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Thinking
Thinking is an incredibly complex process and the most difficult concept
in psychology to define or explain. However, it has not deterred the thinkers,
and many different definitions exist. Some of them are given here.

Definitions:

Garrett (1968):
Thinking is behaviour which is often implicit and hidden and in which
symbols (images, ideas, and concepts) are ordinarily employed.
Mohsin (1967):
Thinking is an implicit problem-solving behaviour.
Gilmer (1970):
Thinking is a problem solving process in which we use ideas or symbols
in place of overt activity.
Therefore, thinking may be defined as a pattern of behaviour in which
we make use of internal representations (symbols, signs etc.) of things and
events for the solution of some specific, purposeful problem.

Nature of thinking

What we have discussed about the meaning of the term ‘thinking’ so far
has brought out the following aspects of its nature:

1. Thinking is essentially a cognitive activity.

2. It is always directed towards achieving some purpose. In genuine
thinking we cannot let our thoughts wander aimlessly as happens in the case of
day dreaming and fantasizing.
3. Thinking is described as a problem-solving behaviour. From the
beginning till end, there is some problem around which the whole process of
thinking resolves, but every problem-solving behaviour is not thinking. It is
related only to the inner cognitive behaviour.
4. In thinking, there is mental exploration rather than motor exploration.
One has to suspend one’s overt or motor activities while engaging in thinking
through some kind of mental exploration or the other.
5. Thinking is symbolic activity. In thinking, a mental solution of the
problem is carried out through some signs, symbols and mental images.
6. Thinking can shift instantaneously over a span of time and space.

K. Veerapandian M.A., M.Phil.

Consultant Psychologist, Chennai, India.
 2

Elements of thinking (tools of thinking):

The various elements involved in the thinking process may be summarized as
follows:

1. Images- Images, as mental pictures consist of personal experiences of

objects, persons or scenes actually seen, heard and felt. These mental pictures
symbolize actual objects, experiences and activities. In thinking, we usually
manipulate the images rather than the actual objects, experiences or activities.
2. Symbols and signs- Symbols are anything that stands for something.
Symbols and signs represent and stand for substitutes for the actual objects,
experiences and activities. In this sense, they are not confined to words,
mathematical numerals and terms. Traffic lights, railway signals, school bells,
flags, badges are all forms of symbolic expression. So, as Boring, Langfield and
Weld rightly pointed out.
“Symbols and signs are thus seen to be the pawn and pieces
with which the great game of thinking is played. It could not be such a
remarkable and successful game without them.”
3. Concepts- A concept is a general idea that stands for a general class
and represents the common characteristic of all objects or events of this
general class. Concepts as a tool, minimizes the efforts in thinking. For
example, when we hear the word ‘elephant’ we are at once reminded not only
about the nature and qualities of elephant as a class but also our own
experiences and understanding of them come to the surface in our
consciousness to stimulate our thinking at that time.
4. Muscle activities- Thinking in one way or the other shows evidence
of the involvement of some incipient movements of groups of our muscles. It
can be easily noticed that there are slight muscular responses when we think of
a word, resembling the movements used when we say the word aloud. A
positive correlation has been found between the thinking and muscular
activities of an individual. The more we engage ourselves in the thought, the
greater is the general muscular tension and conversely as we move towards a
state of muscular relaxation, our thought processes are also gradually lulled.
5. Brain functions- Whatever may be the role of the muscles, thinking
is primarily a function of the brain. Our mind or brain is said to be the chief
instrument or seat for the carrying out of the process of thinking. The
experiences registered by our sense organs have no meaning and thus cannot
serve as stimulating agents or instruments for thinking unless these impressions
are received by our brain cells and properly interpreted to derive some
meaning. Concept formations—refer page no-10 and insert here.

K. Veerapandian M.A., M.Phil.

Consultant Psychologist, Chennai, India.
 3

Types of thinking:

Thinking, as a mental process, is usually classified into two major

categories, namely directed and non-directed thinking. The following paragraph lists
out the various types of directed thinking.

