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The document promotes the ebook 'Simple Statistical Methods for Software Engineering Data and Patterns' by C. Ravindranath Pandian, available for download at ebookfinal.com. It also lists several other recommended statistical and software engineering titles with links for downloading. The content includes various statistical methods and metrics relevant to software engineering, along with case studies and exercises.

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Simple Statistical Methods for Software Engineering
Data and Patterns 1st Edition C. Ravindranath Pandian
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Author(s): C. Ravindranath Pandian, Murali Kumar
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SIMPLE
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SIMPLE
STATISTICAL
METHODS FOR
SOFTWARE
ENGINEERING
DATA AND PATTERNS

C. Ravindranath Pandian
Murali Kumar S K

© 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC


MATLAB® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission. The MathWorks does
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Contents

Preface..........................................................................................................xvii
Acknowledgment...........................................................................................xix
Introduction..................................................................................................xxi
Authors....................................................................................................... xxiii

Section I  Data
1 Data, Data Quality, and Descriptive Statistics.......................................3
The Challenge That Persists..........................................................................3
Bringing Data to the Table Requires Motivation..........................................5
Data Quality.................................................................................................5
On Scales.............................................................................................5
Error....................................................................................................6
Data Stratification...............................................................................7
Visual Summary...........................................................................................7
Numerical Descriptive Statistics (Numerical Summary of Data)................10
Special Statistics................................................................................12
Three Categories of Descriptive Statistics...........................................12
Case Study: Interpretation of Effort Variance Descriptive Statistics............12
Application Notes.......................................................................................14
Concluding Remarks..................................................................................14
Review Questions.......................................................................................15
Exercises.....................................................................................................16
Appendix 1.1: Definition of Descriptive Statistics.......................................16
Number of Data Points......................................................................16
Sum...................................................................................................16
Variance.............................................................................................16
Standard Deviation............................................................................16
Maximum..........................................................................................17
Minimum..........................................................................................17
Range................................................................................................17

© 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC


vi ◾ Contents

Mode.................................................................................................17
Median..............................................................................................17
Mean.................................................................................................18
Kurtosis (Flatness of Distribution).....................................................18
Skewness (Skew of Distribution)........................................................18
References...................................................................................................18
Suggested Readings....................................................................................19
2 Truth and Central Tendency.................................................................21
Mean..........................................................................................................21
Uncertainty in Mean: Standard Error................................................22
Median.......................................................................................................23
Mode..........................................................................................................25
Geometric Mean.........................................................................................25
Harmonic Mean.........................................................................................27
Interconnected Estimates............................................................................27
Weighted Mean..........................................................................................28
Robust Means.............................................................................................29
Trimmed Mean.................................................................................29
Winsorized Mean..............................................................................30
Midhinge...........................................................................................30
Midrange...........................................................................................30
Tukey’s Trimean................................................................................30
Mean Derived from Geometrical Perspectives...................................30
Two Categories...........................................................................................30
Category 1.........................................................................................30
Category 2.........................................................................................31
Truth..........................................................................................................31
Application Notes.......................................................................................32
Managing Software Projects Using Central Tendency Values............32
Making Predictions...........................................................................32
Case Study: Shifting the Mean...................................................................33
Review Questions...................................................................................... 34
Exercises.................................................................................................... 34
References.................................................................................................. 34
Suggested Reading..................................................................................... 34
3 Data Dispersion.....................................................................................35
Range-Based Empirical Representation......................................................35
Dispersion as Deviation from Center..........................................................38
Average Deviation..............................................................................39
Average Absolute Deviation...............................................................39
Median Absolute Deviation...............................................................39

© 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC


Contents ◾ vii

Sum of Squares and Variance........................................................... 42


Standard Deviation........................................................................... 44
Skewness and Kurtosis................................................................................45
Pearson’s Skewness.............................................................................45
Bowley’s Skewness.............................................................................45
Third Standardized Moment.............................................................45
Kurtosis............................................................................................ 46
Coefficient of Dispersion............................................................................47
Coefficient of Range..........................................................................47
Coefficient of Quartile Deviation......................................................47
Coefficient of Mean Deviation..........................................................48
Coefficient of MAD..........................................................................48
Coefficient of Standard Deviation.....................................................48
Summary of Coefficients of Dispersion..............................................48
Application Contexts..................................................................................49
In a Nutshell...............................................................................................50
Measures of Dispersion......................................................................50
Nature of Dispersion.........................................................................50
Coefficients of Dispersion..................................................................50
Case Study: Dispersion Analysis of Data Sample........................................51
Review Questions.......................................................................................52
Exercises.....................................................................................................52
Reference....................................................................................................52
Suggested Readings....................................................................................52
4 Tukey’s Box Plot: Exploratory Analysis................................................53
The Structure of the Box Plot......................................................................53
Customer Satisfaction Data Analysis Using the Box Plot............................55
Tailoring the Box Plot.................................................................................57
Applications of Box Plot.............................................................................57
Seeing Process Drift...........................................................................58
Detecting Skew..................................................................................58
Seeing Variation.................................................................................58
Risk Measurement.............................................................................59
Outlier Detection..............................................................................59
Comparison of Processes...................................................................59
Improvement Planning......................................................................59
Core Benefits of Box Plot............................................................................60
Twin Box Plot.............................................................................................61
Holistic Test......................................................................................62
Application Summary: Twin Box Plot........................................................63
Case Study 1: Business Perspectives from CSAT Box Plots........................ 64
CSAT Analysis across SBUs.............................................................. 64

