and feathered birds thrived.
3. Cretaceous Period (145 Million Years Ago)
o First flowering plants appeared.
o Birds evolved to lose their teeth.
o A meteor and volcanic eruptions caused the Cretaceous Extinction, wiping out
non-avian dinosaurs.

Cenozoic Era (250,000 Years Ago – Present)

“Age of Mammals”

 Mammals and birds dominated.

 Homo erectus evolved, leading to Homo sapiens (modern humans).

Evidence of Life Through Eras

 Fossils help scientists date and identify species from different periods.

Unifying Themes of Life

These are key concepts that connect all living things:

1. All life is made of systems of related parts

o A system is a group of parts working together.
o Example: Body systems (like the circulatory system), animals in an ecosystem.
2. Structure and Function
o Structure (how something is built) determines its function (what it does).
o Example: Veins have valves to prevent backflow; teeth shape determines what
they can cut.
3. Evolution
o Evolution is the change in living things over time.
o It explains the diversity and connection between species.
4. Organisms Reproduce
o Reproduction makes new organisms, ensuring life continues.
5. Traits are Inherited
o Offspring inherit traits from parents through DNA, which contains genetic
information.
6. Interdependence
o Organisms rely on each other and the environment.
 o Example: Plants and animals interacting in ecosystems.
7. Energy Use
o Organisms need energy to survive.
o Some get energy from sunlight (photosynthesis), others from food.

Perpetuity of Life
How organisms reproduce:

Sexual Reproduction

 Two parents produce an organism using gametes (sperm and egg).

 The offspring gets genetic material from both parents.

Types of Sexual Reproduction:

 Oviparous: Eggs are laid outside the body, and the young develop outside (e.g., birds,
reptiles).
 Viviparous: The young develop inside the parent’s body before birth (e.g., humans,
mammals).

Asexual Reproduction

 One parent produces offspring that are identical to itself.

Types of Asexual Reproduction:

1. Parthenogenesis
o The egg develops without being fertilized.
o Example: Ants, bees, aphids.
2. Fission
o The organism splits into two.
o Example: Bacteria, amoeba.
3. Fragmentation
o The organism breaks into pieces, and each piece grows into a new organism.
o Example: Starfish, fungi, algae.
4. Budding
o A new organism grows from a small part of the parent.
o Example: Jellyfish, yeast, coral.

Genetic Engineering

The direct change of an organism’s DNA to alter its traits.

Humans have been changing the traits of organisms for a long time, even before
modern genetic engineering.

Selective Breeding

 Breeding individuals with desired traits to get more of those traits.

 Example: Cows that produce more milk, tomatoes with higher yields, dogs with
specific colors.

Hybridization

 Breeding two organisms with different traits to create a hybrid that has both
traits.
 Example: A liger (lion + tiger).

Genetic Engineering Techniques

1. Gel Electrophoresis
o A technique to compare DNA strand sizes from different organisms.
o Shorter DNA moves lower in the gel when electricity is applied.
2. Cloning
o Creating an identical copy of an organism.
o DNA from one organism is placed into an egg cell with its DNA removed.
o This results in a new organism with the same DNA as the original.
3. Gene Splicing
o Attaching a DNA segment from one organism to another.
o The new organism gets traits from both.
o Example: Golden rice, BT corn.
o The result is Recombinant DNA (combined DNA from different sources).

Benefits of Genetic Engineering

1. Better Crops
o Genetically modified crops have improved traits, like longer shelf life or
better yields.
2. New Products
o Understanding genes helps us discover new uses for plants and animals.
o Example: Corn used to make biodiesel and ethanol.
3. Medical Advances
 o Studying genes can help us cure diseases and stop viruses.

Organ Systems

 Organ systems are groups of organs working together to perform a specific

function.
 The human body has 11 organ systems:

1. Skeletal System – Supports the body and protects organs.

2. Muscular System – Helps with movement.
3. Digestive System – Breaks down food to absorb nutrients.
4. Respiratory System – Allows breathing and gas exchange.
5. Circulatory System – Transports blood, oxygen, and nutrients.
6. Nervous System – Controls body functions and responds to stimuli.
7. Urinary System – Removes waste from the body.
8. Endocrine System – Produces hormones to regulate body processes.
9. Immune System – Defends the body against infections.

Levels of Biological Organization

 Shows how living things are organized from simple to complex parts.
 Each level builds upon the one before:

1. Cell – The basic unit of life.

2. Tissue – A group of similar cells working together.
3. Organ – Made of tissues performing a specific function.
4. Organ System – A group of organs working together.
5. Organism – A complete living thing.

Simplified Biology Reviewer

Skeletal System

 Main Functions:
o Provides support and protection for the body
o Acts as a rigid framework for movement
o Stores calcium
o Produces blood cells
 Types:
o Some animals have exoskeletons (hard outer shells for protection) — Examples:
Crabs, lobsters, insects
Muscular System

 Main Functions: Movement, circulation, stability

 Types of Muscles:
1. Skeletal Muscles — Voluntary movement (you control them)
2. Smooth Muscles — Involuntary movement (found in organs)
3. Cardiac Muscles — Keeps the heart beating

Digestive System

 Main Function: Breaks down food and absorbs nutrients

 Stages:
1. Ingestion — Taking in food
2. Digestion — Breaking down food
3. Absorption — Nutrient uptake into the body
4. Elimination — Removing waste
 Examples:

o Cnidarians (corals, jellyfish) have one opening for both food entry and exit
o Ruminants (herbivores like cows) have a stomach with four chambers

Respiratory System

 Main Function: Gas exchange — takes in oxygen, releases carbon dioxide

 Why Oxygen is Important: Needed for energy production in cells
 Examples:
o Fish use gills
o Frogs can breathe through their skin
o Starfish use tube feet for oxygen intake

Circulatory System

 Main Function: Moves blood to carry oxygen and nutrients, removes waste
 Examples:
o Birds and crocodiles have mixed blood (oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
mix)
o Octopuses have three hearts

Urinary System

 Main Functions: Filters waste from blood, regulates salt levels

 Processes:
1. Filtration — Removes water and solutes from blood
2. Reabsorption — Returns some water and solutes to blood
3. Secretion — Releases additional substances
4. Excretion — Removes waste as urine
 Examples:
 o Arthropods (insects, crabs) use coxal glands to excrete waste
o Fish have kidneys that release urea instead of urine

Nervous System

 Main Functions: Controls body functions, responds to the environment, regulates

thoughts and feelings, maintains balance (homeostasis)
 Actions Controlled: Voluntary and involuntary actions
 Examples:
o Octopuses have 9 brains for better coordination
o Invertebrates lack a spinal cord, and many don’t have complex brains

Endocrine System

 Main Function: Secretes hormones that control growth, metabolism, sleep, and more

Comparison: Nervous System vs. Endocrine System

Feature Nervous System Endocrine System

Signal Type Fast, electrical signals Slow, chemical signals
Response Localized Widespread
Process Control Voluntary and involuntary actions Involuntary actions only