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 Research Methods for Business Students

F01 Research Methods for Business Students 02727.indd 1 06/01/2023 12:55

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F01 Research Methods for Business Students 02727.indd 2 06/01/2023 12:55

 RESEARCH METHODS
FOR BUSINESS STUDENTS
NINTH EDITION

MARK N.K. SAUNDERS

PHILIP LEWIS • ADRIAN THORNHILL

Harlow, England • London • New York • Boston • San Francisco • Toronto • Sydney • Dubai • Singapore • Hong Kong
Tokyo • Seoul • Taipei • New Delhi • Cape Town • São Paulo • Mexico City • Madrid • Amsterdam • Munich • Paris • Milan

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 PEARSON EDUCATION LIMITED
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United Kingdom
Tel: +44 (0)1279 623623
Web: www.pearson.com

First published under the Pitman Publishing imprint in 1997

Then published 2000, 2003, 2007, 20009, 2012 (print), 2016, 2019 (print and electronic)
Ninth edition published 2023 (print and electronic)
© Pearson Professional Limited 1997
© Pearson Education Limited 2000, 2003, 2007, 2009, 2012, 2016
© Mark N.K. Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 2019
© Mark N.K. Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 2023
The rights of Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill to be identified as authors of
this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents
Act 1988.
The print publication is protected by copyright. Prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a
retrieval system, distribution or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
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does the use of such trademarks imply any affiliation with or endorsement of this book by such owners.
Pearson Education is not responsible for the content of third-party internet sites.

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i d re i i c pe r er

ISBN: 978-1-292-40272-7 (print)

978-1-292-40273-4 (PDF)
978-1-292-40274-1 (ePub)
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for the print edition is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Saunders, M. N. K., author. | Lewis, Philip, 1945- author |
Thornhill, Adrian, author
i le e e rc e d rb i e de r der ilip
Lewis, Adrian Thornhill.
Description: Ninth edition. | Harlow, England ; New York : Pearson, 2023.
| Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022042532 (print) | LCCN 2022042533 (ebook) | ISBN
9781292402727 (paperback) | ISBN 9781292402734 (pdf) | ISBN
9781292402741 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Business—Research. | Business—Research—Data processing.
Classification: LCC HD30.4 .S28 2023 (print) | LCC HD30.4 (ebook) | DDC
dc e
rec rd il ble p lcc l c
eb rec rd il ble p lcc l c
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
27 26 25 24 23
Cover design: Michelle Morgan
Cover image: © 2022 Mark N.K. Saunders, Île de Stuhan, La Trinité-sur-Mer, Brittany, France
ri edi i ype e i li b c d by r i e
Printed in Slovakia by Neografia
NOTE THAT ANY PAGE CROSS REFERENCES REFER TO THE PRINT EDITION

F01 Research Methods for Business Students 02727.indd 4 06/01/2023 12:55

 Brief contents

How to use this book xvii

Preface xxiii
Contributors xxv

1 Research, reflective diaries and the purpose of this book 2

2 Generating a research idea and developing your
research proposal 28
3 Critically reviewing the literature 72
4 Understanding research philosophy and approaches to theory
development 128
5 Formulating the research design 176
6 Negotiating access and research ethics 234
7 Selecting samples 288
8 Obtaining and evaluating secondary data 342
9 Collecting primary data using observation 390
10 Collecting primary data using interviews and diaries 440
11 Collecting primary data using questionnaires 506
12 Analysing data quantitatively 572
13 Analysing data qualitatively 650
14 Writing and presenting the project report 718

Bibliography 768
Appendices 786
Glossary 812
Index 839
Publisher’s acknowledgements 852

F01 Research Methods for Business Students 02727.indd 5 06/01/2023 12:55

F01 Research Methods for Business Students 02727.indd 6 06/01/2023 12:55
 Contents

How to use this book xvii

Preface xxiii
Contributors xxv

1 Research, reflective diaries and the

purpose of this book 2
Mark NK Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill
Learning outcomes 2
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 The nature of research 4
1.3 Business and management research 6
1.4 The research process 12
1.5 Keeping a reflective diary or research notebook 14
1.6 The purpose and structure of this book 16
1.7 Summary 20
Self-check questions 21
Review and discussion questions 21
Progressing your research project: Starting your reflective diary
or notebook 22
References 22
Further reading 23
ase reflecti e ournal out researc
Where do I even begin? 25
Emily A Morrison

Self-check answers 27

vii

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 Contents

2 Generating a research idea and developing

your research proposal 28
Mark NK Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill
Learning outcomes 28
2.1 Introduction 28
2.2 Characteristics of good research ideas 30
2.3 Generating research ideas 33
2.4 Refining research ideas 40
2.5 Developing your overarching research question 42
2.6 Writing a research aim and set of research objectives 45
2.7 The importance of theory 48
2.8 The need for a research proposal 55
2.9 Structuring your research proposal 57
2.10 Summary 62
Self-check questions 63
Review and discussion questions 63
Progressing your research project: Choosing a research topic and
developing your research proposal 64
References 64
Further reading 66
Case 2: Keza’s research aim formulation 67
Adina Dudau
Self-check answers 69

3 Critically reviewing the literature 72

Mark NK Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill
Learning outcomes 72
3.1 Introduction 72
3.2 Being ‘critical’ and the purposes and forms of review 75
3.3 The content and structure of a critical review 80
3.4 Literature sources 83
3.5 Planning your literature search 91
3.6 Conducting your literature search 94
3.7 Reading critically and evaluating the literature 105
3.8 Note-taking and referencing 107
3.9 Using systematic review 110
3.10 Drafting the critical review 113
3.11 A note about plagiarism 116
3.12 Summary 117

viii

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 Contents

Self-check questions 118

Review and discussion questions 119
Progressing your research project: Critically reviewing
the literature 120
References 120
Further reading 122
Case 3: Shaping powerful questions when reviewing
the literature 123
Mat Hughes
Self-check answers 126

4 Understanding research philosophy and

approaches to theory development 128
Mark NK Saunders, Philip Lewis, Adrian Thornhill and
Alexandra Bristow
Learning outcomes 128
4.1 Introduction 128
4.2 The philosophical underpinnings of business and management 131
4.3 Research paradigms 140
4.4 Five management philosophies 145
4.5 Approaches to theory development 154
4.6 Summary 161
Self-check questions 163
Review and discussion questions 163
Progressing your research project: Heightening your Awareness
of your Research Philosophy (HARP) 163
References 167
Further reading 170
Case 4: Working out your philosophical assumptions 171
Natasha Mauthner
Self-check answers 174

5 Formulating the research design 176

Mark NK Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill
Learning outcomes 176
5.1 Introduction 176
5.2 Achieving a coherent research design 178
5.3 The research purpose 179
5.4 Methodological choice: choosing a quantitative, qualitative
or mixed methods research design 181

ix

F01 Research Methods for Business Students 02727.indd 9 06/01/2023 12:55

 Contents

5.5 Developing a coherent research strategy 191

5.6 Considering time horizons 212
5.7 Anticipating potential ethical issues 213
5.8 Assessing the quality of research design 214
5.9 Recognishing your role as researcher 220
5.10 Summary 222
Self-check questions 223
Review and discussion questions 224
Progressing your research project: Deciding on your
research design 224
References 225
Further reading 228
Case 5: Internationalizing strategy: Developing small firms
and their local communities via engaged scholarship 229
Fariba Darabi and Jonathan M Scott
Self-check answers 231