© 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC


viii ◾ Contents

Case Study 2: Process Perspectives from CSAT Box Plots...........................65


CSAT Analysis across Attributes....................................................... 66
Review Questions...................................................................................... 66
Exercises.................................................................................................... 66
References...................................................................................................67

Section II  Metrics


5 Deriving Metrics...................................................................................71
Creating Meaning in Data..........................................................................71
Deriving Metrics as a Key Performance Indicator.......................................71
Estimation and Metrics..............................................................................72
Paradigms for Metrics.................................................................................72
GQM Paradigm..........................................................................................73
Difficulties with Applying GQM to Designing a Metrics System...............74
Need-Driven Metrics..................................................................................75
Meaning of Metrics: Interpreting Metric Data...........................................76
Our Categories of Metrics..........................................................................78
Business Metrics.........................................................................................78
Project Metrics............................................................................................78
Process Metrics...........................................................................................79
Subprocess Metrics.....................................................................................79
Product Metrics..........................................................................................80
Case Study: Power of Definitions................................................................80
Review Questions.......................................................................................82
Exercises.....................................................................................................82
References...................................................................................................82
Suggested Readings....................................................................................83
6 Achieving Excellence in Software Development Using Metrics............85
Examples of Project Metrics........................................................................85
Time to Deliver.................................................................................85
Cost...................................................................................................86
Quality..............................................................................................86
Productivity.......................................................................................86
Time to Repair..................................................................................86
Customer Satisfaction........................................................................86
Requirement Volatility.......................................................................86
Examples of Product Metrics......................................................................86
Requirement Size...............................................................................86
Design Complexity............................................................................87
Code Size...........................................................................................89
Code Complexity............................................................................. 90

© 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC


Contents ◾ ix

Defect Density.................................................................................. 90
Defect Classification..........................................................................91
Reliability..........................................................................................91
Examples of Process Metrics.......................................................................91
Review Effectiveness..........................................................................91
Test Effectiveness...............................................................................91
Test Coverage....................................................................................92
Subprocess Metrics.....................................................................................92
Converting Metrics into Business Information...........................................93
Project Dashboard.............................................................................93
Product Health Report......................................................................95
Statistical Process Control Charts......................................................96
Case Study: Early Size Measurements.........................................................96
Project Progress Using Earned Value Metrics..............................................97
Tracking Progress..............................................................................97
Tracking Project Cost........................................................................98
Review Questions.....................................................................................100
Exercises...................................................................................................101
References.................................................................................................101
Suggested Readings..................................................................................102
7 Maintenance Metrics...........................................................................103
Fusion of Frameworks in Software Maintenance......................................103
Maintainability Index......................................................................105
Change Requests Count..................................................................105
Customer Satisfaction Index............................................................106
Resource Utilization........................................................................107
Service-Level Agreement Compliances............................................107
Percentage of On-Time Delivery......................................................109
Enhancement Size...........................................................................109
Bug Complexity............................................................................... 110
Effort Variance (EV)........................................................................ 111
Schedule Variance (SV)................................................................... 111
Quality............................................................................................ 111
Quality of Enhancement........................................................ 111
Quality of Bug Fix.................................................................. 111
Productivity.....................................................................................112
Time to Repair (TTR)....................................................................112
Backlog Index..................................................................................113
Bug Classification............................................................................113
Fix Quality......................................................................................113
Refactoring Metrics.........................................................................113
Reliability........................................................................................113

© 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC


x ◾ Contents

Metric-Based Dashboards.........................................................................113
Review Questions..................................................................................... 115
Exercises................................................................................................... 115
References................................................................................................. 115
Suggested Readings.................................................................................. 116
8 Software Test Metrics.......................................................................... 117
Project Metrics.......................................................................................... 117
Schedule Variance............................................................................ 117
Effort Variance................................................................................ 117
Cost................................................................................................. 118
Human Productivity........................................................................ 118
Requirement Stability...................................................................... 118
Resource Utilization........................................................................ 118
Customer Satisfaction...................................................................... 119
Test Effectiveness............................................................................. 119
Process Metrics......................................................................................... 119
Defect Removal Efficiency...............................................................120
Test Cases Count.............................................................................120
Test Coverage..................................................................................121
Functionality Coverage..........................................................121
Code Coverage.......................................................................121
Percentage of Bad Fix......................................................................122
Product Metrics........................................................................................122
Defect Counts.................................................................................122
Defect Arrival Rate.................................................................122
Defect Closure Rate...............................................................122
Component Defect Count......................................................123
Component Defect Density.............................................................123
Defect Classification........................................................................124
Testing Size: Test Case Point....................................................................124
Risk Metric...............................................................................................125
Predicting Quality....................................................................................126
Metrics for Test Automation.....................................................................126
Return on Investment......................................................................126
Percentage Automatable...................................................................126
Automation Progress........................................................................127
Case Study: Defect Age Data....................................................................127
Review Questions.....................................................................................128
Exercises...................................................................................................129
References.................................................................................................129
Suggested Readings..................................................................................129

