PARTS OF SPEECH:-

1. NOUN ( বিশেষ্য )
2. PRONOUN ( সর্বনাম )
3. ADJECTIVE ( বিশেষণ )
4. VERB ( ক্রিয়া )
5. ADVERB ( ক্রিয়া বিশেষণ )
6. PREPOSITION ( অব্যয় )
7. CONJUNCTION ( সংযোজক অব্যয় পদ )
8. INTERJECTION ( অন্তর্ভাবমূলক শব্দ পদ )

NOUN:-

PROPER NOUN COMMON NOUN COLLECTIVE NOUN

( সংজ্ঞাবাচক বিশেষ্য ) (সাধারণ) (গোষ্ঠীগত)

It refers( উল্লেখ করা ) to It refers( উল্লেখ করা) to Refer to a group of

unique(একমাত্র)/ words for people,animals, persons,animals or things.
places,things,
specific( সুনির্দিষ্ট)
names of persons,places and names of any commercial
things etc.
( বাণিজ্যিক,
It also refers to the names of ব্যবসায়িক)brand etc.
the country and its people.

It is the opposite( বিপরীত,

The names of towns( মফস্বল উল্টো ) of Proper noun.
শহর ), cities, buildings and
landmarks are proper
nouns.

The days of the week and

months of the year are
proper nouns.

The names of mountains,

seas, rivers and lakes are
proper nouns.
The names of festivals, some
special events and holidays
are proper nouns, too.

It always starts with a capital

letter anywhere of the
sentence.

No article before the proper

noun except in a few
situations( অবস্থা ).
Usually Singular verb is used.

Bangladesh army is doing a

great service.

The cricket team consists of

(গঠিত হওয়া) eleven players.

Ahmed, Student/man/woman/child/ Army, club, class, team,

Dhaka teacher/student/people.

Japan

Japanese dog/sheep/tiger/flower/tree

The Eiffel Tower, Big Ben.

Sunday chair/book/politics/

January.

beach/park/lake/city/
country/

Pepsi/MacBook/Bata/Steps.
 Kalidas is often called the Fahima is a student.
Shakespeare of India.
Cats can be cute.

Common nouns include what

are called collective nouns
and abstract nouns.

MATERIAL ABSTRACT (ভাববাচক/গুণবাচক COMPOUND (মিশ্রিত,

বিশেষ্য) সংযুক্ত)
It’s a substance ( বস্তু We can’t see, touch, hear, Normally have two parts. The
)we can see and touch but taste or smell. We can 2nd part identifies the object
can’t count. understand and or person (man, friend, tank,
imagine(কল্পনা করা) it. table, room). The first part
Solid It is a feeling( অনুভূতি ), not a tells us what kind of object or
Liquid physical( শারীরিক )thing person it is or what is its
Gaseous. purpose (police, boy, water,
Abstract nouns can be made dining, and bed).
by adding –
ness/ tion /sion/ hood, Police man
ship/ dom /ment/ ism/ Boy friend.
th /ty / ce/cy at end of a noun. Water tank
Table cloth.
Dining room.

water, glass, Salt, iron, Anger, fear, love beauty,

Gold, silver, air, milk, tea, freedom, kindness,
coffee, sugar, rice, flour, knowledge, liberty, honesty,
oat, corn,
His kindness is his real beauty.
(তার দয়া তাহার আসল
সৌন্দর্য)
I like his honesty.( আমি তাহার
সততা পছন্দ করি )
Her beauty makes other crazy.
(তার সৌন্দর্য অন্যকে পাগল
করে )

PROPER NOUN (examples):-

people’s names names of names of names of names of the names of

famous places, sea, river, country and days of the special days
 buildings and lakes people(citize week and the and
monuments n) who live months of the celebrations
in a year
particular
country

Labib Big Ben, the pacific Afghanistan- Monday, New Year’s Day
Robin Hood, the Empire State ocean, Afghans. Tuesday, Veterans' Day
Florence Building, the bay of Australia- wednesday, Mother’s Day
Nightingale the Sphinx, bengal. Australians. Thursday, Thanksgiving
Aladdin the Taj Mahal, the padma, Britain-the Friday, Independence
Muhammad Ali, Graceland, the nile, British. Saturday, Day
Mrs. Taylor the Eiffel Tower, the amazon. China-the Sunday. Memorial Day
Frankenstein the Grand Chinese Valentine’s Day
George Canyon, France-the January, Halloween
Washington the Golden Gate French. February, Labor Day
Harry Potter Bridge, Germany- March Christmas
David Beckham the Sydney Germans. April Ramadan
Santa Claus Opera House. India-Indians May Yom Kippur
Julia Roberts the Great Wall Indonesia- June etc
Uncle David of China, Indonesians.
Professor Raj Buckingham
Mahatma Palace,
Gandhi, Chaco Canyon
Nelson Mandela Pueblo,
Aunt Diana Jose the Leaning
Confucius Tower of Pisa,
Alex Rodriguez the Statue of
Ms. Hall Liberty.
Yang Ming

COMMON NOUNS:-(Examples)

people who do certain words for places words for things

things

Acrobat,actor,artist, athlete, airport, auditorium, axe,

astronaut,aunt, aquarium, ball, bicycle, book, bus,
brother,baby,Baker,bird Bank, basement,beach calculator, carpet,
clerk, clergy,cook,clown church, cathedral, chair,computer, crayon,
dancer, dentist, diver, factory, farm, cooker,
driver, gas station, gym dictionary,
doctor,dwarf hospital,hotel drill,
farmer,father library, fridge, ferry,
engineer, enemy Island, hammer,
farmer, friend, foe nursery, ladder, lamp, lawnmower,
gardener,giant, park, police station, pen, pencil, printer
Judge,janitor,jackal, office, ruler,
lawyer,lion restaurant, ship, saw, spade, sofa
magician, man, mall, mosque, table, telephone, television,
manager,mother, museum,mountain, train, trunk.
Nurse, sanatorium, shop, stadium,
plumber, photographer, supermarket,
pilot, synagogue,
police officer, temple, theater
singer, sailor, university
secretary zoo
teacher, technician,
writer

UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS (examples) :-

1. Food : 7. General ideas:- 11. Also abstract

Bread,cheese,butter,meat Aid ( সাহায্য),analysis ( nouns:-
chicken. বিশ্লেষণ),accomodation( থাকা
2. Powder and র জায়গা, বাসস্থান) Love,Hate,decency
grain: information( ),knowledge,art, ( ),emotion( )
behaviour,work,homework, Beauty, Intelligence,
Sugar,salt, Accommodation( বাসস্থান ) Arrogance( )
rice,wheat,flour,corn,san Progress( ),poverty( ),power( ), honesty, Anger, Fear,
d Research( ),Resource,corruptio Happiness,sadness,
n( ), danger, damage, freedom confusion( ), Enthusiasm( ),
Burly. () courage( ), innocence,
), friendship, fun, quality( ), jealousy( )
3. Solid Materials :- quantity( ), room, safety( ).
Wood,plastic,paper,metal silence, time,wealth( ).
, glass,glue,money. 8. mass noun:-
4. Natural material: Furniture.transportation( ),hair
- Baggage,Luggage,equipment( )
Blood, mud Traffic,Travel,Trouble
5. Liquids:- 9. Natural phenomena: -
Darkness,drought ( ),
milk,tea,coffee,beer,wate earthquake, famine( ),
r, electricity,flood,rain, sunshine,
snow,weather,pollution,
juice,drink.oil, soup. 10. states of being :-
sleep,stress,childhood.
6. Gas:- air, oxygen,
 smoke

COLLECTIVE NOUNS:-

People Animals Things

Army Bale( ) (of hay; of wool)

Audience( শ্রোতা ) Army( বিশাল জনগোষ্ঠীর
Band,Board,Brigade, বাহিনী) (of Belt (of adteroids)
Choir( গির্জায় ধর্ম ants/beggars/photographers/ bunch( ) (of grapes, keys)
সংগীতে নেতৃত্বদানকারি Bundle ( )(of
Fans/). sticks/newspapers.)
গায়কবৃন্দ )
Class bed (of oysters). Bushel( আট গ্যালন শস্য বা
Colony ফলের মাপ) (of apples)
committee Colony (of Bats/ants). Cluster ( গুচ্ছ )(of desks; of
Company computers; of stars)
Corporation Flock ( ঝাঁক পাল দল )(of
Crowd( সাধারণ জনগণ) birds/wolves/coyotes/sheep/ Collection (of books)
Faculty( বিশ্ববিদ্যাল tourists). Deck (of cards)
য়ের কোন বিভাগের
herd ( পাল )(of cattle; of Fleet (of Ships)
শিক্ষকমন্ডলী )
buffalo; of antelope( হরিণ Flight (of stairs)
Family/society
জাতীয় প্রাণী )of
Gang
moose/gazelles/impala, ). Flotilla,( ছোট ছোট যুদ্ধ
Group,
Jury,( বিচারকবর্গ ) জাহাজের বহর ) of ships.
Litter (of kittens/puppies).
Onlookers( দর্শক ) Pair (of shoelaces; of shoes;
Panel( কোন কাজের জন্য Gaggle (of geese( রাজহংসী ).) of pants; of glasses)
নির্বাচিত ব্যক্তিবর্গ
) Pack (of wolves/coyotes.
Squad (আমেরিকার নেকড়ে সদৃশ
Staff প্রাণী). Pack (of cigarettes; of gum)
Syndicate( একি স্বার্থ
School (of fish). Packet (of information)
রক্ষার উদ্দেশ্যে
মিলিত ব্যক্তিবর্গ বা Swarm( ঝাঁক ) (of bees.).
ব্যবসায়ীক প্রতিষ্ঠান
) pile( স্তুপ করা) (of papers;
Team
of books; of magazines; of
Troop( সৈন্যদল )
Troupe( সার্কাস দল, leaves)
নাট্যদল দল ) Rack of ribs

Roll (of pennies; of quarters)

Range (of mountains)

Set (of stamps).
Collective nouns for person and thjngs : - There are hundreds of different collective
nouns used to describe animal group
Family/Crowd/People/Mob/Nation. names, but here are a few common ones:-
Team/club/organization
Band/Class/School–a school of thoughts
Group/Committee A class of pupils.
Jury, Parliament
Dozen/rim/gross/pair. A gang of robbers.
Deck of card.
A flock of birds( পাখির ঝাঁক)
A fleet of shops.
Set- A set of A flock of
jewelry/cards/watches/tablecloths. sheep/birds/olves/coyotes/tourists
Army/brigade/Troop/brigade/platoon/
fleet. A gaggle of geese,
A class of pupil.
A herd of cattle ( গরুর পাল ),
A bunch of keys.
A collection of books. A herd of
A set of stamps. sheep/goats/catyke/antelopes/deer/

elephants/zebra

A swarm of bees.

