The Psychological Theories

Psychological Theories Psychological approach focuses on work with individual having

deviant behaviors rather than focusing on reason for deviancy. The major psychological
theories of crime can be categorized into the following areas;

psychoanalytic theory, learning theory, and control theory (Blackburn, 1993; Feldman,
1993; Hollin, 1989).

Some of the common basic assumptions shared by many are

(1) Delinquent behaviour is a manifestation of internal, under lying disturbances.

(2) Whatever the specific psychological disturbance which might exist in any particular
delinquent behaviour batter, it most probably began to develop not later than early
childhood and has become a fairly characteristic feature of the individual.

(3) while allowance is given for the potential modifying effects of extern, environmental
factors, it is the individual who has the problem and it is thus on the individual that one
must focus if the problem is to be resolved and the consequent delinquent behaviour is
to be changed.

Psychoanalytic Theory

Psychoanalytical theory developed by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) stated that human

personality has three psychic structures: id, ego and super ego.

The basic assumptions of the psycho-analytic approach to delinquency are –

(1) each person (presumably, other than the severely retarded) grows and develops in
stages, particularly in stages which focus on sexual development

(2) in some cases, and for a variety of specific reasons, abnormalities occur than create
conflict within a person‘s developing personality, usually at an early age
(preadolescence);

(3) these conflicts arise generally from the interplay between instinctual drives and
societal restraints:

(4) the conflicts, and the specific reasons fro their development, become painful to the
individual‘s awareness and are pushed into the realm of the unconscious; and

(5) attempts to handle the painful conflicts are developed within the personality in the
form of defense mechanisms, and these mechanisms can lead to abnormal personality
patterns, of which delinquency is one behavioural manifestation. (Shoemaker 2005)

Freudian psychoanalysis approach seeks to explain behaviour using three personality

components, called ` the unconscious / instinctual parts of humankind, particularly in the
battle between the id, ego and superego. Deviance is result of unconscious desires and
drives being manifested in behaviour. The aim of psychoanalysis is to identify
unconscious, precipitating factors and then develop conscious methods for dealing with
them. Psychoanalysis seeks to discover deviant behaviour by bringing unconscious
conflict between Id, Ego and Superego. Psychoanalysis propagates that delinquent
behaviour is a result of underlying conflicts (often unconscious) and emotional stress; if
not treated or worked upon would become progressively worse.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder:

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder is one of the most common mental
disorders affecting children. Grade schools usually experience attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder, which is
characterized by:

(1)Short attention Span,

(2) Daydreaming,
(3) Sluggish
(4)Preoccupation,
(5) Impulsiveness.
- Immaturity and hyperactivity cause Juvenile Delinquency

FRUSTRATION-AGGRESSION THEORY
Is a theory stating that People who are frustrated will act aggressively, and people who
engage in aggression are frustrated first.

QUESTION: What do you mean by frustration?

Frustration can be defined in several ways, to wit:

- Frustration is a behavior directed at anticipated goals or expectations or a person

must have expecting the attainment of a goal or achievement in order to be
frustrated.
- Frustration develops when a person experiences the blocking of some goal. It
involves hopes and unfulfilled expectations; it is not a feeling or emotion but a
failure of objectives or goals.

Aggression is defined as a behavior whose goal is to inflict damage or injury on

some object or person and it may be:

- Overt (Physical or verbal)

- Covert (Unobservable)
The Sociological Theories

Strain theory
The strain theory proposes that Delinquency occurs when people are unable to
fulfil their aims through legal means. In such instances, people may turn to illegal
means of achieving their goals or lash out in rage at the source of their
dissatisfaction. (Ireland, 2012) This is an appealing idea, and it is not surprising
that strain theory has had a significant impact on delinquency research and
public policy (Liska,b). All strain theories acknowledge that only a minority of
strained individuals turn to crime. Emile Durkheim developed the first modern
strain theory of crime and deviance.

Social learning theory

This theory is based on the idea that we learn from our interactions with
others in
a social context. (Nabavi, 2016) Social learning theory posits that people learn
from one another through
 Observation
 Imitation, and
 Modeling. (Nabavi, 2016)
People assimilate and mimic other people's behavior after witnessing it, especially
if their observational experiences are favorable or include rewards related to the
observed conduct. 2016 (Nabavi) Imitation, according to Bandura, entails the
realistic replication of observed motor movements. (Bandura 1977). Bandura's
Imitation and behavior are the second and third stages of social learning,
respectively. If a person observes favorable, desired outcomes in the first step,
Modeling will ensue. (Nabavi, 2016) Social learning theory is of great importance
in understanding Juvenile Delinquency. Children observe their parents, older
siblings, relatives, and neighbors and imitate their behaviors towards certain
situations. If they are rewarded for their Observation and Imitation, their behavior
shows drastic changes according to the external environment.