© 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC


Contents ◾ xi

9 Agile Metrics.......................................................................................131
Classic Metrics: Unpopular Science..........................................................132
Two Sides of Classic Metrics.....................................................................133
Metrics for Agile: Humanization..............................................................134
The Price of Humanization.......................................................................134
Common Agile Metrics............................................................................135
Velocity............................................................................................135
Story Point.......................................................................................135
Technical Debt................................................................................136
Tests................................................................................................136
Level of Automation........................................................................136
Earned Business Value (EBV)..........................................................136
Burn-Down Chart...........................................................................136
Burn-Up Chart................................................................................136
Burn Up with Scope Line................................................................137
Adding More Agile Metrics......................................................................139
Case Study: Earned Value Management in the Agile World.....................140
Review Questions..................................................................................... 141
Exercise..................................................................................................... 141
References................................................................................................. 141
Suggested Reading....................................................................................142

Section III  Laws of Probability


10 Pattern Extraction Using Histogram..................................................145
Choosing the Number of Intervals............................................................148
Square Root Formula.......................................................................148
Alternate Approaches.......................................................................148
Exploratory Iterations......................................................................148
Process Signature......................................................................................150
Uniqueness of Histogram Signature.......................................................... 151
Histogram Shapes..................................................................................... 152
Mixture.................................................................................................... 153
Process Capability Histogram................................................................... 153
Histogram as a Judge................................................................................ 155
From One Point to One Histogram..........................................................156
Case Study: Goal Entitlement...................................................................156
Appendix 10.1: Creating a Histogram....................................................... 158
Interpretation............................................................................................ 159
Review Questions.....................................................................................160
Exercises...................................................................................................160
References................................................................................................. 161

© 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC


xii ◾ Contents

11 The Law of Large Numbers.................................................................163


Life Is a Random Variable.........................................................................164
Plots of Probability Distribution......................................................172
Bayes Theorem.......................................................................................... 174
A Clinical Lab Example................................................................... 174
Application of Bayes Theorem in Software Development................. 176
A Comparison of Application of the Four Distributions and Bayes
Theorem....................................................................................................177
Review Questions.....................................................................................178
Exercises...................................................................................................179
References.................................................................................................179
Suggested Reading....................................................................................179
12 Law of Rare Events..............................................................................181
Exponential Distribution..........................................................................182
Poisson Distribution.................................................................................187
A Historic Poisson Analysis: Deaths of Prussian Cavalrymen..........189
Analysis of Module Defects Based on Poisson Distribution.............190
Study of Customer Complaint Arrival Rate Based on Poisson
Distribution.....................................................................................192
Applying Poisson Distribution to Software Maintenance................193
Bathtub Curve of Reliability: A Universal Model of Rare Events..............193
Nonhomogeneous Poisson Process (NHPP).............................................195
Goel–Okumoto (GO-NHPP) Model.......................................................197
Different Applications of Goel–Okumoto (GO) Model............................198
Review Questions.....................................................................................201
Exercises...................................................................................................201
References.................................................................................................202
Suggested Readings..................................................................................202
13 Grand Social Law: The Bell Curve......................................................205
First-Order Approximation of Variation...................................................209
Estimation Error....................................................................................... 211
Viewing Requirement Volatility................................................................212
Risk Measurement....................................................................................213
Combining Normal Probability Density Functions (PDF): The Law of
Quadrature...............................................................................................216
An Inverse Problem................................................................................... 219
Process Capability Indices........................................................................221
z Score Calculation...................................................................................223
Sigma Level: Safety Margin......................................................................225
Statistical Tests.........................................................................................227
Review Questions.................................................................................... 228

© 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC


Contents ◾ xiii

Exercises...................................................................................................229
References.................................................................................................229
Suggested Readings..................................................................................230
14 Law of Compliance: Uniform Distribution.........................................231
Bounded Distribution...............................................................................233
Random Number Generators....................................................................233
Shuttle Time............................................................................................ 234
Parkinson’s Law....................................................................................... 234
Censored Process......................................................................................235
Perfect Departure.....................................................................................235
Estimating Calibration Uncertainty with Minimal Information..............235
Review Questions.....................................................................................237
Exercises...................................................................................................237
References.................................................................................................237
Suggested Readings..................................................................................237
15 Law for Estimation: Triangular Distribution.....................................239
Bell Curve Morphs into a Triangle...........................................................240
Mental Model for Estimation...................................................................241
Mean........................................................................................................242
Median.....................................................................................................243
Other Statistics.........................................................................................245
Skew.........................................................................................................245
Three-Point Schedule Estimation..............................................................247
Beta Option..............................................................................................247
Triangular Risk Estimation......................................................................248
Parameter Extraction................................................................................249
Review Questions.....................................................................................250
Exercises...................................................................................................250
References.................................................................................................250
16 The Law of Life: Pareto Distribution—80/20 Aphorism....................253
Structure of Pareto....................................................................................254
An Example..............................................................................................257
The 80/20 Law: Vital Few and Trivial Many............................................257
Generalized Pareto Distribution.............................................................. 260
Duane’s Model..........................................................................................261
Tailing a Body..........................................................................................261
Review Questions.....................................................................................262
Exercises...................................................................................................262
References.................................................................................................262