A pod of whales

A pack of wolves.

A pride of lions.

A shoal of fish.

It usually function as singular nouns in a Group – A group is a single unit that is made
sentence. This is because they still are up of a number of individuals, whether
technically referring to one thing: the people or things.
group as a whole.
Collection – A collection is a single unit that
typically consists of many similar things
organized together, such as paintings.

Tribe – A tribe is a single unit that is made

 up of a group of tribe members.

Fleet – A fleet is a single unit that is made

up of several vehicles or vessels, such as
ships.

Band – A band is a single unit that consists

of a number of different musicians.

• “The flock of birds flew south for the

winter.”

• “The organization voted to revoke the

rules that it had previously approved.”

• “The set of tablecloths had disappeared. ”

It is very similar to plural nouns. • “The musicians played the song

beautifully.”

• “The orchestra played the song

The difference is that collective nouns refer beautifully.”
to a group of individuals in a single unit,
whereas plural nouns refer to multiple
individuals.
• “The soldiers marched very swiftly.”
(plural noun)

• “The platoon marched very swiftly.”

(collective noun)

Collective nouns usually function as The team hopes to score a good result on its
singular nouns in a sentence, but they are next play.”
occasionally used as plurals, too.

(The members of the team functioning as a

Finally, it is worth noting that in British whole; therefore, it acts as a singular noun
English, it is more common for collective in the sentence. As a result, the verb
nouns to function as plurals in all instances. “hopes” and the pronoun “its” are also
singular.)

The jury has given its verdict at the trial.

If they are functioning as a whole, then you
use singular verb tenses and pronouns; (Here "jury" refers to members acting as a
 single unit)

if they are acting individually, then you use The jury eat their lunches before they.
plural verb tenses and pronouns

(Here in " jury" members are acting

individually as a plural noun in the
sentence. So plural verb and pronoun are
used.)

Certain collective nouns can only be plural, ✖ “The police is investigating the matter.”
such as “police” (incorrect)

People/police/children/poultry/vermin/ ✔ “The police are investigating the matter.”

(correct)
Cattle

USE OF COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUN:-

Countable noun Uncountable noun

Proper noun/common noun/collective Material noun/abstract noun.

noun

1. singular and plural form. 1. They usually don’t have a plural form.
Singular or plural verb can be used. They have only one form. ( Ex:
A window, lots of windows. furniture never furnitures.)
2. Some countable nouns only have a 2. They are used with a singular verb and
plural form:- singular pronoun.
Clothes, trousers, jeans, scissors. 3. Some uncountable nouns looks plural
but they are not:-
News, economics, physics,
laws,civics,mathematics

We can use the indefinite article a/an/the We cannot use a/an with these nouns.
with the countable noun. Police received information from the
A dog is an animal. informer.

Can be replaced by singular or plural Can be replaced by singular pronoun.

pronoun. What shall we say about the furniture? Well,
I‘d like that desk; it’s better than mine. it’s not luxurious but it is very comfortable.
It’s got shelves as well. They are really
handy.

Can be measured with weights and We can modify uncountable nouns with
measures. quantity words and phrases:-
Two kilos of potatoes. Two kilos of sugar/ three liters of milk.
It has got three drawers
But to express A QUANTITY OF one of these
nouns, (use a word or expression) can be
used like

SOME/ANY/MUCH/LITTLE/ENOUGH/A BIT
OF/A LOT OF/LOT OF/A GREA DEAL
OF/PLENTY OF/NO

We can modify uncountable nouns by using a

word that specifies a container or A form:-

A bottle or bottles of/a bag of/a cube or cubes

of/a bowl or bowels of/a cup or cups of/a
dozen or dozens of/a handful or handfuls of/a
mouthful or mouthful of /a packet or packets
of/a pair or pairs of/a piece or pieces/a pinch
or pinches of /a rim of/a roll of/a sheet of/one
kg of/one liter of/an hour of/a day of etc.

They have got a lot of furniture.

Can you give me some information?

He gave me a great deal of advice before the

interview.

There has been a lot of research into the

causes of this disease.
 A cup of milk is enough for me.

One kg of rice is sold at a cheaper price.

When a countable noun is “singular”, we Plural quantity + uncountable noun +plural

must use a word like a/the/my/this. verb :-
I want an orange.
Where is my bottle?
Two cups of milk are enough for me.
When a countable noun is “plural”, we can Three kilograms of rice are sold at a cheaper
use it alone. price.
I like oranges.
Bottles can break.
We can use some/any/a few/many with Uncountable nouns don't have plural
countable noun. forms.We can often use a countable noun + of
I have got some dollars. before them to express quantity.
Have you got any pens? Examples:-
I’ve got a few dollars. A drop of water, a slice of cheese, A block of
I haven’t got many pens. ice, a jar of jam, a kilo of rice,a piece of
information,a feeling of sadness.
I have many books.
She has few pens. I have much milk.
She has little sugar.

Some nouns are always plural : -( So its verb and pronoun , both are plural.)
Benches- There are adequate numbers of benches in the class.
Binoculars - Binoculars are useful tool for watching birds.
Cloths
Circumstances - His circumstances are not good.
Goggles- She is wearing a pair of goggles.
Goods
Jeans- Jean's are sold at cheap price.
pajamas
Pants
Pliers
Scissors
sneakers
shorts
slippers
Spectacles
 stockings - Stockings are costly (মূল্যবান) now a days ( আজকাল )and these become dirty within
(কোন কিছুর মধ্যে) a few days.
sandals
Trousers
Vegetables - Vegetables contain vitamins.

You can make these plural nouns singular by using a pair of:-
a pair of binoculars
a pair of spectacles
a pair of goggles
a pair of jeans
a pair of shorts
a pair of pliers

INCORRECT CORRECT

“Would you like a tea?” ✔ “Would you like tea?”

✖ “Do you have an information?” ✔ “Do you have (some/any) information?”

✖ “I am looking for an accommodation.” ✔ “I am looking for accommodation.”

✖ “I am looking for the accommodation.” ✔ “I am looking for the accommodation listed in this
advertisement.”

“Your hair looks very nice today.” “Your hair looks very nice today.”
✔ “Yes, I washed it last night.”
✖ “Yes, I washed them last night

We bought new camping equipments.” ✔ “We bought new camping equipment.”

The teacher gave us many homeworks.” ✔ “The teacher gave us a lot of homework.”

“The furnitures in my living room are old.” ✔ “The furniture in my living room is old.”
“The furnitures in my living room is old.”

✖ “Their behaviors are not good.” ✔ “Their behavior is not good.”

✖ “The news are good.” ✔ “The news is good.”

“$20,000 have been credited to your ✔ “$20,000 has been credited to your account.”
account.”
✖ “I think 50 miles are too far to travel on ✔ “I think 50 miles is too far to travel on foot.”
foot.”

Wow, two hours fly by when you’re having “Wow, two hours flies by when you’re having fun!”
fun!”

“Can I give you advice?”

“Can I give you some advice?”
“Can I give you a piece of advice?”
“Can I give you a few pieces of advice?”

✖ “It is too much big.” “It is too big.”

✖ “It is too many big.”
“It is much too big.”

✖ “I have too much pieces of furniture.” ✔ “I have too many pieces of furniture.”

✖ “I have too many furniture.” ✔“I have too much furniture.”

✖ “I have less friends than Jill has.” ✔ “I have fewer friends than Jill has.”

✖ “I have fewer money than he has.” ✔ “I have less money than he has.”

“I want less toast.” (toast is uncountable)

“I want fewer pieces of toast.” (pieces of toast is

countable)

“There is less water in the jug.” (water is uncountable)

“There are fewer cups of water in the jug.” (cups of

water is countable)

✖ “We have less $20,000.”

✖ “I ran less 10 miles.” We walked less than 50 miles to get here.

• “$20,000 is less than we expected to pay.”

• “We walked less than 50 miles to get here.”

• “We have less than two hours to finish this project.”

• “I weigh 20 pounds less than I used to.”

“That is one less problem to worry about.”

“That is one problem fewer to worry about.”

 Quiz
(answers start on page 610)
1. Which article can be used with uncountable nouns?
a) a
b) an
c) the
d) A & B
2. What verb form is generally used with uncountable nouns?
a) singular
b) plural
c) singular in the past tense only
d) plural in the past tense only
3. Which of the following is an uncountable noun?
a) person
b) friend
c) intelligent
d) news
4. Which of the following is not an uncountable noun?
a) love
b) piece
c) wood
d) water
5. Which of the following sentences is correct?
a) “We are waiting for a news.”
b) “You can never have too many love.”
c) “These homework are very hard.”
d) “Could I have less water, please?”

SAME NOUNS CAN BE COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE, OFTEN WITH DIFFERENT MEANING:-

countable uncountable

There are two hairs in my hair I don’t have much hair.

coffee.

There are two light lights in my light Close the curtain; there’s too much
bed room. light.
 There are so many different noise It is difficult to work when there is so
noises in the city. much noise.

Our house has seven rooms. room There isn’t much room for a desk.

How many times have I told you time Have you got time for a cup of tea?
no?

Macbeth is one Shakespeare’s work I don’t have money. I need work.

greatest works.

Have you got paper to read? paper Have you got some paper to draw
pictures?
Hand me those student papers.

I’d like to order a coffee, please. coffee Do you drink much coffee?

Some nouns can be countable or uncountable,with different meanings. : -

Put newspaper on the floor.(=material,U)

Can you get me a newspaper?(=object,C)
Sorry,we haven't got time for lunch.(=general idea,U)
Ring the bell three times(=event,action,C)
Plants need light and water.(=natural force,U)
How many lights have you got in your bedroom?(=object,C)
You've got apple juice on your shirt.(=liquid,U)
Would you like an apple juice?(=a glass of apple juice,C)
Other nouns which can be uncountable or countable include
business,exercise,experience,glass,hair,iron,life,noise,sport.

Compound nouns:-

What type /what purpose What or who

Police man

boy friend

water tank

Dining table

bed room
 The two nouns can be written as:-
1. As one word; policeman, boyfriend.
2. As two words joined with a hyphen: dining-table
3. As two separate words: fish tank.

Two parts may be example

Noun + noun Bedroom

Water tank

Motorcycle

Printer cartridge

Noun + verb Rainfall

Haircut

Train-spotting

Noun + adverb Hanger-on

Passer-by

Verb + noun washing machine

Driving license

Swimming pool

Verb + adverb Lookout

Take-off

drawback

Adjective + noun Greenhouse

Software

redhead

Adjective + verb Dry-cleaning

 Public speaking

Adverb + noun Onlooker

bystander

Adverb + verb Output

Overthrow

Upturn

input

A greenhouse=where we grow plants.

A green house =house painted green

A bluebird=type of bird

A blue bird=any bird with a blue feather.