6 Negotiating access and research ethics 234

Mark NK Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill
Learning outcomes 234
6.1 Introduction 234
6.2 Characteristics of access 236
6.3 Researcher status 240
6.4 Internet-mediated access 242
6.5 Strategies to gain access 245
6.6 Research ethics and acting ethically 253
6.7 Ethical issues at specific research stages 262
6.8 Data protection principles 274
6.9 Summary 276
Self-check questions 277
Review and discussion questions 278
Progressing your research project: Negotiating access
and addressing ethical issues 278
References 279
Further reading 280
Case 6: Onboarding practices and employee retention 281
Josephine LaPointe
Self-check answers 284

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 Contents

7 Selecting samples 288

Mark NK Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill
Learning outcomes 288
7.1 Introduction 289
7.2 The need to sample 291
7.3 An overview of sampling procedures 293
7.4 Probability sampling – sampling frame 295
7.5 Probability sampling – sample size 297
7.6 Probability sampling – procedures 304
7.7 Probability sampling – representativeness 312
7.8 Non-probability sampling – sample size 313
7.9 Non-probability sampling – procedures 316
7.10 Mixed and multi-stage sampling designs 325
7.11 Summary 327
Self-check questions 328
Review and discussion questions 331
Progressing your research project: Using sampling as part of your
research 332
References 332
Further reading 334
Case 7: Female ride share app drivers’ careers in Tehran 335
Mina Beigi, Shahrzad Nayyeri and Melika Shirmohamma
Self-check answers 337

8 Obtaining and evaluating secondary data 342

Mark NK Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill
Learning outcomes 342
8.1 Introduction 342
8.2 Types of secondary data and uses in research 345
8.3 Advantages of secondary data 358
8.4 Disadvantages of secondary data 360
8.5 Searching for and locating secondary data 364
8.6 Evaluating and selecting secondary data sources 370
8.7 Summary 378
Self-check questions 379
Review and discussion questions 380
Progressing your research project: Assessing utility, selecting and
incorporating secondary data in your research 381
References 381
Further reading 384

xi

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 Contents

Case 8: Investigating refugees’ challenges in setting

up a business 385
Megan Miralles, Marc Stierand and Viktor Dörfler
Self-check answers 387

9 Collecting primary data using

observation 390
Mark NK Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill
Learning outcomes 390
9.1 Introduction 390
9.2 Observation choices 392
9.3 Participant observation 400
9.4 Structured observation 410
9.5 Internet-mediated observation 418
9.6 Recording video 422
9.7 Creating static images 426
9.8 Audio recording 429
9.9 Summary 431
Self-check questions 432
Review and discussion questions 433
Progressing your research project: Deciding on the
appropriateness of observation 433
References 434
Further reading 435
Case 9: Observing leadership and team dynamics
using simulation 436
Trevor Morrow
Self-check answers 438

10 Collecting primary data using interviews

and diaries 440
Mark NK Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill
Learning outcomes 440
10.1 Introduction 440
10.2 Standardisation and structure in questioning 442
10.3 Interview mediums and modes 448
10.4 The potential of semi-structured and in-depth interviews 450
10.5 Data quality issues and evaluating interviewing practice 452

xii

F01 Research Methods for Business Students 02727.indd 12 06/01/2023 12:55

 Contents

10.6 Preparing for semi-structured or in-depth interviewing 459

10.7 Conducting one-to-one face-to-face interviews 465
10.8 Conducting one-to-one online interviews 477
10.9 Conducting one-to-one telephone interviews 479
10.10 Conducting group interviews and focus groups 481
10.11 Conducting visual interviews 485
10.12 Using diaries and diary studies 488
10.13 Summary 494
Self-check questions 494
Review and discussion questions 496
Progressing your research project: Using research interviews and
research diaries 497
References 497
Further reading 500
Case 10: Conducting audio diaries of work-life conflict 501
Catherine Cassell
Self-check answers 503

11 Collecting primary data using

questionnaires 506
Mark NK Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill
Learning outcomes 506
11.1 Introduction 506
11.2 Questionnaires: an overview 509
11.3 Deciding what data need to be collected 514
11.4 Questionnaire validity and reliability 520
11.5 Designing individual questions 523
11.6 Designing the questionnaire 539
11.7 Pilot testing 548
11.8 Distributing the questionnaire 549
11.9 Summary 557
Self-check questions 558
Review and discussion questions 560
Progressing your research project: Using questionnaires
in your research 560
References 561
Further reading 563
Case 11: Assessing the utility of questionnaire scales 564
Sarah Forbes
Self-check answers 566

xiii

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 Contents

12 Analysing data quantitatively 572

Mark NK Saunders, Philip Lewis, Adrian Thornhill
and Catherine Wang
Learning outcomes 572
12.1 Introduction 572
12.2 Data types and precision of measurement 575
12.3 Preparing data for quantitative analysis 579
12.4 Data entry and checking 585
12.5 Exploring and presenting data: an overview 590
12.6 Exploring and presenting individual variables 593
12.7 Exploring and comparing two or more variables 602
12.8 Describing data using statistics 607
12.9 Statistical tests’ assumptions and hypothesis testing 613
12.10 Examining associations and differences 621
12.11 Assessing the strength of relationships 626
12.12 Making predictions 630
12.13 Examining trends 634
12.14 Summary 636
Self-check questions 637
Review and discussion questions 639
Progressing your research project: Analysing your
data quantitatively 640
References 640
Further reading 642
Case 12: High performance work practices in SMEs 643
Maura Sheehan and Mark NK Saunders
Self-check answers 647

13 Analysing data qualitatively 650

Mark NK Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill
Learning outcomes 650
13.1 Introduction 651
13.2 Analysing qualitative data, diversity and interactive
processes 652
13.3 Choosing a qualitative analysis technique 655
13.4 Preparing data for analysis 657
13.5 Aids to help analysis 661
13.6 Thematic Analysis 664
13.7 Template Analysis 675
13.8 Explanation Building and Testing 678

xiv

F01 Research Methods for Business Students 02727.indd 14 06/01/2023 12:55

 Contents

13.9 Grounded Theory Method 682

13.10 Narrative Analysis 687
13.11 Discourse analysis 690
13.12 Visual analysis 694
13.13 Data display and analysis 702
13.14 Using CAQDAS 704
13.15 Summary 707
Self-check questions 708
Review and discussion question 708
Progressing your research project: Analysing your
data qualitatively 709
References 710
Further reading 711
Case 13: What makes a good project tutor? 713
Neve Abgeller
Self-check answers 715

14 Writing and presenting the project report 718

Mark NK Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill
Learning outcomes 718
14.1 Introduction 718
14.2 Undertaking writing 720
14.3 Reporting approaches and report structures: an overview 724
14.4 The traditional (academic) report structure 726
14.5 Alternative (academic) report structures 736
14.6 The consultancy (practitioner) report 743
14.7 Ensuring clarity and accessibility 744
14.8 Developing an appropriate writing style 746
14.9 Meeting the assessment criteria 751
14.10 Writing a reflective essay or section 752
14.11 Presentations 753
14.12 Summary 760
Self-check questions 760
Review and discussion questions 761
Progressing your research project: Writing your project report 761
References 762
Further reading 763
Case 14: Chloe’s poster creation 764
Clare Burns
Self-check answers 767

xv

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 Contents

Bibliography 768

Appendices 786
1 Systems of referencing 786
2 Calculating the minimum sample size 805
3 Guidelines for non-discriminatory language 807

Glossary 812

Index 839

Publisher’s acknowledgements 852

Supporting resources
Visit www.pearsoned.co.uk/saunders to find valuable online resources:

Companion Website for students

• Multiple-choice questions to test your learning
• Tutorials and datasets for Excel and SPSS
• Updated research datasets to practise with
• Updated additional case studies with accompanying questions
• Smarter Online Searching Guide – how to make the most of the Internet
in your research
• Online glossary

For instructors
• Complete, downloadable Instructor’s Manual
• PowerPoint slides that can be downloaded and used for presentations
Also: The regularly maintained Companion Website provides the following
features:

• Search tool to help locate specific items of content

• Email results and profile tools to send results of quizzes to instructors
• Online help and support to assist with website usage and
troubleshooting
For more information please contact your local Pearson Education sales
representative or visit www.pearsoned.co.uk/saunders.

xvi

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 How to use this book

This book is written with a progressive logic, which means that terms and concepts are
defined when they are first introduced. One implication of this is that it is sensible for you
to start at the beginning and to work your way through the text, various boxes, self-check
questions, review and discussion questions, case studies and case study questions. You can
do this in a variety of ways depending on your reasons for using this book. However, this
approach may not be suitable for your purposes, and you may wish to read the chapters
in a different order or just dip into particular sections of the book. If this is true for you
then you will probably need to use the glossary to check that you understand some of the
terms and concepts used in the chapters you read. Suggestions for three of the more com-
mon ways in which you might wish to use this book follow.