© 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC


xiv ◾ Contents

Section IV Tailed Distributions


17 Software Size Growth: Log-Normal Distribution...............................267
Log-Normal Processes..............................................................................267
Building a Log-Normal PDF for Software Design Complexity.................270
Working with a Pictorial Approach...........................................................271
Application of the Log-Normal Model 1.........................................276
Application of the Log-Normal Model 2.........................................277
Features Addition in Software Enhancement............................................277
A Log-Normal PDF for Change Requests.................................................278
From Pareto to Log-Normal.....................................................................279
Some Properties of Log-Normal Distribution...........................................279
Case Study—Analysis of Failure Interval................................................. 280
Review Questions.....................................................................................283
Exercises.................................................................................................. 284
References................................................................................................ 284
18 Gamma Distribution: Making Use of Minimal Data..........................285
Gamma Curves for Clarification Time Data............................................288
Shifting the Gamma PDF.........................................................................290
Generating Clarification Time Scenarios with Gamma PDF Built
from Minimal Data..................................................................................291
Modes..............................................................................................292
Tails.................................................................................................293
Scenario Analysis.............................................................................294
NIST Formula for Gamma Parameter Extraction....................................295
Applying Gamma Distribution to Software Reliability Growth
Modeling..................................................................................................295
Review Questions.....................................................................................297
Exercises...................................................................................................297
References.................................................................................................298
19 Weibull Distribution: A Tool for Engineers........................................299
Weibull Curves.........................................................................................301
Parameter Extraction................................................................................301
Rules of Thumb...............................................................................301
Moments Method............................................................................303
MLE................................................................................................303
Parameters for Machine Availability Modeling................................303
Standard Weibull Curve.......................................................................... 304
Three-Parameter Weibull......................................................................... 306
Software Reliability Studies..................................................................... 308
Putnam’s Rayleigh Curve for Software Reliability.................................... 311
Cost Model............................................................................................... 311

© 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC


Contents ◾ xv

Defect Detection by Reviews....................................................................312


New Trend................................................................................................313
Weibull Model for Defect Prediction—Success Factors............................ 314
Review Questions..................................................................................... 316
Exercises................................................................................................... 316
References................................................................................................. 316
20 Gumbel Distribution for Extreme Values............................................ 319
A Science of Outliers................................................................................. 319
Gumbel Minimum PDF...........................................................................321
Gumbel Parameter Extraction—A Simple Approach................................322
Gumbel Minimum: Analyzing Low CSAT Scores....................................323
Gumbel Maximum: Complexity Analysis................................................324
Minima Maxima Comparisons.................................................................325
Analyzing Extreme Problems....................................................................328
Review Questions.....................................................................................329
Exercises...................................................................................................330
References.................................................................................................330
21 Gompertz Software Reliability Growth Model...................................331
S Curves...................................................................................................331
Modeling Reliability Growth with Gompertzian S Curves.......................332
Building a Reliability Growth Curve........................................................334
Gompertz Software Reliability Growth Model Curves.............................334
Dimitri Shift....................................................................................336
Predicting with the Gompertz Model.......................................................337
More Attempts on Gompertzian Software Reliability Growth Model
(SRGM)....................................................................................................339
Stringfellow and Andrews................................................................339
Zeide.............................................................................................. 340
Swamydoss and Kadhar Nawaz...................................................... 340
Arif et al......................................................................................... 340
Anjum et al. ................................................................................... 340
Bäumer and Seidler......................................................................... 340
Ohishi et al. ................................................................................... 340
How to Implement Gompertz Model in Software Testing........................341
Gompertz Curve versus GO NHPP Model............................................. 344
Review Questions.....................................................................................345
Exercises...................................................................................................345
References.................................................................................................345
Suggested Readings................................................................................. 346
Index............................................................................................................347

© 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC


© 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Preface

This book is a tribute to great Statisticians, scholars, and teachers whose ideas are
quoted throughout this book in various contexts. These pearls of wisdom have
helped us to connect our book with the evolution of science, knowledge and engi-
neering. Eventhough there are many books on statistics, there are few dedicated
to the application of statistical methods to software engineering. Pure textbooks
provide scholarly treatment, whereas practitioners need basic understanding and
application knowledge. Very few statistical books provide application knowledge to
software engineers. We have been working toward bridging this gap for about two
decades and have come out with the current book.
Statistical methods are often discussed in the context of six sigma, Capability
Maturity Model Integrated (CMMI), establishing capability baselines, and con-
structing process performance models. Driven by CMMI auditors, such practices
have become rituals that rely heavily on automated statistical packages, which are
rarely well understood. We have been promoting excel-based solution to statistics
and have presented practical solutions, such as those achieved in this book.

Statistics is the grammar of science.

Karl Pearson

We also realize that sophisticated statistics is not the ideal approach to solve
problems. Simpler techniques provide easy solutions that connect with the intu-
ition of problem solvers. Although sophisticated techniques sound impressive but
merely academic, simpler techniques are flexible and can easily penetrate to the root
of the problem. In this book, we have consciously selected simpler tools. We have
also simplified several standard techniques.
The techniques presented in this book appear to us as a minimum set of intel-
lectual tools for software engineers and managers. True software engineering

xvii

© 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC


xviii ◾ Preface

can happen only when data are collected and these statistical methods are used.
Moreover, the statistical management of processes is possible only when managers
master these techniques.
Learning these techniques in the context of software engineering will certainly
help budding engineers and fresh recruits. The examples provided in this book will
provide a deep insight into software engineering and management.
This book can be used extensively as a guidebook for training software engi-
neers and managers at different levels. It will be a very valuable asset in the hands
of quality professionals who collect data and create models.
This book also exposes practical software engineering problems and solutions to
aspiring engineering graduates and make them industry ready.
Generally, this book is a guide for professionals to think objectively with data.
It will help them to mine data and extract meanings. Some of the techniques pro-
vided in the book are excellent prediction tools, which would give foresight to those
who apply them.

MATLAB® is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. For product informa-


tion, please contact:

The MathWorks, Inc.