ANIMALS COLLECTIVE NAMES YOUNG SOUND ABODE

Aardvark( দক্ষিণ An armoury of calf, cub grunt Burrow,den

আফ্রিকার মেটে
শুকুর ),antbear.

Alligator A congregation of hatchling bellow,hiss Nest

Ant an army , colony, larva Hill

nest ,swarm (flying)
of

Antelope( হরিণ A herd calf Snort

জাতীয় প্রাণী
বিশেষ )

Armadillo( ) A roll of Pup scream Burrow

apes A shrewdness of baby gibber Logging, Nest

Asses a pace or Herd or foal bray
drove of

badgers A cete of kit,cub Growl Hole, sett

Bats A cauldron of , Pup screech

colony,cloud, or
camp

Beaver a colony,family, pup,kitten,k grunt,grumble

lodge or cloud of its ,bark

Bears A sloth or Sleuth Cub Growl Den,cave,Lar

ge forest

Bees A swarm worker bee Hum and buzz Beehive

Bison A herd/gang of red dogs snort,

grunt,roar,rut,
bellow

Buffalo A gang or obstinacy calf grunt Barn,Byre,pa

of sture,stable

Bull a drove , herd of calf Moo Cattle shed

Butterfly Kaleidoscope,
flutter, swarm

Birds brace(a couple of Nestling, Chirrup, chirp, nest

hunted and killed hatchling, Twitter,
birds), flight (when chick Tweet, sing,
flying), flock(when whistle.
on the ground),
volary.

camels A caravan of calf Grunt Desert

Cats A clowder or clutter Kitten mew, purr, Cattery, lair,

or pounce or dout meow, hiss, den, cage
or gloring or a glare yowl.
of , kittens

Caterpillar An army of

cobras A quiver of hatchling hiss,growl

Crocodile A bask of hatchling roar,growl,gru

nt or bellow
Crows A murder of chick caw

calves Bleat

Cattle A herd or drove of calf Moo,low,bawl

(calf),
bellow(bull)

Cheetah A coalition of cub growl

chicks a brood of , clutch Cheep

Chickens clutch ,brood pullet(youn Cluck,cackle coop

g hen),
cockrell
(young
rooster),chi
ck

cocks chick crow, cock a pen

doodle doo

cockroach intrusion Nymph chirp Homes,Sewe

rs,
Privies,

cows herd, kine calf low,moo cow shed

Coyote A band/band/rout calf,pup howl,

of

crickets An orchestra of chirp, creak

crows A horde, Chick caws

murder,hover,
muster, parcel of

Deer a herd or bevy of Fawn,yearli Grunt,Bellow Grassland

ng

Dogs A cowardice of , A Puppy, pup bark, howl, Kennel

pack; puppies; A Yelp
litter

Dolphins A pod of pup, calf click Dolphinariu

m

Donkeys A drove colt, foal, Bray Stable, barn,

Mule shed
doves a dole of, a flight of, coo

Ducks Flock Duckling Quack Water

(flying),paddling ( on
water),raft (on
water),
Team,balding,Brace
(a couple of hunted
and killed ducks))

Eagles A convocation of Eaglet, Scream

fledgling

Elephants A parade of , a herd Baby Trumpet,Roar Jungle,Dip-

of elephant, wad,
calf nest

Elk A gang or a herd calf

Falcons A cast chick kak-kak-kak,

shriek,whistle

Ferrets A business of Kit dook Cage

Fish A school of ,a shoal fry,Fingerlin Water

of g Aquarium,
Vivary,Pond

Flamingos A Flamboyance chick squawk

of , A stand of

Flies swarm,cloud, Maggot Buzz,Hum Cracks,crevas

business se

Foxes a skulk or leash Kit,cub,Pup Bark,yelp,simp Burrow,hole,

er Lair

frogs an army of Tadpole, Croak Froggery,

Polliwog, Ranarium
Froglet.

Geese A gaggle of Gosling Cackle,Quack Water

(grounded),
Skein( flying), flock

Giraffes A tower of Calf Bleat Safari

Goats A tribe or trip of kid,Billy Bleat pen. locker

Gorillas A band Infant scream,roar,gr Nest

 owl,hoot

Grasshoppers A cloud, Nymph Chirp Grassland

cluster,swarm of

Grouse pack chick,poult, Nest

squealer,
cheeper.

Guinea pig a group of Pig, Pup Squeak Hutch,Cage

Hamsters aa horde of Pup Squeak Cage

Hares a drove/down/flick/ Leveret Squeak Farm

herd/husk/kindle/
leash/trace/trip of

hens chick cackle, cluck coop

Hogs A drift/drove/parcel piglet Grunt

of

Horses herd(wild),string(po Foal,colt(m) Neigh, Stable

nies)rag/rake(colts), ,Filly(f),stat, Snort,Whinny,
stud,troop,team,har stag, Nicker
ras,stable. Yearling,

Hummingbirds A charm of chick Hum

Hippopotami A bloat or a Calf Growl River banks

thunder of

Hornet bike , nest Larva Hive

Hyenas A cackle, a clan of Cub Laugh,Scream Den

Jackals pup Howl

Jaguars a shadow cub saw

Jellyfish a smack of ,
brood

kangaroos a troop or mob of Joey Chortle Hollow tree

Koalas A cling of , a group Joey Scream,Bellow Tree

of ,
wail

Lamb a flock of Bleat

Larks exaltation chick Sing, warble

Lemurs A conspiracy of Baby,Infant.

leopards a leap cub Roar Safari,

Savanna

Lion a pride of cub Roar,Growl Den

locust chirp

Mice a mischief of Pup,Pinkie, Squeak and

Kitten squeak

Moles a labor Pup squeal Burrow,fortr

ess,
Tunnel

Monkeys A barrel or troop of infant Chatter,Gibber Trees

,
Whoop,Screec
h

Moose A herd of calf bellow Moosey land

Mosquitoes scourge Nymph, Whine,buzz

Wriggler,
Tumbler

Mules a pack Foal bray

Nightingales a watch of pipe,sing,warb

le

Ostriches A pride of, a flock Chick Chirp,bark,hiss

of ,low,hum

Otters A romp, family or a whelp, Pup chirp,purr,squ Hole,Couch,H

raft of eal olt,
Lodge

Oxen A team or yoke Stot, Calf bellow, low

Owls A parliament of Owlet,Fledg Hoot,,scream,

ling Screech,Shriek

Panda Embarrassment Cub bleat,bark, Bamboo tree

Parrots A pandemonium of , Chick Talk,screech,

a company of Squawk
Peacocks muster, Peachick Scream
Ostentation.

Penguin colony Chick Penguinery

Pigs A sounder,drift or Piglet,Shoat Snort,Grunt, Sty, Pen,cote

drove( Younger pig), , Farrow Squeal,oink
team, passel. oink

Pigeons flight, flock, kit Squab,Sque coo

aker

polar bear pack , aurora, or cub Hole, Burrow

celebration

Porcupines A Prickle of porcupette scream,shreik Burrow,

hollow trunk

Rabbits A herd or colony or Bunny, Squeak, grunt Burrow

warren of kit,Kitten

Rats A colony Kitten,nestli Squeak Hole

ng,
pup,pinkie

Raven An unkindness of Croak

Rhinoceroses A crash of Calf Bellow savannah,

wallow

Rooster Crow

Sharks A shiver pup Sea

Seagulls colony Scream,Squaw

k

Seals A herd, pod, Pup Bark Nest

rookery, bob, harem
of

Sheep A drove or flock or Lamb,Cosse Bleat pen,fold

herd of t, lambskin

Skunk A stench of Kit

Snakes A nest Snakelet,Ne Hiss, rattle Burrow,Snak

onate,Hatc ery,
hling snake. Ophidarium
Snail A walkof ,rout, baby snail munch,crunch Shell
hood,
escargatoire

Sparrow host chick chirp, twitter

Spider cluster, clutter Spiderling Web

Squirrels A scurry of, A dray kit. kitten squeak

(mother & her
babies)

Stingrays A fever

Swans A bevy or game, Cygnet,Flap cry, trumpet,

wedge ( flying) per bugle

Tigers an ambush or streak Cub, Whelp Growl, Roar Lair

of

Toads A knot Tadpole croak

Turkeys A gang or rafter or Poult Gobble

posse of

Turtles a bale or nest Hatchling grunt,bellow, Sea

hiss

Vultures A venue of, chick Scream

kettle(flying),
wake( a group
feeding on carcass)

weasels A colony , gang or Kit

pack

Whales A pod or school, or calf Sing whalery

gam

wolves A pack of, a rout or Pup, Whelp. Howl, cry,yell, Lair, den
route of

worm bunch

Zebras A dazzle of , a zeal colt,foal Whinny Jungle,

of, Safari,zoo,
veldts
PRONOUN:-
Pronouns are words that are used in place of nouns in a sentence.

The noun being replaced is known as the antecedent of the pronoun. The pronoun’s antecedent may be
the word, phrase, clause, etc.

Inflections:- is different forms of the word.

First person inflections are: I/me/my/mine/Myself, we/us/our/ours/ourselves.

Thirst person inflections are:- He/she/him/her/his/her/his/hers/they/them/their/theirs/themselves.

TYPES OF PRONOUN:-

1. PERSONAL PRONOUN
2. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN
3. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN
4. RELATIVE RPONOUN
5. INDEFINITE PRONOUN
6. DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUN
7. INTENSIVE PRONOUN
8. REFLEXIVE PRONOUN
9. RECIPROCAL PRONOUN
10. DUMMY PRONOUN(EXPLETIVE RPONOUN)

Antecedent:(Noun/noun phrase/ clause)

Inflections = (Different forms of the word)

Types of Pronoun Examples

PERSONAL Person/number/gender/case I/you/he/she(F)/they/It(object or

lower animal)
( subjective, “I don’t know where my hat is.
objective and “Look at that cute dog wagging Hey, that book is mine! I bought
possessive case) his tail!” it!”
“Bill and Samantha told me they They told us to help ourselves.”
were coming over later.” I was wondering if you could help
“The horse galloped by, its
 hooves pounding the ground me with the dishes?”
violently.”
“The parade floats are
spectacular! I love watching them
go down the street.”