As part of a research methods course or for

self-study for your research project
If you are using this book as part of a research methods course the order in which you read
the chapters is likely to be prescribed by your tutors and dependent upon their perceptions
of your needs. Conversely, if you are pursuing a course of self-study for your research pro-
ject, dissertation or consultancy report, the order in which you read the chapters is your
own choice. However, whichever of these you are, we would argue that the order in which
you read the chapters is dependent upon your recent academic experience.
For many students, such as those taking an undergraduate degree in business or man-
agement, the research methods course and associated project, dissertation or consultancy
report comes in either the second or the final year of study. In such situations it is probable
that you will follow the chapter order quite closely (see Figure P.1). Groups of chapters
within which we believe you can switch the order without affecting the logic of the flow
too much are shown on the same level in this diagram and are:
• those associated with obtaining or collecting data (Chapters 8, 9, 10 and 11);
• those associated with data analysis (Chapters 12 and 13).
Within the book we emphasise the importance of beginning to write early on in the
research process as a way of clarifying your thoughts. In Chapter 1 we encourage you to
keep a reflective diary, notebook or journal throughout the research process so it is helpful
to read this chapter early on. We recommend you also read the sections in Chapter 14 on
writing prior to starting to draft your critical review of the literature (Chapter 3).
Alternatively, you may be returning to academic study after a gap of some years, to
take a full-time or part-time course such as a Master of Business Administration, a Master
of Arts or a Master of Science with a Business and Management focus. Many students in
such situations need to refresh their study skills early in their programme, particularly

xvii

F01 Research Methods for Business Students 02727.indd 17 06/01/2023 12:55

 How to use this book

Chapter 1:
e e rc re ec i e di rie

Chapter 14: Writing and presenting

your project report

Chapter 2: Generating a research

idea and developing the proposal

Chapter 3:
Critically reviewing the literature

Chapter 4: Understanding research

philosophy and approaches to theory

Chapter 5:
Formulating the research design

Chapter 6: Negotiating
access and research ethics

Chapter 7:
Selecting samples

Chapter 8: Chapter 9: Chapter 10: Chapter 11:

Obtaining and Collecting primary Collecting primary Collecting primary
evaluating secondary data through data using interviews data using
data observation and diaries questionnaires

Chapter 12: Analysing Chapter 13: Analysing

data quantitatively data qualitatively

Chapter 14: Writing

and presenting
your project report

Figure P.1 Using this book for your research methods course and associated project

xviii

F01 Research Methods for Business Students 02727.indd 18 06/01/2023 12:55

 How to use this book

those associated with critical reading of academic literature and academic writing. If you
feel the need to do this, you may wish to start with those chapters that support you in
developing and refining these skills (Chapters 3 and 14), followed by Chapter 8, which
introduces you to the range of secondary data sources available that might be of use for
other assignments (Figure P.2). Once again, groups of chapters within which we believe

Chapter 1:
e e rc re ec i e di rie

Chapter 14: Writing

and presenting your project report

Chapter 3: Critically
reviewing the literature

Chapter 8: Obtaining and

evaluating secondary data

Chapter 2: Generating a research

idea and developing the proposal

Chapter 4: Understanding research

philosophy and approaches to theory

Chapter 5:
Formulating the research design

Chapter 6: Negotiating access

and research ethics

Chapter 7:
Selecting samples

Chapter 9: Collecting Chapter 10: Collecting Chapter 11: Collecting

primary data through primary data using primary data using
observation interviews and diaries questionnaires

Chapter 12: Analysing Chapter 13: Analysing

data quantitatively data qualitatively

Chapter 14: Writing

and presenting
your project report

Figure P.2 Using this book as a returner to academic study

xix

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 How to use this book

you can switch the order without affecting the logic of the flow too much are shown on
the same level in the diagram and are:
• those chapters associated with primary data collection (Chapters 9, 10 and 11);
• those associated with data analysis (Chapters 12 and 13).
In addition, we would recommend that you re-read Chapter 14 prior to starting to
write your project report, dissertation or consultancy report, or if you need to undertake
a presentation.
In whichever order you choose to read the chapters, we would recommend that you
attempt all the self-check questions, review and discussion questions and those questions
associated with the case studies. Your answers to the self-check questions can be self-
assessed using the answers at the end of each chapter. However, we hope that you will
actually attempt each question prior to reading the answer! If you need further information
on an idea or a technique, then first look at the references in the further reading section.
At the end of each chapter, the section headed ‘Progressing your research project’ lists
a number of tasks. Such tasks might involve you in just planning a research project or,
alternatively, designing and distributing a questionnaire of your own. They all include
making an entry in your reflective diary or notebook. When completed, these tasks will
provide a useful aide-mémoire for assessed work (including a reflective essay or learning
log) and can be used as the basis for the first draft of your project report. It is worth point-
ing out here that many consultancy reports for organisations do not require you to include
a review of the academic literature.

As a guide through the research process

If you are intending to use this book to guide you through the research process for a
research project you are undertaking, such as your dissertation, we recommend that you
read the entire book quickly before starting your research. In that way you will have a
good overview of the entire process, including a range of techniques available, and will be
better able to plan your work.
After you have read the book once, we suggest that you re-read Section 1.5 on keeping
a reflective diary or notebook and Sections 14.2–14.10 on writing first. Then work your
way through the book again following the chapter order. This time you should attempt the
self-check questions, review and discussion questions and those questions associated with
each case study to ensure that you have understood the material contained in each chapter
prior to applying it to your own research project. Your responses to self-check questions
can be assessed using the answers at the end of each chapter.
If you are still unsure as to whether particular techniques, procedures or ideas are rel-
evant, then pay special attention to the ‘Focus on student research’, ‘Focus on management
research’ and ‘Focus on research in the news’ boxes. ‘Focus on student research’ boxes
are based on actual students’ experiences and illustrate how an issue has been addressed
or a technique or procedure used in a student’s research project. ‘Focus on management
research’ boxes discuss recent research articles in established refereed academic journals,
allowing you to see how research is undertaken successfully. These articles are easily
accessible via the main online business and management databases. ‘Focus on research
in the news’ boxes provide topical news stories of how particular research techniques,
procedures and ideas are used in the business world. You can also look in the ‘Further
reading’ for other examples of research where these have been used. If you need further

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 How to use this book

information on an idea, technique or procedure then, again, start with the references in
the further reading section.
Material in some of the chapters is likely to prove less relevant to some research top-
ics than others. However, you should beware of choosing techniques because you are
happy with them, if they are inappropriate. Completion of the tasks in the section headed
‘Progressing your research project’ at the end of Chapters 2–13 will enable you to gener-
ate all the material that you will need to include in your research project, dissertation or
consultancy report. This will also help you to focus on the techniques and ideas that are
most appropriate to your research. When you have completed these tasks for Chapter 14
you will have written your research project, dissertation or consultancy report and also
prepared a presentation using slides or a poster.