3 Apple Hill Drive
Natick, MA 01760-2098 USA
Tel: 508 647 7000
Fax: 508-647-7001
E-mail: [email protected]
Web: www.mathworks.com

© 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC


Acknowledgment

This book would not have become a reality without fruitful feedback from several
software professionals, quality managers, and project managers who have taken
our training and consultancy services. We also acknowledge Software Process
Improvement Network (SPIN) for presenting some of these concepts through vari-
ous SPIN chapters in India in an attempt to propagate these methods. All the SPIN
coordinators we interacted with have provided excellent application suggestions.
We thank those organizations who have shared their metric problems with us
for analysis and resolution. They eventually provided us research opportunities that
helped us gain deeper knowledge. We also thank many research scholars who have
interacted with us and taken our research support in the context of data mining
and artificial neural network.
We thank the professors and correspondents of many colleges in India for help-
ing us interact with students. We also thank Project Management Institute (PMI)
chapters and project management institutes who gave us opportunities to present
quantitative techniques to managers.
Rathna and Samuel helped by offering a wonderful review and criticism of
Chapter 8. Swaminathan contributed to Chapter 21 by reviewing the chapter and
making valuable suggestions. Shanti Harry helped us with references and suggested
readings. We thank all these well wishers.
Finally, we thank Mr. John Wyzalek who provided moral support and editorial
help. He made serious decisions about the scope of this book and helped us make a
tough decision to leave some chapters for the future and focus on the few we have
selected for this publication.

xix

© 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC


© 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
Todos los versos de los amadores
están llenos de dolor, compuestos
con suspiros, borrados con
lágrimas y cantados con agonía.
Allí veréis las sospechas, allí los
temores, allí las desconfianzas,
allí los recelos, allí los cuidados y
allí mil géneros de penas. No se
habla allí sino de muertes,
cadenas, flechas, venenos,
llamas, y otras cosas que no
sirven sino para dar tormento,
cuando se emplean, y temor,
cuando se nombran. Mal estaba
con estos nombres Herbanio,
pastor señalado en la Andalucía,
cuando en la corteza de un
álamo, sirviéndole de pluma un
agudo punzón, delante de mí
escribió este

Soneto.
Quien libre está, no viva
descuidado,
que en un instante puede
estar captivo,
y el corazón helado y más
esquivo
tema de estar en llamas
abrasado.
Con la alma del soberbio y
elevado
tan áspero es Amor y
vengativo,
que quien sin él presume de
estar vivo,
por él con muerte queda
atormentado.
Amor, que á ser captivo me
condenas,
Amor que enciendes fuegos
tan mortales,
tú que mi vida afliges y
maltratas:
Maldigo dende agora tus
cadenas,
tus llamas y tus flechas, con
las cuales
me prendes, me consumes
y me matas.

Pues venga agora al soneto de tu


Syreno á darme á entender que la
imaginación de las hazañas del
Amor basta á vencer la furia del
tormento: porque si las hazañas
son matar, herir, cegar, abrasar,
consumir, captivar y atormentar,
no me hará creer que imaginar
cosas de pena alivie la fatiga,
antes ha de dar mayores fuerzas
á la passión, para que siendo más
imaginada, dure más en el
corazón, y con mayor aspereza le
atormente. Y si es verdad lo que
cantó Syreno, mucho me
maravillo que él, recibiendo,
según dice, en este pensamiento
tan aventajado gusto, tan
fácilmente le haya trocado con tan
cruel olvido como agora tiene, no
sólo de las hazañas de Cupido,
pero de tu hermosura, que no
debiera por cosa del mundo ser
olvidada.
Apenas había dicho Alcida de su
razón las últimas palabras, que
Diana, alzando los ojos, porque
estaba con algún recelo, vió de
lejos á su esposo Delio, que
bajaba por la halda de un
montecillo, encaminándose para
la fuente de los alisos, donde
ellas estaban. Y ansi, atajando las
razones de Alcida, le dijo: No
más, no más, pastora, que tiempo
habrá después para escuchar lo
restante y para responder á tus
flojos y aparentes argumentos.
Cata allá que mi esposo Delio
desciende por aquel collado, y se
viene para nosotras; menester
será que, por dissimular lo que
aquí se trataba, al son de
nuestros instrumentos
comencemos á cantar, porque
cuando llegue se contente de
nuestro ejercicio. Y ansí, tomando
Alcida su cítara y Diana su
zampoña, cantaron desta manera:

Rimas provenzales.

ALCIDA
Mientras el sol sus rayos muy
ardientes
con tal furia y rigor al mundo
envía,
que de Nymphas la casta
compañía
por los sombríos mora y por
las fuentes.
Y la cigarra el canto
replicando,
se está quejando,
pastora canta,
con gracia tanta,
que enternescido
de haberte oído,
el poderoso cielo de su
grado
fresco licor envíe al seco
prado.

DIANA
Mientras está el mayor de los
planetas
en medio del oriente y del
ocaso,
y al labrador en descubierto
raso
más rigurosas tira sus
saetas.
Al dulce murmurar de la
corriente
de aquesta fuente,
mueve tal canto,
que cause espanto,
y de contentos
los bravos vientos,
el ímpetu furioso
refrenando,
vengan con manso espíritu
soplando.
ALCIDA
Corrientes aguas, puras,
cristalinas,
que haciendo todo el año
primavera,
hermoseáis la próspera
ribera
con lirios y trepadas
clavellinas,
el bravo ardor de Phebo no
escaliente
tan fresca fuente,
ni de ganado
sea enturbiado
licor tan claro,
sabroso y raro,
ni del amante triste el lloro
infame
sobre tan lindas aguas se
derrame.