DEMONSTRATIVE Demonstrative pronouns are • “This isn’t mine.” (singular,

(This/that/these/ used to indicate specific people nearby)
those/none/ or things and indicate whether
such/neither) they are • “Give me that.” (singular, not
near)
a) singular or plural and
• “These are really gross.” (plural,
b) near or not near to the nearby)
speaker.
• “I forgot to bring those.” (plural,
not near)
“None” and
“such” can be Mumbai mangoes are better than
used as both those (mangoes) of Bangalore.
• “None of this makes sense.”
singular and (None is singular because this is
plural singular.)
demonstrative There is no period in ancient-Indian
pronouns. • “None of the people here seem history so glorious as that( period)
to like the cake I made.” (None is of the Guptas. [Do not
plural because the people is
plural and verbs plural.) write, “as the Guptas”]

• “Such is the way of life.” (Such

is singular because the way of life My views are quite in accordance
is singular.) with those (the views) of the
• “Such are the rules.” (Such is University Commission.
plural because the rules “is”
plural.
I may have offended, but such was
not my intention.
“Neither” is ✔ “Neither sounds good to me.”
always treated as He was the representative of the
(correct) King, and as such (= the
a singular
demonstrative ✔ “I think neither of the twins representative of the King)
pronoun, wants a babysitter.” (correct) They honoured him.
regardless of the
presence of any
plural nouns: ✖ “Neither of his parents work at The stranger is welcomed as such.
the firm.” (incorrect)

INTERROGATIVE Interrogative pronouns are used • “Who is coming to the party

to ask questions, functioning tonight?” (subject)
(5 primary either as the subject or object
interrogative • “So, which will it be: $10,000, or a
pronouns : Who, of such sentences. new sports car?” (object)
whom( কাহাকে,
কাদেরকে ), • “Could you tell me whose these
whose( কাহার, are?” (subject)
কাহাদের ), which, • “Do you know what we’re doing
and what) • “Whoever(যে ই হোক, যে কেহ হোক here?” (object)
না কেন) would believe such a
story?”
(7 other • “Whatever(যেকোন প্রকারে হোক
interrogative না কেন, যাই হোক না কেন)could I
pronouns— have done to make you so
whoever, angry?”
whomever,
whichever, • “Whomever did you ask to
accompany you to the gala on
whatever, such short notice?”
whatsoever,
whosoever, and • “Whichever(যে ই/যেটাই হোক না
whomsoever) কেন)will the gentleman choose, I
wonder?

RELATIVE Relative pronouns are used to • “There’s the woman who always
(who/whom/who connect relative clauses (also sits next to me on the bus.” ওই সেই
se/which/that, known as adjective clauses) to মহিলাটি যে বাসে সব সময় আমার
where, when) the main clause in a sentence. পাশে বসে(restrictive clause; who
functions as the subject)

• “The book that I wrote is being

1. restrictive clauses: published in January.” যে বইটি আমি
2. non-restrictive clauses: লিখেছিলাম তা জানুয়ারিতে
প্রকাশিত হয়

(restrictive clause; that functions as

Relative clauses either help clarify the object of wrote)
the antecedent with essential
information (in which case they
 are known as restrictive clauses), • “The escaped giraffe, which had
or been on the loose for weeks, was
finally captured.” পালিয়ে যাওয়া
else give extra, nonessential জিরাফটি যা কয়েক সপ্তাহ যাবত
information about it (in which মুক্ত অবস্থায় ছিল অবশেষে আটক
case they are known as non- করা হয়েছিল
restrictive
(non-restrictive clause; which
clauses) functions as the subject)

• “The person, whose name can’t

In a relative clause, the relative be revealed, appeared in court
pronoun functions in one of three today.” লোকটি যার নাম প্রকাশ করা
ways: as the subject of the যায় নাই আজ আদালতে হাজির
clause, as the object of the হইয়াছিল
clause’s verb, or as a possessive (non-restrictive clause; whose
determiner functions as a possessive
determiner, modifying name)

INDEFINITIVE We use indefinite( অনির্দিষ্ট ) • “Is everyone here?” সবাই কি

pronouns in place of a noun that এখানে
is not being specified in the
sentence. • “I hope all is going well.” আশা করি
সবকিছুই ঠিক মত চলছে
Which one we use depends on
whether we are representing a • “Whatever you decide is fine with
noun that is a person or thing, me.” তুমি যাই কিছু সিদ্ধান্ত
and whether that noun is singular নাও না কেন আমার জন্য চলবে
or plural • “Many are coming to the show
tonight.” অনেকেই আজ রাতের শোতে
আসবে

DISTRIBUTIVE they refer to persons or things • Each of the boys gets a prize.
(each/either/neit one at a time. For this reason বালকদের প্রত্যেকেই একটি করে
her) they are always singular and as পুরস্কার পায়
such followed by the verb in the
singular. • Each took it in turn. প্রত্যেকেই
পালাক্রমে ইহা নিয়েছিল

• Either of these roads leads to the

railway station. রাস্তা দুটির একটি
রেল স্টেশনের দিকে চলে গিয়েছে
 • Either of you can go. তোমাদের
একজন যেতে পারো

• Neither of the accusations is true.

দুটি অভিযোগের একটিও সত্য নয়

REFLEXIVE When the subject of a clause is • “I saw myself in the mirror.” আমি
also the object of the clause’s নিজেকে আয়নায় দেখেছিলাম
(They are called verb.
Reflexive I hurt myself. আমি নিজেকেই আঘাত
Pronouns when They are formed by adding “-self” করেছি
the action done (singular) or “-selves” (plural) to
by the subject the end of my, your, our, him, We hurt ourselves.
turns back her, it or them (as well as the You will hurt yourself.
indefinite pronoun one). the
(reflects) upon subject of the verb is also the • “She imagined herself on a
the subject;) recipient of its actions. tropical beach.” সে নিজেকে
myself, yourself, গ্রীষ্মমণ্ডলীয় সাগর সৈকতে
himself, herself, কল্পনা করিয়াছিল
itself, oneself, • “They consider themselves to be
ourselves, above the law.” তাহারা তাদের
yourselves, নিজেদেরকে আইনের ঊর্ধ্বে মনে
themselves করেন

(• “I saw myself in the mirror.” • “One should not concern oneself

with the business of others.” কারো
• “She asked herself if it was উচিত নয় অন্যের ব্যাপারে
worth the hassle.” নিজেকে সম্পর্কিত করা
• “The actor played himself in the • I wish you could hear yourselves
film about his life.”) right now! আমার ইচ্ছা করে এখন
তোমরা নিজেরাই নিজেদের কথা
শুনতে পারতে

• She admitted to herself that she

was wrong. সে নিজেই নিজের প্রতি
শিকার করিয়াছিল যে সে ভুল ছিল

• The wolf hides itself beneath the

ground for safety. নেকড়েটি নিজের
নিরাপত্তার জন্য নিজেই নিজেকে
ভূমির নিচে আড়াল করে

• The players have really outdone

 themselves today! আজকে
খেলোয়াড়রা আসলেই নিজেরা
নিজেদের সর্বনাশ করেছে

• One should strive to better

oneself every day. প্রত্যেকেরই
উচিত নিজের উন্নতির জন্য চেষ্টা
করে যাও

INTENSIVE They are identical to reflexive I checked over these documents

(তীব্র) pronouns in form, but, instead of myself. আমি নিজেই দলিলপত্র গুলি
(EMPHATIC- জোর functioning as the object of a পরীক্ষা করেছিলাম
দেওয়া) verb, they serve to emphasize or
PRONOUN. reiterate the subject’s role in the We will see to it ourselves. আমরা
verb’s action.( we generally place নিজেরাই এ বিষয়টা দেখব
it after either its antecedent or It was told so by the teacher
the direct object of the verb.) himself.

We saw the Prime Minister himself.

I myself saw him do it. আমি নিজেই

(• “The surgeon general himself তাহাকে এটা করতে দেখিয়াছিলাম
will oversee the operation.” The president himself will be in
• “They themselves indicated attendance
that the transactions might be (তত্ত্বাবধানে,পরিচর্যায়).
illegal.” প্রেসিডেন্ট নিজেই পরিচর্যায়
থাকবেন
• “He did it himself, much to his
father’s surprise.” The town itself is not very large.

• “We designed the album They themselves admitted their

artwork ourselves.”) guilt. তাহারা তাহাদের নিজেদের
দোষ স্বীকার করেছিলেন
Help yourself. নিজে নিজেকে
সাহায্য করো (নিজের খাবার নিজেই
নিয়ে খাওয়া)
Enjoy yourself.( নিজেকে উপভোগ করা
)

RECIPROCAL We use reciprocal pronouns • “Jake and I call each other every
( পরস্পর when two or more people both day.” জেইক এবং আমি একজন
বিনিময় করা, act as the subject of a verb, and আরেকজনকে প্রতিদিন ডাকি
লেনদেন করা,
প্রতিদান both (or all) individually and • “My neighbors and I spent a lot of
করা ) equally receive the verb’s action. time at each other’s houses when
(each other/one They can be the object of either we were kids.” আমি এবং আমার
another) the verb itself or a preposition প্রতিবেশী যখন আমরা শিশু ছিলাম
used to complete the verb’s তখন একজন আরেকজনের বাসায়
meaning. প্রচুর সময় কাটাতাম

2 reciprocal pronouns are “each

other’ and “one another”.

DUMMY(EXPLETI “Dummy” pronouns (more • “There is a ship in the harbor.”

VE) technically known as expletive জেটিতে একটি জাহাজ আছে
(There/It) pronouns) are words that
function grammatically as • “There were flowers in the
pronouns but do not have meadow.” মাঠ প্রান্তরে ফুল আছে
antecedents—that is, they do not • “It looks like it may snow
replace a noun, phrase, or clause. tonight.” মনে হচ্ছে আজ রাতে
two dummy pronouns, “there” তুষারপাত হতে পারে
and “It” • “Could you tell me what time it
is?” তুমি কি আমাকে বলতে পারো এখন
কয়টা বাজে

Person number gender Subjective Objective Possessive Possessive

case case pronoun
(Adjective)

Determiner

First Singular Masculine/ I Me My Mine

feminine
Person

First Plural Masculine/ We Us Our Ours

feminine
Person

Second Singular/ Masculine/ You You Your Your

person feminine
plural
Third Singular Musculine He Him His His

Person

Third Singular Faminine She Her Her Hers

Person

Third Singular Neuter It It Its Its

Person

Third Plural Neuter They Them Their Theirs

(Gender
Person
Neutral)

PERSONAL PRONOUN:-

Countries and ships:- • “The SS Freedom is a good ship. She has

certainly seen her fair share of adventure.”

Countries and vehicles, especially ships or

boats, will sometimes be given a feminine • “The Prime minister promised that the
form when spoken of in the third person. United Kingdom would be returned to her
former glory during his term.”

Usage Note: “Singular they”:- • “You shouldn’t judge someone until you
know what they are really like."

English does not have a way of identifying a

single person with a pronoun if his or her • “If anyone needs extra help with their
gender is not known, so sometimes the studies, they should feel free to see me after
third-person plural forms (they, them, etc.) class.”
are used as a gender-neutral alternative to
the third-person feminine/masculine forms.
This is sometimes called “singular they.”