As a reference source
It may be that you wish to use this book now or subsequently as a reference source. If this
is the case, an extensive index will point you to the appropriate page or pages. Often you
will find a ‘checklist’ box within these pages. ‘Checklist’ boxes are designed to provide you
with further guidance on the particular topic. You will also find the contents pages and
the glossary useful reference sources, the latter defining over 750 research terms. In addi-
tion, we have tried to help you to use the book in this way by including cross-references
between sections in chapters as appropriate. Do follow these up as necessary. If you need
further information on an idea or a technique then begin by consulting the references in
the further reading section. Wherever possible we have tried to reference books that are in
print and readily available in university libraries and journal articles that are in the major
business and management online databases.

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 Pearson’s Commitment to
Diversity, Equity and Inclusion
Pearson is dedicated to creating bias-free content that reflects the diversity, depth
and breadth of all learners’ lived experiences. We embrace the many dimensions of
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 Preface

In writing the ninth edition of Research Methods for Business Students we have, alongside
the many comments we have received regarding previous editions, considered the implica-
tions of the Covid-19 pandemic for undertaking research. The pandemic invariably caused
us to adapt the way we do research posing new challenges for gaining access and recruiting
people to take part, and in the collecting of data (Nind et al., 2021). Alongside an already
growing use of online questionnaires, there was a shift from face-to-face to online and
telephone interviews. The former of these made considerable use of cloud based video-
conferencing and the latter computer assisted telephone interviewing. Ethnographic, diary
and other expressive methods were also used more widely.
In response to these challenges and over developments we have fully revised the book,
expanding our consideration of online, ethnographic, diary and other expressive methods
and the analysis of the resulting data. In particular: Chapter 1 now includes a discussion of
responsible business research; Chapter 2 contains considerably more detail on developing
research questions including using the AbC (Abstract, Context) rule; Chapter 4 now consid-
ers the interrelationships between paradigms and philosophies in more depth; Chapter 5
now considers engaged scholarship; Chapter 6 now considers Internet mediated access and
associated issues of ethics in more detail; Chapter 7 discusses using purchased database
lists and volunteer panels alongside more detailed discussions of sample size; Chapter 9
contains enlarged sections on using researcher and informant created videos, static images
and audio recordings in observation; Chapter 10 has a new section on evaluating interview
practice looking at conversational space mapping and language cleanliness; Chapter 11
now provides an overview of scale development; Chapter 13 includes more detail on tran-
scription and thematic coding, including using the Gioia method; Chapter 14 includes more
detailed advice regarding using quotations from transcripts, diaries and other documentary
data, as well as on poster design; and we have developed further the Glossary, which now
includes over 750 research-related terms. New case studies at the end of each chapter have
been developed with colleagues, providing up-to-date scenarios through which to illustrate
issues associated with undertaking research. Alongside this we have also taken the oppor-
tunity to update many examples and revise the tables of Internet addresses.
As in previous editions, we have taken a predominantly non-software-specific approach
in our discussion of methods. By doing this, we have been able to focus on the general
principles needed to utilise a range of analysis software and the Internet effectively for
research. However, recognising that many students have access to sophisticated data col-
lection and analysis software and may need help in developing these skills, we continue
to provide access to up-to-date ‘teach yourself’ guides to Qualtrics™, IBM SPSS Statistics™,
Excel™ and Internet searching via the book’s website (www.pearsoned.co.uk/saunders).
Where appropriate, these guides are provided with data sets. In the preparation of the ninth
edition we were fortunate to receive considerable feedback from colleagues and students

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 Preface

in universities throughout the world. We are extremely grateful to all the reviewers who
gave their time and shared their ideas.
Inevitably, the body of knowledge of research methods has developed further since
2019, and we have revised all chapters accordingly. Our experiences of teaching and super-
vising students and working through the methods in classes have suggested alternative
approaches and the need to provide alternative material. Consequently, we have taken
the opportunity to update and refine existing worked examples, remove those that were
becoming dated, and develop new ones where appropriate. However, the basic structure
remains much the same as the previous eight editions.
Other minor changes and updating have been made throughout. Needless to say, any
errors of omission and commission continue to remain our responsibility.
As with previous editions, much of our updating has been guided by comments from
students and colleagues, to whom we are most grateful. We should like particularly to
thank students from University of Birmingham, and various Doctoral Symposiums for their
comments on all of the chapters. Colleagues in both our own and other universities have
continued to provide helpful comments, advice and ideas. We are particularly grateful to
Heather Cairns-Lee, Zeineb Djebali, Colin Hughes, Emrah Karakaya, Juliet Kele, Amanda
Lee, Ben Saunders, and Nicholas Wheeler for their insightful comments and help with
early drafts of chapters. Colleagues and friends again deserve thanks for their assistance
in providing examples of research across the spectrum of business and management, co-
authoring chapters, writing case studies and in reviewing parts of this book: Neve Abgel-
ler, Mina Beigi, Alexandra Bristow, Clare Burns, Catherine Cassell, Fariba Darabi, Viktor
Dörfler, Adina Dudau, Sarah Forbes, Mat Hughes, Joséphine Lapointe, Natasha Mauth-
ner, Megane Miralles, Emily Morrison, Trevor Morrow, Shahrzad Nayyeri, Jonathan Scott,
Maura Sheehan, Melika Shirmohamma, Marc Stierand and Catherine Wang.
We would also like to thank all of the staff at Pearson (both past and present) who sup-
ported us through the process of writing the ninth edition. Our thanks go, in particular, to
Vicky Tubb, our commissioning editor, and Kay Richardson our online content developer
for their continuing support and enthusiasm throughout the process. We would also like
to express our thanks to Andrew Muller as content producer and as copy-editor.

MNKS
PL
AT
March 2022

Reference
Nind, M., Coverdale, A. and Meckin, R. (2021) National Centre for Research Methods:
Changing Social Research Practices in the Context of Covid-19: Rapid Evidence Review.
UKRI Economic and Social Research Council. Available at: https://eprints.ncrm.ac.uk/id/
eprint/4458/1/NCRM%20Changing%20Research%20Practices_Rapid%20Evidence%20
Review_FINAL%20REPORT.pdf [Accessed 1 March 2022]

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 Contributors

Mark N.K. Saunders, BA, MSc, PGCE, PhD, Chartered FCIPD, is Professor of Business
Research Methods at the Birmingham Business School, University of Birmingham. He is a
Fellow of both the Academy of Social Sciences and the British Academy of Management.
He currently holds visiting professorships at Mälardalen University in Sweden, University
of Surrey and the University of Worcester. Mark teaches research methods to masters and
doctoral students as well as supervising master’s dissertations and research degrees. He has
published articles on research methods, trust, and human resource aspects of the manage-
ment of change, in journals such as Annals of Tourism Research, British Journal of Manage-
ment, Field Methods, Human Relations, Human Resource Management Journal, Journal of
Small Business Management, Management Learning and Social Science and Medicine. Mark
is book series editor of the Handbooks of Research Methods (Edward Elgar) and co-series
book editor of Elgar Dissertation Companions (Edward Elgar). He is co-editor of How to
Keep your Doctorate on Track, Keeping your Research on Project on Track, the Handbook
of Research Methods on Human Resource Development and the Handbook of Research
Methods on Trust (all published by Edward Elgar). Mark has also written textbooks on
business statistics, human resource management, and managing change. He continues to
undertake consultancy in the public, private and not-for-profit sectors. Prior to becoming
an academic, he had a variety of research jobs in the public sector. Mark also enjoys hill
walking, and riding his motor-trike.