1. Directive thinking:
1.1 Perceptual or Concrete thinking- this is the simplest form of
thinking. The basis of this type of thinking is perception, i.e., interpretation of
sensation according to one’s experience. It is also called concrete thinking as it
is carried out on the perception of actual or concrete objects and events.
1.2 Conceptual or Abstract thinking- unlike perceptual thinking, this
does not require the perception of actual objects or events. It is an abstract
thinking where one makes use of concepts; the generalized ideas and language.
It is regarded as being superior to perceptual thinking as it minimizes efforts in
understanding and problem solving.
1.3 Reflective/Convergent/Problem-solving thinking- this is a
somewhat higher form of thinking. It can be distinguished from simple
thinking in the following ways:
(i) It aims at solving complex rather than simple problems.
(ii) It requires reorganization of all the relevant experiences and
the finding of new ways of reacting to a situation or of removing an obstacle
instead of a simple association of experiences or ideas.
(iii) Mental activity in reflective thinking does not involve the
mechanical trail and error type of efforts. There is an insightful cognitive
approach in reflective thinking.
(iv) It takes all the relevant facts arranged in a logical order into
account in order to arrive at a solution of the problem in hand.
1.4 Creative thinking- creativity is the capacity or ability of an
individual to create, discover or produce a new or novel idea or object,
including the rearrangement or reshaping of what is already known to him
which proves to be a unique personal experience.

2. Non- Directed Thinking

In the strict psychological sense what we have discussed so far
concerning the types or categories of thinking encompasses real or genuine
types of thinking. It is essentially directed thinking which pertains to reasoning
and problem-solving procedures aimed at meeting specific goals. However,
there are times when we find ourselves engaged in a unique type of thinking
which is non-directed and without goal.

K. Veerapandian M.A., M.Phil.

Consultant Psychologist, Chennai, India.
 4

It is reflected through dreaming, free associations, fantasy, delusions,

day-dreaming and other free-flowing uncontrolled activities. In psychological
language these forms of thought are termed as associative thinking. Day-
dreaming, fantasy and delusions all fall in the category of withdrawal behaviour
that helps an individual to escape from the demands of the real world by
making his thinking free, non-directed and floating which is mentally placing
him somewhere or doing something unconnected with his environment.

Problem-solving:

Even though there are different types thinking, it is indispensable to

elaborate further the problem-solving thinking and creative thinking. So the following
sections will discuss the nature, stages and process of problem solving and
creative thinking. The meaning and nature of problem solving is clarified in the
following definitions:

Skinner (1968):
Problem solving is a process of overcoming difficulties that appear to
interfere with the attainment of a goal. It is a procedure of making adjustment
in spite of interferences.
So, problem solving is a deliberate and purposeful act on the part of a
individual to realize the set goals or objectives by inventing some novel
methods or systematically following some planned step for removal of the
interferences and obstacles in the path of the realization of these goals when
usual methods like trial and error, habit formation and conditioning fail.

Steps in effective problem - solving behaviour:

Psychologists have tried to study carefully, the behaviour involved in the

process of problem-solving in animals as well as in human beings. They have
suggested different steps involved in the process of problem-solving process.
John Bransford and Barry Stein (1984) advocated five steps that are
basically associated with the task of problem-solving. They referred to these
steps as ‘IDEAL’ thinking and arranged them in the following order:

I = Identifying the problem

D = Defining and representing the problem
E = Exploring possible strategies.
A = Acting on the strategies
L = Looking back and evaluating the effects of one’s activities.