Subjective case:- (Nominative case) • “I know that she said that.” (Both
pronouns are subjective, as both are agents
When a personal pronoun is acting as the of their respective actions.)
subject of a verb (that is, it is the person or
thing doing the action), it is said to be in the
subjective case. • “He told her to be quiet.” (Here, only he is
in the subjective case; her, the recipient or

“object” of his action, is in the objective

case.)

Objective case:- (accusative case) • “Please send them in straight away.”

A personal pronoun is in the objective case • “Take him away!”

when it is a direct or indirect object of a
verb, or else if it is the object or a
preposition. • “Please tell me any news immediately!”
A direct object directly receives the action Here, any news is acting as the direct object
of a verb. of the verb tell—it is the thing being told.
Me, on the other hand, is looking to receive
any news by means of the action of tell,
An indirect object, on the other hand, is the making it the indirect object.
recipient of the direct object—it therefore
indirectly receives the action of the verb via • “I can’t believe he brought you flowers.
the direct object. How sweet!”( you is receiving the flowers,
which is the direct object of brought)

• “You said to give you the money as soon

as I had it.” (The pronouns you and I in
italics are in the subjective case because
they are each performing the action of their
verbs. The pronouns you and it in bold are in
the objective case because they are
functioning as indirect and direct objects of
their verbs (respectively).

✖ “It was me who did this.” (incorrect)

✔ “It was I who did this.” (correct)

(If you reverse the order of the verb and

After Linking Verbs (Subject
pronoun, you can see why the first sentence
Complements):- is incorrect:)

When a pronoun is a subject complement to ✖ “Me was the one* who did this.”
a linking verb this is almost always with (incorrect)
forms of the verb be. In this situation, the
personal pronoun should be in the ✔ “I was the one* who did this.” (correct)
subjective case.

• “Her husband took all the credit, but it

was she who did all the work.”

• “It was they who assured us that there

would be no problems.”

Possessive case:- This book is mine (My book). This is my

book.

This book is his/hers/yours. This is his book.

Those books are yours/theirs.

The idea of yours is excellent.

Use of The pronoun “IT” Examples

(1)Inanimate object Here is your book; take it away. এই যে তোমার বই এটা

নিয়ে যাও

(2) For animals, unless we clearly He loves his dog and cannot do without it. সে তার
wish to speak of them as male কুকুরটিকে খুব ভালোবাসে এবং ইহাকে ছাড়া থাকতে
and female; পারে না

The horse fell and broke its leg. ঘোড়াটি পড়ে

গিয়েছিল এবং ইহার পা ভেঙে গিয়েছিল

(3) For a young child, unless we When I saw the child it was crying. যখন আমি বালকটিকে
clearly wish to refer to the sex; দেখিয়াছিলাম সে কাদিতে ছিল

That baby has torn its clothes. শিশুটি তাহার কাপড়

ছিড়ে ফেলেছে

(4) To refer to some statement He is telling what is not true; as he knows it. সে যা
going before; বলছে তা সত্য নয়; যেহেতু সে তা জানে

He deserved his punishment; as he knew it. সে তাহার

শাস্তির যোগ্য; যেহেতু সে তা জানে

(5) As a provisional and It is easy to find fault. [To find fault is easy.] দোষ ধরা
temporary subject before the সহজ
verb to be when the real subject
It is doubtful whether he will come. এটা অনিশ্চিত সে
follows; আসবে কিনা

It is certain that you are wrong. এটা নিশ্চিত যে তুমিই

ভুল

(6) To give emphasis to the noun It was you who began the quarrel. এটা তুমি ছিলে যে
or pronoun following; ঝগরা শুরু করেছিল

It was I who first protested. এটা আমি ছিলাম যে প্রথম

প্রতিবাদ করিয়াছিল

It was at Versailles that the treaty was made.

It is a silly fish that is caught twice with the same bait.

It is an ill wind that blows nobody good.

(7) As an indefinite nominative of It rains. বৃষ্টি পড়ে

an impersonal verb;
It snows. বরফ পরে

It thunders. বজ্রপাত হয়

The Pronoun it here seems to stand for no noun

whatever, though this can be readily supplied from the
verb.

Thus, 'It rains' means 'The rain rains.'

It so used is called an Impersonal Pronoun. So also the

verb rains is here called an Impersonal Verb.

(8) In speaking of the weather or It is fine. এটা চমৎকার

the time;
It is winter.

It is ten o'clock. দশটা বাজে

 Examples

When a Pronoun stands for a Collective The army had to suffer terrible privations in
Noun, it must be in the Singular Number its march.
(and Neuter Gender) if the Collective Noun
is viewed as a whole The fleet will reach its destination in a week.

The crew mutinied and murdered its officers.

After a few minutes the jury gave its verdict.

If the Collective Noun conveys the idea of The jury were divided in their opinions.
separate individuals comprising the whole,
the Pronoun standing for it must be of the The committee decided the matter without
Plural Number; leaving their seats.

When two or more Singular Nouns are Rama and Labib work hard. They are praised
joined by and, the Pronoun used for them by their teacher.
must be Plural;
Both Nabiha and Fahima are tired; they have
gone home.

when two Singular Nouns joined by and The Secretary and Treasurer is negligent of
refer to the same person or thing, the his duty.
Pronoun used must of course be Singular;

When two Singular Nouns joined by and are Every soldier and every sailor was in his
preceded by each or every, the Pronoun place.

must be Singular;

When two or more Singular Nouns are Rama or Hari must lend his hand.
joined by Or or either...or, neither... nor, the
Either Sita or Amina forgot to take her
Pronoun is generally Singular; parasol.

Neither Abdul nor Karim has done his lesson.

When a Plural Noun and a Singular Noun are Either the manager or his assistants failed in
joined by or or nor, the Pronoun must their duty.

be in the Plural;
When a pronoun refers to more than one You and I have done our duty.
noun or pronoun of different persons, it
must be of the first person plural in You and Hari have idled away your time.
preference to the third;

Good manners require that we should say You and I' not 'I and you'.

Rule (2,3,1) 'You and he' not 'he and you'.

'Hari and I' not 'I and Hari'.

'He and I' not 'I and he'.

You and I must work together.

You and he must mend your ways.

Hari and I are old school friends.

He and I can never pull on together.

It is a common mistake to use / for me, The presents are for you and me (Not, I)

when the pronoun is connected by a My uncle asked my brother and me to

conjunction (and, or) with some other word dinner..
in the accusative case
Nobody will help you but me. (not: I) Take
care to use the accusative form after/but/ in

such case.

The word self is sometimes used as a Noun; To thine own self be true.

He cares for nothing but self.

He thinks much for self.

Use of “That”

That, with its plural those, is used to avoid The climate of Belgaum is like that (the
the repetition of a preceding Noun; climate)of Pune.

The streets of this city are worse than those

(the streets)of Ahmedabad.

Our soldiers were better drilled than those

 ( solduers) of enemies.

The rivers of America are larger than those

(the rivers) of Europe.

When two things which have been already Virtue and vice offer themselves for your
mentioned are referred to, "this" refers to choice; this (i.e., vice) leads to misery, that

the thing last mentioned, "that" to the thing (i.e., virtue) to happiness,
first mentioned;
Alcohol and tobacco are both injurious; this
perhaps, less than that.

INDEFINITE PRONOUN:- An indefinite pronoun is used in place of a noun without specifying a particular
person or thing that is being represented.

People vs. Things Singular Plural Singular or

Plural

Either People or Another Both All

Things One (quantifier) few any

each fewer more

either many most

other others neither

several none

plenty

some

People only anybody/anyone they (see usage

everybody/everyone note)

one ("impersonal"

pronoun)
 nobody/no one/no-one

somebody/someone

whoever/whosoever

whomever/whomsoever

you (see usage note)

Things only anything O such

enough

everything

less

little

much

nothing

something

such

this

whatever

whichever

One or other of us will be One cannot be too careful of

there. one's (not, his) good name.

What is everybody's One must not boast of one's

business is nobody's own success.
business.
One must use one's best
I shall be glad to help every efforts if one wishes to
one of my boys in his succeed.
studies.
One must not praise one's
Anybody can do it if they try. self.
 Each of them had their Somebody has stolen my
share. watch.

Nobody was there to rescue

the child.

All were drowned.

Some are born great.

None of his poems are well

known.

None but fools have ever

believed it.

[None is a shortened form of

not one; yet it is commonly
used with plural verbs].

Hence either and neither should be used only in speaking of two persons or things. When

more than two are spoken of, any, no one, none should be used.

Three different position 1. Each of the men received a reward.

of pronoun “each”.
Each of these horses cost five thousand rupees.

I bought each of these mangoes for three rupees.

2. These men received each a reward.

These horses cost each five thousand rupees.

3. These horses cost five thousand rupees each.

I bought these mangoes for three rupees each.

Each boy took his turn.

 Neither accusation is true.

At either end was a marble statue. (Here either = each or both.)

1. The two men hate each other.

2. They cheated one another.

The brothers quarrelled with each other.

They all gave evidence against one another.

ADJECTIVE:-

TYPES OF ADJECTIVE:-

1. QUALITATIVE ADJECTIVE (adjective of quality)

2. QUANTITATIVE ADJECTIVE (adjective of quantity)
3. NUMERIC ADJECTIVE ( adjective of number)
a. Cardinal (one, two, three etc.)
b. Ordinal (first, second, third etc)
c. Multiplicative ( single, double, triple, quadruple , fivefold, six fold, seven fold etc)

4. Demonstrative adjective
5. Interrogative adjective
6. Distributive adjective
7. Possessive adjective

FUNCTION OF ADJECTIVE:-

Describe feeling or quality He is a lonely man

(adjective of QUALITY) They are honest people

He is a rich man

The boy is disobedient.

Adjective of QUANTITY Give me little water.

(much/more/little/few/some/any/none/eno
ugh/sufficient/all/whole/half etc) I want some rice.

The whole country is happy today.

I have enough money.

Adjective of NUMBER January is the first month of the year.

He has five pens.

He is the first girl of the class.

Give nationality or origin Pierre is French

This clock is German

Our house is Victorian

Tell more about a thing’s characteristics A wooden table

The knife is sharp

Tell about the age He’s a young man

My coat is very old

Tell about the size and measurement John is a tall man

This a very long film

demonstrative interrogative distributive possessive

This/that/these/ What/which/whose. Each/any/every My/our/you/his/her/

those What kind of tree is /either/neither etc their.

it?
This book is mine Each student will I have seen her.
Which subject do you get money.
That is his room want to teach? Their house is very
Every man has to go big.
These notes Whose room is this? outside for a job.
should be followed This is our school
pond.
FORM OF ADJECTIVE:-

1. Adjectives are invariable; A hot potato.

They don not change form depending on Some hot potatoes.

gender or number

2. To emphasize or strengthen the A very hot potato.

meaning of an adjective use “very’ or
really Some really hot potatoes.