DIANA
Verde y florido prado, en do
natura
mostró la variedad de sus
colores
con los matices de árboles y
flores,
que hacen en ti
hermosíssima pintura.
En ti los verdes ramos sean
essentos
de bravos vientos;
medres, crezcas
en hierbas frescas,
nunca abrasadas
con las heladas,
ni dañe á tan hermoso y
fértil suelo
el gran furor del iracundo
cielo.

ALCIDA
Aquí de los bullicios y
tempesta
de las soberbias cortes
apartados,
los corazones viven
reposados,
en sosegada paz y alegre
fiesta,
á veces recostados al
sombrío
á par del río,
do dan las aves
cantos suaves,
las tiernas flores
finos olores,
y siempre con un orden
soberano
se ríe el prado, el bosque, el
monte, el llano.

DIANA
Aquí el ruido que hace el
manso viento,
en los floridos ramos
sacudiendo,
deleita más que el popular
estruendo
de un numeroso y grande
ayuntamiento,
adonde las superbas
majestades
son vanidades:
las grandes fiestas,
grandes tempestas;
los pundonores,
ciegos errores,
y es el hablar contrario y
diferente
de lo que el corazón y el
alma siente.

ALCIDA
No tiende aquí ambición lazos
y redes,
ni la avaricia va tras los
ducados,
no aspira aquí la gente á los
estados,
ni hambrea las privanzas y
mercedes:
libres están de trampas y
passiones
los corazones;
todo es llaneza,
bondad, simpleza,
poca malicia,
cierta justicia;
y hacer vivir la gente en
alegría
concorde paz y honesta
medianía.
DIANA
No va por nuevo mundo y
nuevos mares
el simple pastorcillo
navegando,
ni en apartadas Indias va
contando
de leguas y monedas mil
millares.
El pobre tan contento al
campo viene
con lo que tiene,
como el que cuenta
sobrada renta,
y en vida escasa
alegre passa,
como el que en montes ha
gruesas manadas,
y ara de fértil campo mil
yugadas.

Sintió de lejos Delio la voz de su


esposa Diana, y como oyó que
otra voz lo respondía, tuvo mucho
cuidado de llegar presto, por ver
quién estaba en compañía de
Diana. Y ansi, corca de la fuente,
puesto detrás un grande arrayán,
escuchó lo que cantaban,
buscando adrede ocasiones para
sus acostumbrados celos. Mas
cuando entendió que las
canciones eran diferentes de lo
que él con su sospecha presumía,
estuvo muy contento. Pero
todavía la ansia que tenía de
conoscer la que estaba con su
esposa le hizo que llegasse á las
pastoras, de las cuales fué
cortésmente saludado, y de su
esposa con un angélico
semblante recebido. Y sentado
cabe ellas, Alcida le dijo: Delio,
en gran cargo soy á la fortuna,
pues no sólo me hizo ver la
belleza de Diana, mas conoscer
al que ella tuvo por merescedor
de tanto bien, y al que entregó la
libertad: que según es ella sabia,
se ha de tener por extremado lo
que escoge. Mas espántome de
ver que tengas tan poca cuenta
con la mucha que contigo tuvo
Diana en elegirte por marido, que
sufras que vaya tan sólo un passo
sin tu compañía, y dejes que un
solo momento se aparte de tus
ojos. Bien sé que ella mora
siempre en tu corazón; mas el
amor que tú le debes á Diana no
ha de ser tan poco que te
contentes con tener en el alma su
figura, pudiendo también tener
ante los ojos su gentileza.
Entonces Diana, porque Delio
respondiendo no se pusiesse en
peligro de publicar el poco aviso y
cordura que tenía, tomó la mano
por él y dijo: No tiene Delio razón
de estar tan contento de tenerme
por esposa, como tú muestras
estar por haberme conoscido, ni
de tenerme tan presente que se
olvide de sus granjas y ganados,
pues importan más que el deleite
que de ver la belleza que
falsamente me atribuyes se
pudiera tomar. Dijo entonces
Alcida: No perjudiques, Diana,
tan adrede á tu gentileza, ni
hagas tan grande agravio al
parescer que el mundo tiene de ti,
qué no paresce mal en una
hermosa el estimarse, ni le da el
nombre de altiva moderadamente
conoscerse. Y tú, Delio, tente por
el más dichoso del mundo, y goza
bien el favor que la Fortuna te
hizo, pues ni dió ni tiene que dar
cosa que iguale con ser esposo
de Diana. Atentamente escuchó
Delio las palabras de Alcida, y
en tanto que habló, la estuvo
siempre mirando, tanto que á la
fin de sus dulces y avisadas
razones se halló tan preso de sus
amores, que de atónito y
pasmado no tuvo palabras con
qué respondelle, sino que con un
ardiente suspiro dió señal de la
nueva herida que Cupido había
hecho en sus entrañas. A este
tiempo sintieron una voz, cuya
suavidad los deleitó
maravillosamente. Paráronse
atentos á escuchalla, y volviendo
los ojos hacia donde resonaba,
vieron un pastor que muy fatigado
venía hacia la fuente á guisa de
congojado caminante, cantando
desta manera:

Soneto.
No puede darme Amor mayor
tormento,
ni la Fortuna hacer mayor
mudanza;
no hay alma con tan poca
confianza,
ni corazón en penas tan
contento.
Hácelo Amor, que esfuerza el
flaco aliento,
porque baste á sufrir mi
malandanza,
y no deja morir con la
esperanza
la vida, la aflicción ni el
sufrimiento.
¡Ay, vano corazón! ¡Ay, ojos
tristes!
¿por qué en tan largo
tiempo y tanta pena
nunca se acaba el llanto ni
la vida?
¡Ay, lástimas! ¿no os basta lo
que hecistes?
Amor ¿por qué no aflojas mi
cadena,
si en tanta libertad dejaste
Alcida?.