K. Veerapandian M.A., M.Phil.

Consultant Psychologist, Chennai, India.
 5

Bourne, Dominowski and Loftus (1979), on the other hand,

enumerated three steps or stages in problem-solving: preparation, production and
evaluation, by proclaiming “we prepare, we produce, and we evaluate in the task
of problem solving”.
Problem solving is an individual phenomenon and involves the exercise
of cognitive abilities of a high order and continuous and persistent struggling
on the conscious as well unconscious levels. Often, there is a considerable
movement back and forth as one move from one step to another in the task of
problem solving.

Creativity:

The terms ‘creativity’ or ‘creative processes’ have been defined in many

ways. Some of these definitions are as follows:
Wallach and kogan (1965):
Creativity lies in producing more associations, and in producing more
that are unique.

David ausubel (1963):

Creativity is a generalized constellation of intellectual abilities,
personality variables and problem solving traits.

Paplia and Olds (1987):

Creativity is the ability to see things in a new and unusual light, to see
problems that no one else may even realize exist, and then to come up with
new, unusual, and effective solutions.
So, to summarize, creativity is the capacity or ability of an individual to
create, discover or produce a new or novel idea or object, including the
rearrangement or reshaping of what is already known to him which proves to
be a unique personal experience.

Nature and characteristics of creativity

1. Creativity is universal- creativity is not confined to any individual, groups

of individuals, caste, colour, or creed. It is universal and is not bound by the
barriers of age, location or culture. Every one of us possesses and is capable of
demonstrating creativity to some degree.
2. Creativity is innate as well as acquired- although many research findings
and incidents favour the suggestion that creativity is a God-given gift and
natural endowment, the influence of cultural background, experiences,
education and training in the nurturing of creativity cannot be ruled out.
K. Veerapandian M.A., M.Phil.
Consultant Psychologist, Chennai, India.
 6

Therefore, one’s creativity may be correctly said to be a function of natural

endowment as well as its nurturing.
3. Creativity produces something new or novel-creativity denotes the ability
of a person to produce something new or novel, but this novelty or newness
does not necessarily imply the production of a totally new idea or object which
has never been experienced or has never existed before. The only precondition
for naming an expression as creative is that it should not be repetition or
reproduction of what has already been experienced or learned by an individual.
4. Creativity is adventurous and open thinking-creativity is not stereotyped,
rigid and closed thinking. It encourages and demands complete freedom to
accept and express the multiplicity of responses, choices and lines of action. It
is a kind of adventurous thinking, calling a person to come out in the open to
express himself according to his will and to function unrestricted by routine or
previous practice.
5. Creativity is means as well as end in itself- creativity as an urge inspires
and persuades the individual to create something unique and thus acts as an
impetus for expression. This creative expression proves to be a source of joy
and satisfaction to the creator. No one other than the creator can experience
the warmth, happiness and satisfaction which he receives through his creation.
Creation is a source of happiness and a reward in itself.
6. Creativity carries ego involvement- there is complete involvement of
one’s ego in the creative expression. One’s individuality and identity are totally
merged in one’s creation. One’s style of functioning, philosophy of life and
personality may be clearly reflected in his creation be it a work of art, or a piece
of writing, etc. the creator takes pride in his creation.
7. Creativity has wide scope- creative expression is not restricted by any
limits or boundaries. It covers all fields and activities of human life, in any of
which one is able to demonstrate creativity by expressing or producing a new
idea or object.
8. Creativity and intelligence do not necessarily go hand-in-hand. Research
findings and observations have demonstrated that there is no positive
correlation between creativity and intelligence. One is not the essential or
necessary prerequisite of the other. Those found scoring high on intelligence
tests may demonstrate little or no signs of creativity whereas individuals
performing poorly in intelligence tests may sometimes create something very
original.
9. Creativity rests more on divergent thinking than on convergent
thinking –divergent thinking involves a broad scanning operation, enabling a
person to evolve a general multiple possible solution and hence it is put into
use when one is confronted with a problem which has many possible solutions.