POSITION OF ADJECTIVE:-

POSITION OF ADJECTIVE:-

1. Usually in front of a noun A beautiful girl.

2. After verbs: The girl is beautiful.

-To be verb He seems worried.

-Linking verbs like You look tired.

become/seem/appear/turn up/get
This meat tastes delicious.
-cognitive verb/perceptive verb:
look/smell/taste/sound/feel. It sounds strange.

3. After the noun: in some fixed A court martial.

expression
The Princes Royal.

The President elect.

4. After the noun with adjectives I want to see the people involved/concerned.
Involved, present, concerned
Here is a list of the people present.

But if these adjective are used before the

 noun they have a different meaning:-

An involved discussion=(detailed , complex)

A concerned father=worried, anxious.

The present situation = current happening

now.

5. After indefinite pronouns like I don’t see anything wrong here.

someone/something/anything/
on one

6. Past participle is used as A written document.

adjective
A detailed discussion.

A trained servant.

FORMING ADJECTIVE:

--able/--ible Understandable

Capable

Readable

Incredible/perceptible

---al Mathematical

Functional

Influential

chemical

---ful Beautiful

Bashful

Helpful

harmful

---ic Artistic
 Manic

Rustic

terrific

---ive Submissive

Intuitive

Inventive

attractive

---less Sleeveless

Hopeless

Groundless

restless

---ous Gorgeous

Dangerous

Adventurous

fabulous

add exception word adjective

---al If ending with an “e”, drop Nature Natural.

it function functional

---y If ending with an “e”, drop Ice Icy

it oil oily

---ful If ending with a “y”, replace Beauty Beautiful

with an “i” peace peaceful

---ous/ious If ending with a “y”, drop it Mystery Mysterious

danger Dangerous

---ic If ending with a “y”, drop it. History Historic

 Rust Rustic

FORMING ADJECTIVE FROM NOUNS:

Noun Adjective

accident accidental

danger dangerous

length long

star starry

wind windy

FORMING ADJECTIVE FROM VERB:-

verb adjective

enjoy enjoyable

help helpful

obey obedient

play play

talk talkative

FORMING ADJECTIVE EVEN FROM ADJECTIVE:-

adjective adjective

comic comical

correct corrective
elder elderly

red reddish

sick sickly

SOME ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS HAVE TO WRITTEN AND READ THE SAME:-

adjective adverb

fast fast

only only

late late

pretty pretty

right right

short short

sound sound

hard hard

fair fair

even even

cheap cheap

early early

much much

little little

USE OF ADJECTIVE IN DIFFERENT STRUCTURES:-

Be + too+ adjective + to do She is too short to play basketball

Be+ adjective + enough(+for Fahima is intelligent enough to do that work.
someone/something) + to do

Subject + be verb + so + adjective + that + She is so kind that everyone loves her.
clause (S +V)

S +V + such + a/an + adjective + that + It was such a hot day that we decided to stay
clause indoors.

Adjective in exclamatory sentence:-

What + a/an +adj. + noun! What an awful day!

How + adj. + S+ V! How kind the girl is!

S +find +it +adj.+to do ST Labib found it easy to learn English.

ORDER (SEQUENCE) OF ADJECTIVES:- (opinion + fact)

Opinion/value Lovely/boring/dull/monotonous

Charming/delicious/gorgeous

size Small/huge/tiny

shape Round/square/rectangular

Age/temperature Old/young/ hot

colour Red/blonde/black

origin Swedish/Indian/Victorian/Chinese

material Plastic/ wooden/silver

purpose

examples A lovely old red post-box.

A rectangular black wooden box.

A small 18th-century French coffee table.

 Some small round plastic tables.

Some charming small silver ornament.

POSSESSIVE PRONOUN AND POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE:-

Possessive pronoun Possessive adjectives

Mine/ours My, our

Yours Your

His/hers His/her

Theirs Their

its its

That is your bag and this is mine. ( mine is This is my money.

used as replacement of bag)
His jockey is fat.

You have your vices, and I have mine.

ADVERB:-
DEFINATION: adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb, expressing manner,
place, time or degree; a word that can modify a phrase, clause or sentence.

ADVERB-FUNCTION:-

Adverbs modify, or tell more about other The bus moved slowly.
words, usually verbs.
The bear ate greedily.

Sometimes they tell us more about You look absolutely fabulous.

adjectives;
He is really handsome. (How handsome is
 he?)

That was extremely kind of you. (How kind

you were?

They can also modify other adverb. She drives incredibly slowly (How slowly
does she drive?)

He drives extremely fast.

She played the violin extremely well.

You are speaking too quietly

HOW ADVERBS ARE FORMED;-

adjectives adverb

In most cases , an adverb is Cheap Cheaply

formed by adding “–LY” to an
adjective Quick Quickly

Slow Slowly

Time goes quickly

He walked slowly to the door

She certainly had an interesting

life.

He carefully picked up the

sleeping child

If the adjective ends in –“Y”, Easy Easily

replace the “Y” with “I” and
add “–LY” Angry Angrily

Happy Happily

lucky luckily

If the adjective ends in “- Probable Probably

able”, “-ible” or “-le’, replace
the “-e” with “-y” Terrible Terribly

gentle gently

If the adjective ends in “-ic’, Basic Basically

add “-ally”
Economic Economically

Tragic tragically

Exception :

public- publicly

Some adverbs have the same Early Early

form as the adjective
Fast-it is a fast car Fast-he drives very fast.

Late Late

Hard-this is a hard Hard-he works hard. He can

exercise. hardly walk. He hardly had time
to say hello.

High-the bird flew high in the

sky.
High- we saw many Late
high building.
Near
Late
Straight
Near
wrong
Straight

wrong

Good. Well.

He is a good student. He studies well.

He spoke very good He spoke English very well.

English.
She plays the piano well.
She is a good pianist.

They are good

 swimmers

“Well” can also be an

adjective.

She’s not well - she

got a cold.

Some adverb has no Well

particular form
Fast

Very

Never

Always

Often

Still

Not all words that end in –ly are adverbs. Friendly

Lovely

Lonely

Neighbourly

POSITION OF ADVERB:-

When an adverb modifies a “verb”, there

are usually 3 possible positions within the
sentence or clause:-

Front- before subject

Now I will read a book.
Mid-between subject(S) + verb( V) I often read books.

End- after verb(V)/ object(O) I read books carefully.

When an Adverb modifies an Adjective or She gave him a really dirty look.
another adverb, it usually goes in front of
the word that it modifies. We quite often study English.

The position of an adverb often depends on

the kind of adverb

Manner- mainly modifies verbs.

She spoke gently.(manner- modifies verb)
Place- mainly modifies verbs.
He lived here.( place- modifies verb)
Time- modifies verbs.
I will do it today.(time- modifies verb)
Degree—modifies verbs, adjectives and
adverbs. We often go to party.(time – modifies verb)

He nearly died.( degree- modifies verb)

It was terribly funny.( degree modifies

adjective)

He works really fast.( degree –modifies

adverb)

CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERB:-

ADBERB OF MANNER; He speaks slowly.

modifies verb
They helped us cheerfully.
It answer “ How”
James bond drives his car fast.

ADVERB OF PLACE Please sir here.

It mainly modifies ‘verb’ They looked everywhere.

It is usually placed after the main verb Or The cars were parked outside.
after the object.
I am going home/out/back/outside/inside.
It answer “Where”
Come in.

ADVERB OF TIME He came yesterday.

Mainly modifies verb I want it now.

It answer ”When” or “how often” They deliver the newspaper daily.

( frequency)

We sometimes watch a movie. (“”)

ADVERB OF DEGREE She entirely agrees with him. (How much

does she agree with him?)
It modifies verbs, adjectives, adverbs
Mary is very beautiful. (To what degree is
It answer “How much” or ‘To what extent” Mary beautiful?)

ADVERB OF FREQUENCY:-

Adverb of definite frequency:- Many companies pay taxes yearly.

Typically go at the “END” position. The servant checks the toilet every hour.

(-Hourly/daily/weekly/monthly/yearly The teachers meet weekly to review

progress.
-Every second/once a minute/twice a year

-Once/twice/three times)
Sometimes for reason of Emphasis or style,
some adverbs of definite frequency may go
at the front.

Eg:-

Every day, more than five hundred people

die on our roads.
Adverb of indefinite frequency:- We usually go shopping on Saturday.

It mainly go in the MID position in the I have often done that.

sentence.
She is always late.
It go before the main verb( except the main
verb” To be”
Occasionally/sometimes/often/frequent
and usually can go at the beginning or end
100%- always/constantly/usually/normally/ of the sentence:

Frequently/regularly/often) Sometimes they come and stay with us.

50% - I play tennis occasionally.

sometimes/occasionally/rarely/infrequently/

seldom/hardly ever)
Rarely and seldom can also go at the end of
0%- never. a sentence( often with “very”):

We see them rarely.

John eats meat very seldom.

ADVERB OF CERTAINTY

It express how certain or sure we feel about

an action or event:-
(certainly/definitely/probably/undoubtedly/s
urely)

It go before the main verb but after the verb, He definitely left the house this morning.
“to
He is probably in the park.
be”:
 It goes between the auxiliary verb and the He has certainly forgotten the meeting.
main verb:
He will probably remember tomorrow.

Sometimes it can be placed at the beginning

of the sentence: Undoubtedly, Winston Churchill was a
great leader.

Be careful! :with surely if it is placed at the

be beginning-it means speaker thinks Surely you’ve got a bicycle.
something is trua, but is looking for
confirmation.

ORDER OF ADVERB:-

When two or more adverbs are used together at the end of a clause the order is usually:

MANNER🡪PLACE🡪TIME.

I’ll meet you quickly outside the station at six o’clock, (quickly=manner/Outside the station= place/at six
o’clock=time)

COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE ADVERB:-

ADVERB COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

Add “_er” or “_est” to short

adverb.

Hard
Harder The hardest
Late
Later The latest.
fast
Faster The fastest.

Jim works harder than his Everyone in the race ran

brother. fast, but john ran the fastest
 of all.

With adverb ending in –ly,

use more for the
comparative and most for
the superlative

Quietly More quietly Most quietly

Slowly More slowly Most slowly
seriously More seriously Most seriously

The teacher spoke more

slowly to help us to
understand.

Could you sing more

quietly please

Some adverbs have irregular

comparative forms:-

Badly
Worse Worst
Far
Farther/further Farthest/furthest
Little
Less Least
Well
Better Best

The little boy ran further

than his friends.

You are driving worse

today than yesterday.
Sometimes “most “ can
mean “very”

We were most grateful for

your help.
 I am most impressed by his
application.

VIEW POINT AND COMMENTING:-

VIEW POINT:-

-This adverb tells about the speaker’s view

point or opinion about an action.