Philip Lewis, BA, PhD, MSc, Chartered MCIPD, PGDipM, Cert Ed, began his career in HR
as a training adviser with the Distributive Industry Training Board. He subsequently taught
HRM and research methods in three UK universities. He studied part-time for degrees with
the Open University and the University of Bath, from which he gained an MSc in industrial
relations and a PhD for his research on performance pay in retail financial services. He is
co-author with Adrian and Mark of Employee Relations: Understanding the Employment
Relationship and with Mark, Adrian, Mike Millmore and Trevor Morrow of Strategic Human
Resource Management and with Adrian, Mark and Mike Millmore of Managing Change:
A Human Resource Strategy Approach, all published by Pearson. He has undertaken con-
sultancy in both public and private sectors.

Adrian Thornhill, BA, PhD, PGCE, Chartered FCIPD. Prior to his career as a university
lecturer and Head of Department, he worked as an industrial relations researcher and
in training and vocational education. He has also undertaken consultancy and training
for a range of private and public-sector organisations. He has taught a range of subjects,
including HRM, the management of change and research methods, to undergraduate, post-
graduate and professional students. He has experience of supervising undergraduate and
postgraduate dissertations, professional management projects and research degrees. Adrian
has published a number of articles principally associated with employee and justice per-
spectives related to managing change and the management of organisational downsizing

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 Contributors

and redundancy. He is co-author with Phil and Mark of Employee Relations: Understand-
ing the Employment Relationship, with Phil, Mark, Mike Millmore and Trevor Morrow of
Strategic Human Resource Management and with Phil, Mark and Mike Millmore of Manag-
ing Change: A Human Resource Strategy Approach, all published by Pearson. He has also
co-authored a book on downsizing and redundancy.

Dr Neve Abgeller is a Lecturer in Organisation, Work and Employment at Birmingham

Business School, University of Birmingham, UK.

Dr Mina Beigi is an Associate Professor in Organisational Behaviour and Human Resource

Management in Southampton Business School, University of Southampton, UK.

Dr Alexandra Bristow is Senior Lecturer in Organisational Behaviour at the Open Univer-

sity Business School, UK.

Dr Clare JM Burns is a Sessional Academic in the Department of Business Strategy and

Innovation at Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia.

Professor Catherine Cassell is Executive Dean of the Faculty of Business, Durham Uni-
versity Business School, UK.

Dr Fariba Darabi is a Senior Lecturer in International Business at the Business, Technol-

ogy and Engineering College, Sheffield Business School, Sheffield Hallam University, UK.

Dr Viktor Dörfler is Senior Lecturer in Information & Knowledge Management at the

University of Strathclyde Business School, UK.

Dr Adina I Dudau is a Senior Lecturer in Management at the Adam Smith Business School,
University of Glasgow, UK.

Dr Sarah Forbes is a Senior Lecturer in the People, Operations and Marketing Group at
the School for Business and Society, University of York, UK.

Dr Mat Hughes is Professor of Entrepreneurship and Innovation at the School of Business

and Economics, Loughborough University, UK.

Joséphine Lapointe is a Postgraduate Researcher in the Department of Management at

Birmingham Business School, University of Birmingham, UK.

Professor Natasha Mauthner is Professor of Social Science Philosophy and Method, and
Director of Research, at the Newcastle University Business School, UK.

Megane Miralles is a Research Associate at the Institute of Business Creativity at

Ecole Hôtelière de Lausanne, HES-SO University of Applied Sciences and Arts Western
Switzerland.

Dr Emily A Morrison is an Organizational Effectiveness and Development Advisor for

a US Government agency in Washington, DC, having served as an assistant professor for
11 years at The George Washington University.

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 Contributors

Professor Trevor Morrow is Professor of Management Practice and Director of On-line and
Digital Learning at University of Aberdeen Business School, Scotland

Dr Shahrzad Nayyeri is an Assistant Professor at the Research Center of Management &

Productivity Studies Center at the Tarbiat Modares University, Iran.

Dr Jonathan M Scott is a Senior Lecturer in Strategic Management at the Waikato Manage-

ment School, University of Waikato, New Zealand.

Professor Maura Sheehan is Professor in International Management and Co-Director, The

International Centre for Management and Governance Research (ICMGR), The Business
School, Edinburgh Napier University, UK.

Dr Melika Shirmohamma is an Assistant Professor in Human Resource Development

in the Department of Human Development and Consumer Sciences at the University of
Houston, USA.

Dr Marc Stierand is an Associate Professor of Service Management and the Director of

the Institute of Business Creativity at Ecole Hôtelière de Lausanne, HES-SO University of
Applied Sciences and Arts Western Switzerland.

Professor Catherine L Wang is Professor of Strategy and Entrepreneurship at Brunel Busi-

ness School, Brunel University.

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 Chapter 1

Research, reflective diaries and the

purpose of this book

Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter you should be able to:
• define the nature of research;
• outline the features of business and management research;
• recall the stages you will need to complete (and revisit) as part of your
research process;
• understand the importance of keeping a reflective diary;
• recognise the purpose, structure and features of this book;
• progress your research project by starting to make entries in your
reflective diary or notebook.

1.1 Introduction
This book is designed to help you to undertake your research project, whether you are an
undergraduate or postgraduate student of business and management or a practising manager.
It provides a clear guide on how to undertake research as well as highlighting the realities of
undertaking research, including the more common pitfalls. The book will provide you with the
necessary knowledge and skills to undertake a piece of research from first thoughts about a
potential research topic to writing your project report and delivering an oral presentation. As
such, you will find it useful as a manual or handbook on how to tackle your research project.
After reading the book you will understand what it means to review the literature critically;
have been introduced to research philosophies and approaches to reasoning; explored a range of
strategies, techniques and procedures with which you could collect and analyse data; and con-
sidered how to report and present your research. Of equal importance, you will know that there
is no one best way for undertaking all research. Rather you will be aware of the choices you
will have to make and how these will impact upon what you can find out. This means you will
be able to make a series of informed choices including your research philosophy, approaches
to reasoning, strategies, techniques and procedures that are most suitable to your own research
project and be able to justify them. In reading the book you will have been introduced to the

M01 Research Methods for Business Students 02727.indd 2 24/11/2022 07:44

 wealth of data that are available online, both online and face-to-face procedures for collecting
your own data and techniques for analysing different types of data, have had a chance to prac-
tise them, and be able to select and justify which to use.

The invention of
Post-it® notes
The Post-it® note is one of the best-
known and most widely used office
products in the world. Yet, despite
the discovery of the repositionable
adhesive that made the Post-it®
note possible in 1968, it was not
until 1980 that the product was
introduced to the market (Post-it®
2022). In the 1960s, 3M research
scientist Spencer Silver was looking
for ways to improve the adhesive
used in tapes. However, he dis-
covered something quite different Post-it® notes in use
from what he was looking for, an Source: © Mark NK Saunders 2018
adhesive that did not stick strongly
when coated onto the back of revolutionary and was, in effect, designed to replace
tapes! What was unclear was how it might be used. pieces of torn scrap paper! However, despite some ini-
Over the next five years he struggled to find a use for tial scepticism within the company, Post-it® notes were
his new adhesive, talking about it and its merits to launched in 1980. One year after their launch, they
colleagues whenever possible. He became known as were named M’s outstanding new product.
‘Mr Persistent’ because he would not give up While your research project will be within the busi-
Most people working for 3M know the story ness and management discipline rather than natural
of what happened next and how the Post-it® note science (such as developing a new adhesive), our
concept came about. A new product development opening vignette still offers several insights into the
researcher working for 3M, Art Fry, was frustrated by nature of research and in particular the business and
how the scraps of paper he used as bookmarks kept management research you will be undertaking. It high-
falling out of his church choir hymn book. He real- lights that when undertaking research we should be
ised that Silver’s adhesive would mean his bookmarks open to finding the unexpected and how sometimes
would not fall out. Soon afterwards the Post-it® note the applicability of our research findings may not be
concept was developed and market research under- immediately obvious. It also emphasises the impor-
taken. This was extremely difficult as the product was tance of discussing your ideas with other people.