Apenas acabó Alcida de oir la


canción del pastor, que
conosciendo quién era, toda
temblando, con grande priessa se
levantó, antes que él llegasse,
rogándoles á Delio y Diana que
no dijessen que ella había estado
allí, porque le importaba la vida
no ser hallada ni conoscida por
aquel pastor, que como la misma
muerte aborrescía. Ellos le
ofrescieron hacello ansi,
pesándoles en extremo de su
presta y no pensada partida.
Alcida, á más andar, metiéndose
por un bosque muy espesso que
junto á la fuente estaba, caminó
con tanta presteza y recelo como
si de una cruel y hambrienta tigre
fuera perseguida. Poco después
llegó el pastor tan cansado y
afligido, que pareció la Fortuna,
doliéndose dél, habelle ofrescido
aquella clara fuente y la compañía
de Diana para algún alivio de su
pena. Porque como en tan
calorosa siesta, tras el cansancio
del fatigoso camino, vido la
amenidad del lugar, el sombrío de
los árboles, la verdura de las
hierbas, la lindeza de la fuente y
la hermosura de Diana, le
paresció reposar un rato aunque
la importancia de lo que buscaba
y el deseo con que tras ello se
perdía no daban lugar á descanso
ni entretenimiento. Diana
entonces le hizo las gracias y
cortesías que conforme á los
celos de Delio, que presente
estaba, se podían hacer, y tuvo
grande cuenta con el extranjero
pastor, assí porque en su manera
le paresció tener merescimiento,
como porque le vido lastimado del
mal que ella tenía. El pastor hizo
grande caso de los favores de
Diana, teniéndose por muy
dichoso de haber hallado tan
buena aventura. Estando en esto,
mirando Diana en torno de sí, no
vió á su esposo Delio, porque
enamorado, como dijimos, de
Alcida, en tanto que Diana estaba
descuidada, empleándose en
acariciar el nuevo pastor, se fué
tras la fugitiva pastora,
metiéndose por el mesmo camino
con intención determinada de
seguilla, aunque fuesse á la otra
parte del mundo. Atónita quedó
Diana de ver que faltasse tan
improvisamente su esposo, y assi
dió muchas voces repitiendo el
nombre de Delio. Mas no
aprovechó para que él desde el
bosque respondiesse, ni dejasse
de proseguir su camino, sino que
con grandíssima priessa
caminando, entendía en alcanzar
la amada Alcida. De manera que
Diana, viendo que Delio no
parescía, mostró estar muy
afligida por ello, haciendo tales
sentimientos, que el pastor por
consolarla le dijo: No te vea yo,
hermosa pastora, tan sin razón
afligida, ni des crédito á tu
sospecha en tan gran perjuicio de
tu descanso. Porque el pastor que
tú buscas no ha tanto que falta
que debas tenerte por
desamparada. Sosiégate un poco,
que podrá ser que estando tú
divertida, convidado del sombrío
de los amenos alisos y de la
frescura del viento, que los está
blandamente meneando, haya
querido mudar asiento, sin que
nosotros lo viéssemos, porque
temía quizá no le
contradijéssemos; ó por ventura
le ha tanto pesado de mi venida, y
tuviera por tan enojosa mi
compañía, que ha escogido otro
lugar donde sin ella pueda pasar
alegremente la siesta.
A esto respondió Diana: Gracioso
pastor, para conoscer el mal que
maltrata tu vida, basta oir las
palabras que publica tu lengua.
Bien muestras estar del Amor
atormentado, y vezado á engañar
las amorosas sospechas con
vanas imaginaciones. Porque
costumbre es de los amadores
dar á entender á sus
pensamientos cosas falsas é
impossibles, para hacer que no
dén crédito á las ciertas y
verdaderas. Semejantes
consuelos, pastor, aprovechan
más para señalar en ti el pesar de
mi congoja que para remediar mi
pena. Porque yo sé muy bien que
mi esposo Delio va siguiendo una
hermosíssima pastora, que de
aquí se partió, y según la afición
con que estando aquí la miraba y
los suspiros que del alma le
salían, yo que sé cuán
determinadamente suele
emprender cuanto le passa por el
pensamiento, tengo por cierto que
no dejará de seguir la pastora,
aunque piense en toda su vida no
volver ante mis ojos. Y lo que más
me atormenta es conoscer la dura
y desamorada condición de
aquella pastora, porque tiene un
alma tan enemiga del amor, que
desprecia la más extremada
beldad y no hace caso del valor
más aventajado. Al triste pastor
en este punto paresció que una
mortal saeta le travesó el
corazón, y dijo: ¡Ay de mí,
desdichado amante! ¿con cuánta
más razón se han de doler de mí
las almas que no fueren de
piedra, pues por el mundo busco
la más cruel, la más áspera y
despiadada doncella que se
puede hallar? Duélete de veras,
pastora, de tu esposo, que si la
que él busca tiene tal condición
como ésta, corre gran peligro su
vida de perderse. Oyendo Diana
estas palabras, acabó de
conoscer su mal, y vió claramente
que la pastora, que en ver este
pastor tan prestamente huyó, era
la que él por todas las partes del
mundo había buscado. Y era
ansí, porque ella huyendo dél, por
no ser descubierta ni conoscida,
había tomado hábito de pastora.
Mas dissimuló por entonces con
el pastor, y no quiso decille nada
de esto, por cumplir con la
palabra que á Alcida había dado
al tiempo de partirse. Y también
porque vió que ella gran rato
había que era partida, corriendo
con tanta presteza por aquel
bosque espessíssimo, que fuera
impossible alcanzalla. Y publicar
al pastor esto, no sirviera para
más de dalle mayor pena. Porque
aquello fatiga más, cuando no se
alcanza, que dió alguna
esperanza de ser habido. Pero
como Diana deseasse
conoscellos y saber la causa de
los amores dél y del
aborrescimiento della, le dijo:
Consuela, pastor, tu llanto, y
cuéntame la causa dél; que por
alivio desta congoja holgaré de
saber quién eres y oir el processo
de tus males; porque por la
conmemoración dellos te ha de
ser agradable, si eres verdadero
amante, como creo. El entonces
no se hizo mucho de rogar, antes,
sentándose entrambos junto á la
fuente, habló de esta manera:
No es mi mal de tal calidad que á
toda suerte de gentes se pueda
contar; mas la opinión que tengo
de tu merescimiento y el valor que
tu hermosura me publica me
fuerzan á contarte abiertamente
mi vida, si vida se puede llamar la
que de grado trocaría con la
muerte.
Sabe, pastora, que mi nombre es
Marcelio, y mi estado muy
diferente de lo que mi hábito
señala. Porque fuí nascido en la
ciudad Soldina, principal en la
provincia Vandalia, de padres
esclarecidos en linaje y
abundantes de riquezas. En mi
tierna edad fuí llevado á la corte
del rey de lusitanos, y allí criado y
querido, no sólo de los señores
principales della, mas aun del
mismo rey, tanto que nunca
consintió que me partiesse de su
corte, hasta que me encargó la
gente de guerra que tenía en la
costa de Africa. Allí estuve mucho
tiempo capitán de las villas y
fortalezas que él tiene en aquella
costa, teniendo mi proprio
assiento en la villa de Ceuta,
donde fué el principio de mi
desventura. Allí, por mi mal, había
un noble y señalado caballero,
nombrado Eugerio, que tenía
cargo por el rey del gobierno de la
villa, al cual Dios, allende de dalle
nobleza y bienes de fortuna, le
hizo merced de un hijo nombrado
Polydoro, valeroso en todo
extremo, y dos hijas llamadas
Alcida y Clenarda, aventajadas en
hermosura. Clenarda en tirar arco
era diestríssima, pero Alcida, que
era la mayor, en belleza la
sobrepujaba. Esta de tal manera
enamoró mi corazón, que ha
podido causarme la desesperada
vida que passo y la cruda muerte
que cada día llamo y espero. Su
padre tenía tanta cuenta con ella,
que pocas veces consentía que
se partiesse delante sus ojos. Y
esto impedía que yo no le
pudiesse hacer saber lo mucho
que la quería. Sino que las veces
que tenía ventura de vella, con un
mirar apassionado y suspiros que
salían de mi pecho sin licencia de
mi voluntad, le publicaba mi pena.
Tuve manera de escrebille una
carta, y no perdiendo la ocasión
que me concedió la fortuna, le
hice una letra que decía ansí:

CARTA DE MARCELIO PARA


ALCIDA
La honesta majestad y el
grave tiento,
modestia vergonzosa, y la
cordura,
el sossegado y gran
recogimiento,
Y otras virtudes mil, que la
hermosura,
que en todo el mundo os da
nombre famoso,
encumbran á la más
suprema altura,
En passo tan estrecho y
peligroso
mi corazón han puesto,
hermosa Alcida,
que en nada puedo hallar
cierto reposo.
Lo mesmo que á quereros me
convida,
el alma ansí refrena, que
quisiera
callar, aunque es á costa de
la vida.
¿Cuál hombre duro vido la
manera
conque mirando echáis
rayos ardientes,
que no enmudezca allí y
callando muera?
¿Quién las bellezas raras y
excelentes
vido de más quilate y mayor
cuenta
que todas las passadas y
presentes,
Que en la alma un nuevo amor
luego no sienta,
tal que la causa dél le
atierre tanto
que solamente hablar no le
consienta?
Tanto callando sufro, que me
espanto
que no esté de congoja el
pecho abierto
y el corazón deshecho en
triste llanto.
Esme impossible el gozo, el
dolor cierto,
la pena firme, vana la
esperanza:
vivo sin bien, y el mal me
tiene muerto.
En mí mesmo de mí tomo
venganza,
y lo que más deseo, menos
viene,
y aquello que más huyo,
más me alcanza.
Aguardo lo que menos me
conviene,
y no admito consuelo á mi
tristura,
gozando del dolor que el
alma tiene.
Mi vida y mi deleite tanto dura
cuanto dura el pensar la
gran distancia
que hay de mí á tal gracia y
hermosura.
Porque concibo en la alma
una arrogancia
de ver que en tal lugar supe
emplealla,
que el corazón esfuerzo y
doy constancia.
Pero contra mí mueve tal
batalla
vuestro gentil y angélico
semblante,
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