-It is placed at the beginning of the

sentence and Frankly, I think he is liar. (=this is my frank,
honest opinion)
are separated from the rest of the sentence
Personally, I’d rather go by train.
by a comma:-
Surprisingly, this car is cheaper than the
(honestly/seriously/confidentially/ smaller model.
personally/surprisingly/ideally/
economically/officially/obviously/clearly/ Geographically, Britain is rather cut off
surely/undoubtedly) from the rest of Europe.

COMMENT:-

These are similar to vie point adverbs and

often the same words, but they go in a
different position-

After the “to be” and before the main She is certainly the best person for the job.
verb:- You obviously enjoyed your meal.

Common commenting adverbs;-

(definitely/certainly/obviously/simply)

CONJUNCTION:-
Definition:-

is a word which joins sentences and also links words, phrases and clauses.

CONJUNCTION

Individual words:- • “I like to run and swim.”

(connecting individual words • “Do you want pepperoni or anchovies on

your pizza?”

Phrases:- • “The president has been praised for both

his willingness to negotiate and his strength
(Connecting two phrases) in defending his principles.”

• “I am a big fan of playing sports but not

watching them.”

Independent clauses:- • “It was raining, so I took an umbrella.”

(Joining two independent clauses) • “We went for a hike, but I didn’t bring the
right shoes.”

Subordinating Conjunctions:- • “Although it was raining, I didn’t take an

umbrella.”
Subordinating conjunctions connect a
subordinate clause to an independent • “Even though she didn’t like pepperoni,
clause. she still ate the pizza.”

• “I went to work in spite of being sick.”

• “I intend to go to South America next

month, provided that I can get the time off
work.”

Correlative Conjunctions:- • “Sports are a great way to bring people

together, whether you like to play or just
Correlative conjunctions are pairs of watch.”
conjunctions that work together to
indicate the relationship between two • “I like neither pepperoni nor anchovies on
elements in a sentence. my pizza.”

Conjunctive Adverbs:- • “The English language school offers

discounted English language courses.
There’s also a library where you can study
 Conjunctive adverbs join two independent and borrow books.”
clauses. These can either be two separate
sentences, or they can be joined into a • “Jen hadn’t enjoyed the play;
single complex sentence with a semicolon. nevertheless, she recommended it to her
friend.”

Uses of

The parts which are being joined by the conjunction have a parallel structure (i.e. that they have same
verb forms, etc).

I worked quickly yet carefully. (NOT - I worked quickly yet I am carful) am careful not in the same form as
quickly. This creates faulty parallelism.

I am quick yet careful.

CLASSIFICATION OF CONJUNCTION:-

Coordinating conjunction Subordinating conjunction Correlative conjunction

This joins words, phrases This joins a subordinating Paired words joining words,
or clauses having the /dependent clause with a phrase or clauses having a
same grammatical main/independent clause. reciprocal or
structures. complementary relationship
It is also called subordinator. are called correlative
It is also called conjunction.
coordinator.
Words are;- Words are:-
(whether…or/not only…but
Acronym FANBOYS :- ( such also//either… or/neither…
(For/and/nor/but/or/yet/ as/once/till/when/here/althou nor/both …and etc)
so) gh/after/no
Matter/however/on the other
hand/how/while/provided
that etc)

I will travel either by bus or

If the dependent clause comes by air.
first, you will need a
“COMMA”. Neither you nor I will go
there.
(Note :- the “COMMAS” Both red and green are my
before the coordinating favourite colour.
conjunctions which Because I was thirsty, I drank a
separate two independent glass of water.(comma) Please tell me whether you
clauses) will go or not.
I drank a glass of water
I will buy a pen and a because I was thirsty.(No
book (joining two words). comma)

Although she was ill, she came

to the class.
You can find him in the
library or in the We went to the garden where
classroom(joining two we saw different kinds of
phrase) roses.

You will get a chance to play

on the team provided that you
She is poor, yet she is practice hard.
happy.

She is poor, but she never

shirks her duty. (Joining The teacher said that he was
two independent clauses). amazingly creative.

Before he leaves, make sure

his room is clean.
She could not decide if
she wanted the lemon tea
or the rosehip tea.

COORDINATING CONJUNCTION:-

FOR For is used to give a reason for • “I believe you, for you have never lied
something. It can normally only to me before.”
join two independent clauses,
introducing the second clause as • “He didn’t come to the party, for he
the reason for the first one. We felt sick.”
can use “for” whenever we mean • “I wish you had been there, for we
“because.” had a wonderful time.”

And And is used to add one element to • “James and Jack are coming to the
 another. It can join words, party.”
phrases, and entire independent
clauses. • “He ran, swam, and played with the
other children.”

• “Her beautiful long hair and dark

brown eyes caught their attention.”

• “The family moved into the new

house, and the neighbors welcomed
them warmly.”

Nor Nor is one of the most limited • “He doesn’t like football, nor does he
coordinating conjunctions. It’s enjoy hockey.”
used to present an additional
negative idea when a negative • “I’ve never seen that movie, nor do I
idea has already been stated. want to see it.”

• She hasn’t been to Paris, nor has she

travelled to Rome.”
Note that when nor is used to join
two independent clauses, as in the
examples above, negative
inversion must be used in the
second clause.

BUT But is used to present a contrast • “I want to go shopping but I can’t.”

with previous information. It can
be used to join an independent • “He was upset but didn’t cry.”
clause to a phrase or another • “I would love to travel more, but I
independent clause. just don’t have the time.”

OR Or is used to present alternative • “Would you like the chicken, the

choices or options. pork, or the beef?”

• “Which sport do you think is more

exciting, football or hockey?”

• “We can go to the movies tonight, or

we can just hang out at home.”

YET Yet, like but, is used to present • “The movie was depressing yet
contrast. However, there is a uplifting at the same time.”
subtle implication when we use
yet that the information is • “It’s poured rain all day, yet they
 surprising in light of what we haven’t canceled the football game.”
already know.
• “I’ve read thousands of books since
high school, yet The Catcher in the Rye
is still my favorite.”

So So is generally only used to join • “He was exhausted, so he went to

two independent clauses, where bed early.”
the second clause is a result of the
first. • “She was the most qualified
candidate, so we gave her the job.”

• “He’s been working harder lately, so

his grades are improving.”

PUNCTUATION FOR COORDINATING CONJUNCTION:-

PUNCTUATION FOR COORDINATING CONJUNCTION:-

Between independent clauses:- • “They moved into the new house, and the
neighbors welcomed them warmly.”
When a coordinating conjunction joins
two independent clauses, a comma • “I’ve never seen that movie, nor do I want
normally to see it.”

precedes it, as in: • “We can go to the movie theater, or we

can just hang out at home.”

• “He plays sports, and he’s fit.”

or

• “He plays sports and he’s fit.”

Between words or phrases:- • “James and Jack are coming to the party.”

When coordinating conjunctions are used • “Would you like the chicken or the beef?”
to join words or phrases that are not
independent • “The movie was depressing yet uplifting
at the same time.”
clauses, we don’t use a comma.

Before the last item in a list:- • “I like apples, bananas, pears, and figs.

A coordinating conjunction, usually and, is • “I like apples, bananas, pears and figs.
often used before the last item in a list.
When we • “She’s smart, beautiful, and witty.”

use a comma before this coordinating • She’s smart, beautiful and witty.”
conjunction it is called a serial comma or • “We have always wanted to buy a boat,
Oxford sell everything, and set sail.”
comma. • “We have always wanted to buy a boat,
sell everything and set sail.”

Beginning a sentence with a coordinating • “She’s smart and beautiful. And she’s
witty, too.”
Conjunction;-
• “We’ve never won anything before. So I
Commas are not used after coordinating doubt we’ll win this time.”
conjunctions when they start sentences.
• “I think we should get Indian food. But
maybe I want Italian instead.”

CORRELATING CONJUNCTION:-

CORRELATING Correlative conjunctions, or

CONJUNCTION: paired conjunctions, are sets of
- conjunctions that are always
used together:-

BOTH…AND We use both … and when we • “This house is large and cozy.”
want to put emphasis on two
elements that are true in a • “This house is both large and
sentence. cozy.”

• “She cleaned her room and

washed the dishes.”

• “She both cleaned her room and

washed the dishes.”

• “My mother and father are

 bookworms.”

• “Both my mother and my father

are bookworms.”

EITHER…OR We use either … or to present • “I want to paint the house either

two options. Again, it emphasizes white or green.”
the fact that the choice is
• “Let’s either go swimming or go
limited to only the two given shopping.”
options.
• “Either your father will pick you
up, or you’ll get a ride home with a
friend.”

NEITHER …NOR We use neither … nor to negate • “I have neither the time nor the
two options. patience for silly TV programs.” (I
don’t have time, and I don’t have
patience.)
Note that when neither and nor • “Neither James nor Mike enjoys
begin two independent clauses, playing basketball.” (James and
we must use negative Mike both do not enjoy playing
inversion (the reversal of the basketball.)
subject and auxiliary verb) for • “Neither does he understand, nor
each, as in the third example does he care.” (He doesn’t
understand, and he doesn’t care.)

NOT …BUT We use not … but to express a • “He’s not happy but thrilled!”
contradiction, negating the first
option while emphasizing the • “She did not like but loved her
second. new earrings.”

• “Not just one friend turned up to

help, but the entire team arrived.”

NOT ONLY … We use not only … but also to • “This house is not only large but
BUT ALSO emphasize an additional element also cozy.” (The speaker believes
in the sentence, especially when that large houses are not usually
its occurrence seems cozy.)
contradictory or surprising in
light of what we already know. • “She not only cleaned her room,
but she also washed the dishes.”
(The speaker is surprised that she
 Note that when not only is used did both chores.)
to introduce an independent
clause, as in the third example, • “Not only is she an award-winning
we must use negative inversion singer, but she also runs track.”
(like with neither … nor). When (The speaker is impressed that she
but begins the second is able to do these two unrelated
independent clause, the subject activities.)
comes between it and also.

JUST AS…SO We use just as … so to indicate • “Just as I love films, so does my

that the two elements being brother love sports.”
joined are similar. Usually, just as
begins an independent clause, • “Just as Americans love baseball,
and so is followed by a second so do Europeans love soccer.”
independent clause. • “Just as French is spoken in
Traditionally, the clause after so France, so is English spoken in
should be inverted, as in: England.”

However, it’s also common

(especially in informal writing and
speech) for this structure to occur
without inversion, as in:

• “Just as I love films, so my brother

loves sports.”

• “Just as Americans love baseball,

so Europeans love soccer.”

• “Just as French is spoken in

France, so English is spoken in
England.”