M01 Research Methods for Business Students 02727.indd 3 24/11/2022 07:44

 Chapter 1 Research, reflective diaries and the purpose of this book

However, a word of caution before you continue. In your study, you will inevitably
read a wide range of books and articles. In many of these the terms ‘research method’
and ‘research methodology’ will be used interchangeably, perhaps just using methodology
as a more verbose way of saying method. In this book we have been more precise in our
use of these terms. Throughout the book we use the term method to refer to a procedure
or technique used to obtain and analyse data. This, therefore, includes questionnaires,
observation and interviews as well as both quantitative (statistical) and qualitative (non-
statistical) analysis techniques and, as you have probably gathered from the title, is the
main focus of this book. In contrast, the term methodology refers to the theory of how
research should be undertaken. We believe it is important that you have some understand-
ing of this so that you can make informed choices about your research. For this reason,
we also discuss a range of philosophical assumptions upon which research can be based
and the implications of these for the method or methods adopted.

1.2 The nature of research

When browsing social media, listening to the radio, watching television, listening to the
radio or reading a daily newspaper it is difficult to avoid the term ‘research’. The results
of ‘research’ are all around us. A debate about the findings of a recent poll of people’s
opinions inevitably includes a discussion of ‘research’, normally referring to the way in
which the data were collected. Politicians often justify their policy decisions on the basis
of ‘research’. Newspapers report the research findings of academics and organisations
(Box 1.1). Documentary programmes tell us about ‘research findings’ and advertisers
may highlight the ‘results of research’ to encourage you to buy a particular product or
brand. However, we believe that what these examples really emphasise is the wide range
of meanings given to the term ‘research’ in everyday speech.
Walliman (2020) argues that many of these everyday uses of the term ‘research’ are
not research in the true meaning of the word. As part of this, he highlights ways in which
the term is used wrongly:
• just collecting facts or information with no clear purpose;
• reassembling and reordering facts or information without interpretation;
• as an activity with no or little relevance to everyday life;
• as a term to get your product or idea noticed and respected.
The first of these highlights that, although research often involves the collection of
information, it is more than just reading a few books or articles, talking to a few people
or asking people questions. While collecting data may be part of the research process, if
it is not undertaken in a systematic way and without a clear purpose, it will not be seen
as research. The second of these is commonplace in many reports. Data are collected,
perhaps from a variety of different sources, and then assembled in a single document
with the sources of these data listed without any explanation of what the data means. In
other words, there is no interpretation of the data collected. Again, while the assembly
of data from a variety of sources may be part of the research process, without interpre-
tation it is not research. The third emphasises, as shown in the opening vignette, how
despite research often appearing abstract, it influences our daily lives and creates our
understanding of the world. Finally, the term ‘research’ can be used to get an idea or
product noticed by people and to suggest that people should have confidence in it. In
such instances, when you ask for details of the research process, these are either unclear
or not forthcoming.

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 The nature of research

o ocus on researc in t e ne s

What would persuade you to change?

‘Megastudies’ are teasing out what helps
people to behave differently
By Andrew Hill

Gym members are ‘the fruit fly of habit research’, in the words of behavioural scientist
Katy Milkman.
Natural scientists keep coming back to experiment on the flies because the insects
share 60 per cent of their DNA with humans. Similarly, social scientists swarm around
gym users, or at least their data, to work out why people stick with, or drop, healthy
workout habits.
Milkman is both a gym-goer and, as a professor at the Wharton School of the University
of Pennsylvania, an avid student of other people’s gym-going habits. Her interest
goes well beyond the locker room, though. Find the key to good repeat behaviour, she
suggests, and you can use it to unlock motivation at work or in your studies or build a
better and more productive business.
Milkman and Angela Duckworth, best known for her work on ‘grit’ and the book of
the same name, organised a ‘megastudy’ in partnership with the 24-Hour Fitness
chain, simultaneously testing on its 60,000 members, 54 four-week micro-interventions
suggested by dozens of scientists.
Of the ideas they tested, 45 per cent increased weekly gym visits by between 9 and 27
per cent, according to the study, recently published in the journal Nature. All the ideas
outperformed a placebo control programme.
The most effective nudge turned out to be the offer of a few pennies of reward, in the
form of Amazon vouchers, for users who returned to the gym after missing a session.
The study also tested ‘temptation bundling’, based on ideas Milkman explored in previ-
ous research looking at how people are encouraged to go to the gym if they combine
visits with the opportunity to listen to favourite audiobooks. Persuasion expert Robert
Cialdini, bestselling author of Influence, proposed an experiment that successfully dem-
onstrated the power of simply informing users that most Americans were exercising,
and numbers were growing. The technique boosted gym visits by 24 per cent.
The willing participation of Milkman and Duckworth’s gym-going ‘fruit flies’ is only a
start. Megastudies are planned or under way to look at how teachers can improve the
performance of their pupils, universities can retain students, people can create
emergency savings pots, societies can reduce misinformation and – critically during
Covid-19 – patients can be encouraged to consider vaccination.
In How to Change, Milkman poses this question: ‘If you can’t persuade people to alter their
behaviour by telling them that change is simple, cheap and good for them, what magical
ingredient will do the trick?’ Megastudies could open a fast track to find the magic spell.

Source: Abridged from the article by Andrew Hill, Financial Times, 10 February 2022.
Copyright © 2022 The Financial Times

M01 Research Methods for Business Students 02727.indd 5 24/11/2022 07:44

 Chapter 1 Research, reflective diaries and the purpose of this book

Based upon this brief discussion we can already see that research has several
characteristics:
• The purpose, to find out things, is stated clearly.
• The data are collected systematically.
• The data are interpreted systematically.
We can therefore define research as a process that is undertaken in a systematic way
with a clear purpose, to find things out. Two phrases are important in this definition: ‘sys-
tematic way’ and ‘to find out things’. ‘Systematic way’ suggests that research is based on
logical relationships and not just beliefs (Ghauri et al. 2020). As part of this, your research
will involve an explanation of the method or methods used to collect the data, will argue
why the results obtained are meaningful and will explain any limitations that are associ-
ated with them. ‘To find out things’ suggests there are a multiplicity of possible purposes
for your research. It is therefore an activity that has to be finished at some time to be of
use. This will undoubtedly be true for your research project, which will have a specific
deadline. Purposes are often stated as describing, explaining, understanding, criticising
and analysing (Ghauri et al. 2020). Crucially, it also emphasises you have a clear purpose
or set of ‘things’ that you want to find out, such as the answer to a question or number
of questions or the solution to a problem.

1.3 Business and management research

Using our earlier definition of research we can define business and management research
as undertaking systematic research to find out things about business and management.
Ongoing debate within the literature has explored the transdisciplinary nature of business
and management research, its relevance and utility to society, the importance of rigorous
methods and, more recently, the need for responsible research in business and management
(McKiernan and Tsui 2020).

Trans disciplinarity
Discussions about the nature of management research consider the transdisciplinary
nature revealing how it also draws on knowledge from a range of other disciplines such as
sociology, psychology and economics, which have differing underlying assumptions. They
emphasise that the research ‘cannot be reduced to any sum of parts framed in terms of
contributions to associated disciplines’ (Tranfield and Starkey 1998: 352). In other words,
using knowledge from a range of disciplines enables management research to gain new
insights that cannot be obtained through using these disciplines separately.