K. Veerapandian M.A., M.Phil.

Consultant Psychologist, Chennai, India.
 7

Convergent thinking, on the other hand, requires a narrowing process leading

the individual to pin point the one most appropriate solution or response.
10. Creativity can not be separated from intelligence-it is not entirely
separate creativity from intelligence. This is because thinking is neither purely
divergent nor purely convergent and always has elements of both which are
simultaneously involved in the creative and the intellectual process. Therefore,
a person who is creative has to have a minimum level of intelligence certainly
above the average.
11. Creativity and school achievement are not correlated- one may be
creative but score quite low on achievement tests and, similarly, a topper in
school may show little or no creative output.
12. Creativity and sociability are negatively correlated-the creative
individual is more inner-than outer-oriented. He likes to utilize his energy and
potential more for the satisfaction of his creative urge than to care for the
pleasant security of positive peer approval.
13. Creativity and anxiety often go together- it has been noted that creative
people demonstrate an above average state of anxiety. However, the anxiety of
the creative individual is quite different from that of the neurotic individual
with a disturbed personality. The high anxiety of the creative individual may be
the result of his craving for the satisfaction of his creative urge and discontent
with his status or rate of progress in attaining his creative motive. But creative
individuals are quite capable of keeping their anxiety within manageable limits
and directing it into productive channels.

The creative process

Many psychologists and scholars have studied the creative process in an

effort to understand it. Let us summarize some of their findings.

1. Wallas (1926) described the process as consisting of four stages:

preparation, incubation, illumination and verification or revision.
In the first stage-preparation-the conscious work on the problem is
initiated and continued as long as possible. Initially the problem is defined or
analyzed and the stage is set for its solution. The facts and material relevant to
the solution are then collected and examined and the plan of action is
formulated. Then, we start working to the set plan. In between, if essential, the
plan of action is modified; we switch over to another method or take the help
of other relevant data if those in hands fail to help us. In this way, a continuous
and persistent effort is made. Suppose, the present problem is not solvable
then frustration sets up where we keep the problem aside for time being.

K. Veerapandian M.A., M.Phil.

Consultant Psychologist, Chennai, India.
 8

This kind of deliberate or voluntary turning away from the problem is

the beginning of the second stage, i.e. incubation. This stage is characterized
by the absence of activity, or in many instances, even of thinking about the
problem. We may rest, sleep or engage in other interesting activities. If this is
done, ideas which were interfering with the solution of the problem tend to
fade. In the absence of such interference our unconscious begins to work
towards finding a solution of the problem. Sometimes, the things we
experience or learn in the meantime may provide a clue to the solution.
The stage of illumination follows. During this stage the thinker is often
presented with a sudden appearance of the solution of his problem. Such
illumination may occur at any time, sometimes even while the thinker is
dreaming.
The final stage, verification or revision comes next. During this stage
the illumination or inspiration is checked out to determine whether the solution
or idea which appeared through insight is in fact the correct one. In case if, it
does not work out, fresh attempts are made to solve the problem. Sometimes,
the earlier solution needs slight modification or change to become workable.
The creative thinker does not, at any stage, accept a solution as perfect and
holds it open to modification or revision in line with subsequent findings.

2. Torrance and Myers (1970) have defined the process as consisting of the
following stages:
(a) Becoming sensitive to or aware of problems
(b) Bringing together available information
(c) Searching for solutions
(d) Communication of the results.

3. Stein (1974) has attributed the following stages to the creative process
(a) Preparation or education
(b) Hypothesis formation
(c) Hypothesis testing
(d) Communication of the results.

The creative person

The creativity aspect can also be discussed on the basis of those

personality characteristics of the creative persons which distinguish them from
the non-creative persons. A number of researches have been done in this area
and consequently different researchers have presented different lists of
personality traits attributed to the creative persons.

K. Veerapandian M.A., M.Phil.

Consultant Psychologist, Chennai, India.
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Reference in this connection may be made to the studies conducted by

Cattell (1968), Torrance (1962) and Foster (1971), etc. These studies along
with other personality studies have brought out the following behaviour
characteristics or personality traits of a potentially creative individual:

1) Originality of ideas and expression.