WHETHER … OR We use whether … or to express • “I don’t know whether the white

doubt between two possible paint or the green paint is better.”
options. Whether has the same
meaning as if in this regard. • “He’s not sure whether he’ll be
able to attend the game or not.”
 We also use whether … or to
indicate that something will happen
no matter which choice is made. For
example:

• “Whether we stay home and eat a

pizza, or we go out and watch a
film, I’m sure we’ll have a good
time.”

• “I’m going to help you whether

you like it or not.”

PARALLEL When we use correlative • “This house is both large and

STRUCTURES. conjunctions, it’s important to cozy.” (Two adjectives are joined.)
use parallel structure, especially
in formal writing. Parallel • “Let’s either go swimming or go
structure requires both elements shopping.” (Two verb phrases are
that are joined by the correlative joined.)

conjunction to be equal • “Either your father will pick you

up, or you’ll get a ride home with a
friend.” (Two independent clauses
are joined.)
Using correlative conjunctions to
join non-parallel structures is
considered incorrect. For
example:

✖ “It was both a long movie and

boring.” (Incorrect—a noun
phrase is joined with an adjective
phrase.)

✖ “I’m not sure whether the

white paint or painting it green
would be better.” (Incorrect —a
noun phrase is joined with a verb
phrase.)

✖ “Either your father will pick

you up or a friend.” (Incorrect—
an independent clause is joined
with a noun phrase.)
 Although the sentences above
may be heard in everyday
speech, they are considered
incorrect.

PUNCTUATION FOR CORREALTING CONJUNCTION:-

two When we use a correlative • “Either your father will pick you
independent conjunction to join two up, or you’ll get a ride home with a
clauses independent clauses, we separate friend.”
the two
• “Not only is she an award-winning
clauses with a comma, singer, but she also runs track.”

• “She not only cleaned her room,

but she also washed the dishes.”

the two We generally do not use commas • “This house is both large and
elements being when the two elements being cozy.”
joined are not joined are not independent
independent clauses. For example • “I want to paint the house either
clauses white or green.”

• “Neither James nor Mike enjoys

playing basketball.”

Subject-verb In general, when we join two • “Neither the plumber nor the
agreement:- singular subjects using a electrician is here yet.”
correlative conjunction, the verb
that follows should be singular. • “Not only Mike but also Daniel is
coming with us.”

two singular
subjects One exception to this rule is when
using both … and. In this case, we
use a plural subject:

• “Both Mike and Daniel are coming

with us.”

two plural When we join two plural subjects, • “Neither the plumbers nor the
subjects the verb that follows should also electricians are here yet.”
be plural.
• “Not only Mike’s friends but also
Daniel’s friends are coming with
us.”

One singular Sometimes, we join a singular • “Every day both the cat and the
and one plural subject to a plural subject. In this dogs wake me up.” (Wake is plural
subject case, the majority of style guides because the dogs is plural.)
state that the verb should agree
with the noun that is closest to it. • “Neither my cousins nor my mom
likes swimming.” (Likes is singular,
because mom is singular.)

Pronoun When we join two singular • “Neither Mike’s friends nor

agreement:- subjects, we should use a singular Daniel’s friends brought their
pronoun. shoes.”

• “I don’t know whether the girls or

Two singular the boys have had their breakfast.”
subjects

Two plural When we join two plural subjects, • “Neither Mike’s friends nor
subjects we should use a plural pronoun to Daniel’s friends brought their
refer back to them. shoes.”

• “I don’t know whether the girls or

the boys have had their breakfast.”

One singular When we join a singular subject • “Neither Mike nor his friends
subject and one and a plural subject, we run into stated their opinion.” (Their agrees
plural the same problem that we had with his friends.)
with subject-verb agreement.
subject Again, the most widely accepted • “Neither Mike’s friends nor Mike
practice is that the pronoun stated his opinion.” (His agrees with
should agree with whichever Mike.)
noun is closest to it. (As with subject-verb agreement,
the other side of the argument is
that if either of the subjects is
plural, the pronoun should be
plural
 • “Neither Mike nor his friends
stated their opinion.”

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION:-

Definition

Subordinating conjunctions are used to create complex sentences containing one

independent clause, or main clause, and one dependent, or subordinate, clause. The

subordinating conjunction does two things: it introduces and subordinates the dependent

clause (telling the reader that it’s less important than the independent clause), and it explains what
relationship it has to the independent clause.

• “I went to the supermarket. We were out of milk.”

• “I went to the supermarket since we were out of milk.”

The subordinating conjunction since transforms the second clause from an independent

clause into a dependent clause—it subordinates it. “Since we were out of milk” can no

longer stand alone, but is dependent on the independent clause that it’s now connected to.

Note that if when we place the subordinate conjunction in the middle of the sentence, as in

the first example, we normally don’t need a comma. On the other hand, when we place the

subordinating conjunction at the beginning of the sentence, as in the second example, we

normally do need to use a comma.

- • “I went to the supermarket since we were out of milk.”

• “Since we were out of milk, I went to the supermarket.”

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION:

Cause Comparison / Condition Place Reason Time

 Concession

as (just) as even if where in order after

that

because although if wherever so that before

since even though as long as as soon as

though in case once

whereas provided until

that

while providing when

Whenever

while

RULES OF SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION

CAUSE We use as, because, and since • “The project was successful as
interchangeably to state the you all worked very hard.”
cause of something.
• “The project was successful
because you all worked very
hard.”
Each of the three examples
expresses the same causal • “The project was successful
relationship, although as is a since you all worked very hard.”
bit more formal in tone than
because or since.

Comparison and We can use as to state that • “It’s pouring rain, as I thought it
concession two ideas are similar. We can would.”
also use just as to add extra
Similarities emphasis to this statement. • “She was late again, just as we
expected.”
 Note that the examples above • “He didn’t turn up, as you told
flow better with a comma, me he wouldn’t.”
even though the
subordinating conjunction is
not in the initial position.

Expressing While and whereas both • “My brother worked really

contrasts and express contrast. hard, while I didn’t make much of
concessions an effort.”

• “I can’t stand watching tennis,

While and whereas can be whereas I love watching
used interchangeably, but basketball.”
whereas is often considered
more formal. Note also that,
like with (just) as above, we
use a comma between the
clauses even though these
subordinating conjunctions
are not in the initial position.

We use although, though, and • “I went to that restaurant

even though to say that though/although I was told it
something occurred in spite wasn’t very good.”
of something else. Though
and although are • “I went to that restaurant even
interchangeable, while even though I was told it wasn’t very
though adds extra emphasis. good.”

Condition If is the most common • “I will buy you a pizza if you

conjunction for hypothetical help me move my furniture.”
sentences. We use it when
one action is required for • “You should buy a new TV if you
another to occur. get a bigger apartment.”

• “I will buy you a pizza as long

as/provided you help me move
As long as/provided/provided my furniture.” (I will only buy you
that and providing all mean a pizza if you help me.)
the same as “if”, but they
emphasize the requirement • “You should buy a new TV
 of the conditional action. We providing/provided that you get a
can use them bigger apartment.” (You should
interchangeably: only buy a new TV if you get a
bigger apartment.)

• “I will buy you a pizza even if

you don’t help me move my
furniture.” (I will buy the pizza
anyway.)
We use even if when an
outcome will occur despite a • “He’s going to pass his test even
hypothetical action. if he doesn’t study.” (He will pass
despite not studying.)

• “I’m bringing an umbrella in

case it starts raining.” (I’m
worried it might rain, so I’m
bringing an umbrella.)

• “She put her phone on silent in

We use in case to suggest a case it rang during the movie.”
precaution against a (She was concerned her phone
hypothetical possibility. would ring in the middle of the
movie, so she silenced it.)

PLACE When the dependent clause • “He lives where it’s always
is related to a place, we use sunny.” (He lives in a place that is
where and wherever, but sunny.)
they are not interchangeable.
For most situations, we use • “Can we go where it’s a little
where, as in: quieter?” (Can we go to a place
that is quieter?)

We use wherever to
emphasize that we mean any • “I want to go wherever it’s
or every place, rather than a quieter.” (I want to go to any
specific location. place quieter; I don’t mind
where.)

• “He bikes wherever he goes.”

 (He bikes to every place that he
goes.)

Reason We use in order that, so that, • “Our boss asked us to take

and so to give a reason. They detailed notes in order that
are interchangeable in nothing would be forgotten.”
meaning, but differ in (formal)
formality. Compare the
following sentences: • “Our boss asked us to take
detailed notes so that nothing
would be forgotten.” (neutral)

• “Our boss asked us to take

detailed notes so nothing would
be forgotten.” (less formal)

TIME Previously:-

To state that the action of the • “I went shopping before I came

independent clause occurred home.” (I went shopping first.)
first, we use before.
• “He won first prize in a spelling
bee before starting fifth grade.”
(He won the prize first.)

• “I was sleeping when the phone

Concurrently:- rang.”
When two actions occur at • “I saw my brother when he was
the same time, there are out with his friends.”
several subordinating
conjunctions we can use, but
each has a slightly different
meaning. If we are not adding
any particular

emphasis, we use when: • “Please clean your room once

you get home.”

However, to emphasize that • “Call me back as soon as you

two actions occurred (or will can.”
 occur) at exactly the same
time, or in rapid succession,
we use once or as soon as:

Subsequently:- • “I went shopping after I finished

work.” (I finished work first, then
When the action of the went shopping.)
independent clause happens
second in a series of actions, • “He won first prize in a spelling
we use bee after he started fifth grade.”
(He started fifth grade first, then
after: won a spelling bee.)

• “He ran track until he moved

here.” (He stopped running track
Up to a certain time:- when he moved here.)
To state that one action stops • “You can borrow my jacket until
when another one begins, we I need it.” (You must stop using it
use “until”. when I need it.)

• “Call me whenever you get

home.” (Call me when you get
home, but I don’t mind when that
is.)

Any time or every time:- • “She cries whenever she sees a

sad movie.” (She cries every time
Finally, we use whenever to
she sees a sad movie.)
state that the time doesn’t
matter, or that two actions
always happen together.

INTERJECTIONS:-
DEFINATION: - An Interjection is a word which expresses some sudden feeling or emotion.

Interjections may express-

(1) Joy: - Hurrah! Huzza!

(2) Grief: - alas!

(3) Surprise: - ha! What!

(4)Approval: - bravo!

Hello! What are you doing there?

Alas! He is dead.

Hurrah! We have won the game.

Ah! Have they gone?

Oh! I got such a fright.

Hush! Don't make a noise.

Wow! What a great achievement!”

“Hooray! I got accepted to my top choice university!”

“Yuck! I hate coconuts!”

“Congratulations! That was an impressive victory.”

Some sudden feeling or emotion:-

as, Ah me! For shame! Well done! Good gracious!

Primary Interjection Emotion

aah fear

aha triumph, sudden understanding

argh frustration

brr being cold

eww disgust

grr anger
hmm thinking

ooh amazement, being impressed

phew relief

yay approval, happiness