Relevance and utility

Debates about the relevance and utility of management research highlight a belief that
it should have the potential for some form of practical consequences. In other words, it
should be relevant to and have the potential to impact upon business and management
practice. Here it has been argued that such research should complete a virtuous circle
of theory and practice (Tranfield and Starkey 1998) through which research on mana-
gerial practice informs practically derived theory. This in turn becomes a blueprint for
managerial practice, thereby increasing the stock of relevant and practical management

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 Business and management research

knowledge. Thus, business and management research needs to engage with both the world
of theory and the world of practice. Consequently, the problems addressed should grow
out of interaction between these two worlds rather than on their own. This suggests that
managers are less likely to allow research access unless they can see the utility for their
organisations or themselves.

Rigour
Alongside the relevance debate has been a concern for rigour in both quantitative and
qualitative methods. An article by Hodgkinson et al. (2001) offers a useful four-fold tax-
onomy for considering relevance and rigour in relation to managerial knowledge. Using
the dimensions of theoretical and methodological rigour, and of practical relevance (as dis-
cussed earlier) they identify four quadrants (see Table 1.1). Within this, theoretical rigour
refers to the clarity and thoroughness with which the research as reported is grounded in
existing explanations of how things work. Although part of the same dimension, meth-
odological rigour refers to the strength and quality of the research method used in terms
of the planning, data collection, data analysis and subsequent reporting; and therefore
the confidence that can be placed in the conclusions drawn. Hodgkinson et al. argue that
pedantic science is characterised by a focus on increasing methodological rigour at the
expense of results that are relevant. This can sometimes be found in refereed academic
journals. In contrast, popularist science is characterised by a focus on relevance and use-
fulness while neglecting theoretical and methodological rigour, examples being found in
some books targeted at practising managers. Consequently, while findings might be useful
to managers, the research upon which they are based is unlikely to be valid or reliable.
Puerile science both lacks methodological rigour and is of limited practical relevance and,
although unlikely to be found in refereed academic journals, can be found in other media.
Finally, pragmatic science is both theoretically and methodologically rigorous and relevant.

Modes of research
Over the past two decades, debate about the nature of management research has focused
on how it can meet the double hurdle of being both theoretically and methodologically
rigorous, while at the same time embracing the world of practice and being of practi-
cal relevance (Hodgkinson et al. 2001; Wensley 2011); practice being reframed recently
more broadly than just the world of practice to being socially useful (Hodgkinson and
Starkey 2011) and impactful (MacIntosh et al. 2017). Recognising a lack of relevance for
much research, debate centred initially around the work by Gibbons et al. (1994) on the

Table 1.1 A taxonomy for considering the ‘relevance gap’ in relation to

eri l led e

Theoretical and
methodological rigour Practical relevance Quadrant

Higher Lower Pedantic science

Lower Higher Popularist science
Lower Lower Puerile science
Higher Higher Pragmatic science
Source: Developed from Hodgkinson et al. (2001)

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 Chapter 1 Research, reflective diaries and the purpose of this book

production of knowledge and, in particular, the concepts of Mode 1 and Mode 2 knowl-
edge creation. Mode 1 knowledge creation emphasises research in which the questions
are set and solved by academic interests, emphasising a basic rather than applied nature,
where there is little, if any, focus on utilisation of the research by practitioners. In contrast,
Mode 2 emphasises a context for research governed by the world of practice, highlighting
the importance of collaboration both with and between practitioners (Starkey and Madan
2001) and the need for the production of practical relevant knowledge. Based upon this,
Starkey and Madan (2001) observe that research within the Mode 2 approach offers a way
of bringing the knowledge created in universities together with the needs of businesses,
thereby overcoming the double hurdle. Bresnen and Burrell (2012: 25) suggest a further
alternative, which they consider is a ‘more insidious’ form of knowledge production. This
form, termed Mode 0 knowledge creation, they argue has been around since the seven-
teenth century. It refers to knowledge production based on power and patronage, being
particularly visible in the close relationships between sponsor and researcher, for example
pharmaceutical industry sponsorship of medical research.
Drawing upon these debates, it could be argued that business and management research
not only needs to provide findings that advance knowledge and understanding in this sub-
ject area, but it also needs to address business issues and practical managerial problems.
However, this would negate the observation that Mode 2 practices develop from Mode 1.
It might also result in business and management research that appears to have little obvi-
ous commercial benefit being ignored. This, Huff and Huff (2001) argue, could jeopardise
future knowledge creation, because as highlighted in the opening vignette, research that is
initially not of commercial value can have value in the future. Building upon these ideas,
Huff and Huff highlight a further form of knowledge production: Mode 3. Mode 3 knowl-
edge production focuses on an appreciation of the human condition as it is and as it might
become, its purpose being to ‘assure survival and promote the common good at various
levels of social aggregation’ (Huff and Huff 2001: 53); in other words the research is of
benefit to humankind rather than business. This emphasises the importance of broader
issues of the wider implications of research and, we consider, links to the idea of research
being of benefit to society in general rather than just business. Consequently, in addition
to research that satisfies your intellectual curiosity for its own sake, the findings of busi-
ness and management research might also contain practical implications, which may be
far broader and complex than perhaps envisaged by Mode 2.

The relevance gap

Tranfield and Denyer (2004) draw attention to concerns resulting from the separation of
knowledge producers from knowledge users. This has introduced a schism, or what Starkey
and Madan (2001) call the ‘relevance gap’, which has been the subject of considerable
debate. Rousseau (2006) has drawn attention to ways of closing what she terms the prevail-
ing ‘research–practice gap’ – the failure of organisations and managers to base practices on
the best available evidence. She extols the virtues of ‘evidence-based management’, which
derives principles from research evidence and translates them into practices that solve
organisational problems. Research findings do not appear to have transferred well to the
workplace. Instead of a scientific understanding of human behaviour and organisations,
managers, including those with MBAs, continue to rely largely on personal experience,
to the exclusion of more systematic knowledge. Within these debates some maintain that
the gap between academic research and practice is fundamentally unbridgeable because
management researchers and the researched inhabit different worlds, are engaged in differ-
ent activities and have different research orientations, while others disagree. Hodgkinson

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 Business and management research

and Rousseau (2009), for example, argue that the research–practice gap is due to more
than differences in style and language, and that management researchers can generate
knowledge that is both useful to society and academically rigorous.
Not surprisingly, many managers and academics perceive the gap between research under-
taken by academics and management as practiced as problematic. Saunders (2011) categorises
these as differences between academics’ and practitioners’ orientations in relation to their foci
of interest, methodological imperatives, the key outcomes and how each views the other. These
we summarise in Table 1.2, the contrasting orientations indicating where tensions may occur.
However, perhaps the most telling comment on the so-called ‘relevance gap’ is from
Tranfield and Denyer (2004: 13), who assert that ignoring such a gap would be ‘unthink-
able in other professional fields, such as medicine or engineering, where a national scandal
would ensue if science base and practice were not inextricably and necessarily interlinked’.
This relates to the idea of conceptualising management as a design science rather than a
social science. From the design science perspective, the main purpose of academic man-
agement research is to develop valid knowledge to support organisational problem solving.
Many researchers would probably agree that the purpose of management research, like
other social sciences, can be undertaken from a wide variety of perspectives involving
exploration, description, evaluation, explanation and prediction. However, taking a design
science perspective focuses upon solution-orientated research to develop valid knowledge
which supports practitioners in solving business problems (Van Aken 2005). The coun-
ter argument proposes that management practice is characterised by a wide variety of
organisational phenomena that are often ambiguous, and may not be suited to rule-like
explanations offered by design science, and that there needs to be a balance between the
different purposes of research and a need for application (Pandza and Thorpe 2010).