Differential Association theory

Sutherland's differential association theory has broadly explained all kinds of

criminal activity, from juvenile Delinquency to white-collar crime. (Forsyth &
Copes, 2014). Sutherland's theory doesn't account for why an individual becomes
a criminal but how it happens. (Forsyth & Copes, 2014)(Forsyth & Copes, 2014).
With nine statements, he summed up the ideas of differential association theory:
 Every criminal act is learned.
 Criminal behavior is acquired through contact with others and a
communication process.
 The majority of criminal behavior is learned in close personal groups and
connections.
 Learning criminal behavior may entail learning strategies for acting and the
motivations and rationalizations that would justify illegal behavior, and the
attitudes required to orient an individual towards such behavior. The
direction of motives and drives towards criminal behavior is learned by
interpreting legal codes in one's geographical area as favorable or
unfavorable.
 An individual will choose to become a criminal when the number of
favorable interpretations that support breaking the law outnumbers the
unfavorable interpretations that do not.
 Differential relationships are not all created equal. They can differ in
frequency, intensity, priority, and duration, for example.
 The same techniques used to learn about any other behavior are utilized to
learn about criminal behaviors through encounters with others.
 While illegal behavior may represent broad needs and values, it does not
explain the behavior because non-criminal behavior communicates the
same conditions and values. (Forsyth & Copes, 2014)

Differential association is a social psychological theory that attempts to

explain
how someone becomes a criminal. The hypothesis states that when the definitions
that encourage breaking the law outnumber those that do not, an individual will
participate in criminal activity. Specific definitions in support of breaking the law
could be used.

Sub-Cultural Theory

At its base, the subcultural theory argues for a direct connection between group
membership and personal identity. (Stearn, 2012). The significant points of
contention within subcultural theory can be grouped into three areas.

First, there is a debate about whether subcultural membership represents a loose or tight
connection to the adolescent's identity. Those theorists who believe in loosely
structured subcultural identities (e.g., Hagan 1991; Matza 1964; Muggleton 2000;
Thornton 1995; etc.) suggest that adolescents drift between several subcultures at
various points in time and that membership status is situationally dependent.
(Stearn, 2012).

The second significant area of contention among subcultural

theories concerns Delinquency. In the past few decades, the concept of adolescent
subcultures has moved into the realm of sociology. This had led to fascinating
studies of group dynamics and the position of adolescents within society (
Hebdige 1984; Jenks 2004; Maffesoli 1996; Muggleton 2000; Thornton 1995; and
Ueno 2003). (Stearn, 2012).

The third significant point of contention within the

subcultural theory concerns the role of social class in developing subcultural
identities. Some theorists (e.g., Cloward & Ohlin 1960; Cohen 1955; Miller 1958;
Whyte 1955; etc.) believe that subcultures are a unique phenomenon within the
lower- and working-class, while others (e.g., Muggleton 2000; Redhead 1990;
Thornton 1995; etc.) argue that subcultures are a classless social phenomenon.
(Stearn, 2012).

Differential reinforcement

Is a technique that is used to increase desirable behaviors and reduce undesirable

behaviors. There are two main characteristics of differential reinforcement, which include
reinforcing the desirable behavior and withholding reinforcement of the undesirable
behavior. Differential reinforcement is often used with children; however, it can be used
with people of all ages and in various situations. This technique may be used by parents,
teachers, therapists, and even employers.

Differential reinforcement is often used to reduce difficult behaviors, such as disruptive

behavior, hyperactivity, aggression, self-injurious behaviors, pica, and thumb sucking.
Before employing differential reinforcement, it is important to consider various factors,
such as the severity of the undesirable behavior, the availability of the reinforcement,
and the skill level of the person implementing the reinforcement.

Drift theory

Drift (Matza, 1964) and neutralization (Sykes & Matza, 1957) have contributed
significantly to the criminology and sociology of deviance. Not only are these concepts
capable of explaining poorly understood criminological phenomena like crime desistance
and the role of cognition in delinquency, they have also been applied to a wider range of
criminal, antisocial, and unethical behavior than most criminological theories—from
white collar crime in the banking industry (Leasure, 2017), to infringements on wildlife
protection laws (Eliason, 2003); to unethical behavior in sales (Munoz & Mallin, 2019), to
spray painting graffiti onto public buildings (Vasquez & Vieraitis, 2016). As a theory,
however, parts of the drift/neutralization model are lacking and in need of further
clarification and elaboration.

Two assumptions in particular continue to be tacitly accepted by many in the field of

criminology even though these assumptions have never been adequately tested or fully
verified.

The first assumption is that most delinquents are committed to the

conventional social order and thus feel guilty when they violate societal rules.

The second assumption holds that these lower-rate or drifting delinquents use
techniques of neutralization to relieve or deflect feelings of guilt resulting
from their violation of societal rules and that they use these techniques more
often than higher-rate or compulsive delinquents who are less committed to
the conventional social order. The purpose of the current investigation was to
evaluate these two assumptions.