2) Adaptability and a sense of adventure.
3) Good memory and general knowledge.
4) A high degree of awareness, enthusiasm and concentration.
5) An investigative and curious nature.
6) Lack of tolerance for boredom, ambiguity and discomfort.
7) Foresight.
8) The ability to take independent decisions.
9) An ambitious nature and interest in vague, even silly ideas.
10) An open mind with preference for complexity, asymmetry and
incompleteness.
11) A high degree of sensitivity towards problems.
12) Fluency of expression.
13) Flexibility in thought, perception and action.
14) Ability to transfer learning or training from one situation to another.
15) A creative imagination.
16) Divergent thinking even in convergent and stereotype situations.
17) Ability to elaborate, to work out the details of an idea or a plan.
18) Absence of the fear of and even attraction to the unknown, the
mysterious and unexplained.
19) Enthusiasm for novelty of design and even of solution of problems.
20) Pride in creation.
21) Peace with oneself so that he has more time for creative pursuits.
22) High aesthetic values and a good aesthetic judgment.
23) Self-respect, self-discipline and a keen sense of justice.
24) Easy nature with a relaxed attitude.
25) Awareness of obligations and responsibilities.
26) Ability to accept tentativeness and to tolerate and integrate the
opposites.
27) Respect for the opinions of others and acceptance of disagreement
and opinions differ from one’s own.
28) Spontaneity and ease of expression.
29) The capacity to fantasize and daydreams.
30) Ability to think in a new angle that is different from others,
particularly during creative activity.

K. Veerapandian M.A., M.Phil.

Consultant Psychologist, Chennai, India.
 10

Creative tests
Creativity tests may be used in the identification of the creative ability in
the same way as intelligence tests are used for the assessment of intelligence.
There are many standardized tests available for this purpose; some of these are
listed down in the following:
1. Minnesota tests of creative thinking.
2. Guilford’s divergent thinking instruments.
3. Remote association tests.
4. Wallach and Kogan creativity instruments.
5. A.C. test of creative ability.
6. Torrance tests of creative thinking.
Concept formation
Concepts are important language symbols used in thinking. When a
symbol stands for a class of objects or events with common properties, it refers
to a concept. Girls, holiday, vegetable, and round objects are examples of
concepts based on common elements; equality, longer and smoother are
concepts based on common relations. Concepts are convenient tools t use in
thinking about the world and in solving problems. Our position in the animal
kingdom is largely based on our ability to use language and to learn concepts.
But concepts can be learned without the use of language. Rats can learn the
concept of triangular by being rewarded for selecting triangles of various
shapes and sizes.
Concept learning utilizes the psychological processes of generalization
and discrimination. In learning the concept of triangularity, a cat generalizes
the response initially to other geometrical forms. As these responses to other
geometrical forms are not rewarded, they are extinguished and it finally narrows
the discrimination to triangles. A child learning the concept ‘dog’ may
generalize the term initially to include all small animals. But from parental
corrections and personal observations, the child learns to make finer
discriminations until his concept matches with the concept of dog. The child
may refine the concept further and distinguish between friendly dogs, whose
wagging tails indicate that the approach is safe, and unfriendly dogs, they learn
by observing the growls that avoidance is the best response.
Because of their language ability, humans are able to deal with all sorts of
concepts, from concrete ones such as dog, cat to highly abstract ones, such as
gravity, justice and God. Research studies by Heidbreder (1947) indicated that
concrete characteristics are generally easier to conceive than the more abstract
relationships of form and number.
Thus, apart from the basic sensation, attention, perception processes the
generalization and discrimination process functions as vital tools of concept
formation.
K. Veerapandian M.A., M.Phil.
Consultant Psychologist, Chennai, India.
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K. Veerapandian M.A., M.Phil.

Consultant Psychologist, Chennai, India.