Responsible Research in Business and Management

The creation of the Community for Responsible Research in Business and Management
(cRRBM) provided further impetus. They emphasise that findings needed to be both cred-
ible (drawn from research undertaken rigorously) and applicable (relevant) to practice if
business and management research was to be useful to society (McKiernan and Tsui 2020).

Table 1.2 Practitioner and management researcher orientations

Management researcher Practitioner

Basic understanding ocus of interest Usable knowledge

General enlightenment Instrumental
Theoretical explanation Practical problem solutions
‘Why’ knowledge ‘How to’ knowledge
Substantive theory building Local theory-in-use
Theoretical and Methodological Timeliness
e d l ic l ri r imperative
Academic publication Key outcome Actionable results with practice
impact
Disdain of practitioner ie s of ot er Deprecate or ignore
Desire to make a difference Belief research can provide
pr c ice relevant (socially useful) fresh
insights to managers’ problems
Source: Developed from Saunders (2011)

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 Chapter 1 Research, reflective diaries and the purpose of this book

Table 1.3 Community for Responsible Research in Business and Management’s seven
principles of responsible research

1. Service to society
Research aims to develop knowledge that benefits business and the broader society
locally and globally to create a better world

Improving rigour Ensuring relevance

2. Valuing both basic and applied 5. Stakeholder involvement

contributions Different stakeholders can play critical role
Contributions of both basic and applied without compromising independence or
research are recognised autonomy of the research

3. Valuing plurality and multidisciplinary 6. Impact on stakeholders

collaboration Research that has an impact on diverse
Diversity in research themes, methods, stakeholders, especially contributing
forms of scholarship, types of inquiry and be er b i e d be er rld i
interdisciplinary collaboration reflect rewarded
plurality and complexity of societal and
business problems and are valued 7. Broad dissemination
Diverse forms of knowledge dissemination
4. Sound methodology that collectively advance basic knowledge
Uses sound scientific methods and pro- and practice are valued
cesses in both quantitative and qualitative
or both theoretical and empirical domains
Source: Developed from McKiernan and Tsui (2020)

Their objective is ‘to change research practice for a better science and towards having a greater
impact, especially on society as a whole’ (McKiernan and Tsui 2020, p. 491). cRRBM offer
seven principles to guide research and ensure it is both credible in terms of a rigorous method
and methodology, and relevant to society (Table 1.3). Of these, principle 1 – service to society,
is considered core, developing knowledge that creates a better world. Principles 2 to 4 (left
column) are concerned with aspects of methodological rigour in research, whereas principles
5 to 7 focus on ensuring research is relevant to society. As you digest these seven principles,
think about how they relate to both the earlier debates we have outlined and your own beliefs
regarding how business and management research should be undertaken (Box 1.2).

Basic and applied research

Table 1.3 highlights responsible research in business and management valuing both basic
and applied contributions, and thus although the immediate purpose and the context of
your research project can differ considerably it can still benefit broader society. For some
research projects your purpose may be to understand and explain the impact of something,
such as a particular policy. You may undertake this research within an individual organisa-
tion and suggest appropriate action based on your findings. For other research projects you
may wish to explore the ways in which various organisations do things differently. In such
projects your purpose may be to discover and understand better the underlying processes
in a wider context, thereby providing greater understanding for practitioners. For yet other
research projects you may wish to place an in-depth investigation of an organisation within
the context of a wider understanding of the processes that are operating.
Despite this variety, we believe that all business and management research projects
can be placed on a continuum (Figure 1.1) according to their purpose and context. At one

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 Business and management research

Box 1.2 seven principles, using them as a guide to research

design will increase the probability that the findings
ocus on will be credible in terms of rigour and useful in terms
management research of relevance.
Tsui stresses that the Community for Responsible
Responsible research Research in Business and Management aims to move
research practices from their focus on the interests of
In an article in Academy of Management Discoveries, researchers (and their universities) to a focus on the
Tsui (2021) discusses the ‘necessary interdependence’ ultimate users of research knowledge, these includ-
(p. 166) of rigour and relevance and shows how the ing managers, policymakers and students. She con-
seven principles of responsible research can guide cludes that for business and management, research
studies of responsible leadership. should produce credible knowledge to enable all types
Within this she outlines how each of these prin- of organisations to effect positive change for a better
ciples applies to the study of responsible leadership world. Within this she notes that responsible leader-
posing a series of illustrative questions that can be con- ship offers a ‘promising area in which to apply the
sidered when designing responsible leadership studies. principles of responsible research’ (Tsui 2021, p. 1 ).
She notes that while a study may not meet all of the

Basic research Applied research

Purpose: Purpose:
• expand knowledge of processes of • improve understanding of particular
business and management business or management problem
• results in universal principles relating • results in solution to problem
to the process and its relationship to • new knowledge limited to problem
outcomes • ndings of practical relevance and
• ndings of signi cance and value to value to manager(s) in organisation(s)
society in general
Context: Context:
• undertaken by people based in • undertaken by people based in a variety
academia of settings including organisations and
• choice of topic and objectives academia
determined by the researcher • objectives negotiated with originator
• exible timescales • tight ttimescales
Impact: Impact:
• initially academic community and • initially policy and practice community
researcher and researcher
• may also impact policy and practice • may also impact academia

Figure 1.1 Basic and applied research

Sources: Authors’ experience; Easterby-Smith et al. (2021); Hedrick et al. (1993), MacIntosh et al. (2017)

extreme of the continuum is research that is undertaken purely to understand the pro-
cesses of business and management and their outcomes. Such research is undertaken
largely in universities and largely as the result of an academic agenda. Its key impact is

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 Chapter 1 Research, reflective diaries and the purpose of this book

within the academic community, with relatively little attention being given to relevance
to or impact on practice. This is often termed basic, fundamental or pure research and,
although the focus may not have been on practical or commercial value, the resultant
model may be of considerable utility having impact in both academic and practitioner
communities. Given our earlier discussion, it is unlikely that Mode 2 and Mode 3 busi-
ness and management research would fulfil the criterion of being undertaken ‘purely to
understand’ due to at least some consideration being given to the practical consequences
of what has been found out. Through considering the practical consequences, the research
would start to move towards the other end of the continuum (Figure 1.1). At this end is
research that is impactful for practitioner communities being of direct and immediate use
to managers, addresses issues that they see as important, and is presented in ways that
they understand and can act on. This is termed applied research. In our view, applied
research can be very similar to consultancy, particularly when the latter is conducted in
a thorough manner.
Wherever your research project lies on this basic–applied continuum, and for each of
the orientations in Table 1.2, we believe that you should undertake your research with
rigour. To do this you will need to pay careful attention to the entire research process.

1.4 The research process

Most research textbooks represent research as a multi-stage process that you must follow
to undertake and complete your research project. The precise number of stages varies, but
they usually include formulating and clarifying a topic, reviewing the literature, designing
the research, collecting data, analysing data and writing up. In the majority of these the
research process, although presented with rationalised examples, is described as a series
of stages through which you must pass. Articles you have read may also suggest that the
research process is rational and straightforward. Unfortunately, this is very rarely true,
and the reality is considerably messier, with what initially appear as great ideas sometimes
having little or no relevance. While research is often depicted as moving through each of
the stages just outlined, one after the other, this is unlikely to be the case. In reality some
stages will overlap, and you will probably revisit each stage more than once. Each time
you revisit a stage you will need to reflect on the associated issues and refine your ideas.
Alongside this you will need to consider ethical and access issues during the process.
This book also presents the research process as a series of linked stages and gives the
appearance of being organised in a linear manner. However, as you use the book you
will see that we recognise the concurrent and iterative nature of the research process you
will follow in the examples of research by academic researchers, student research, how
research is reported in the news and case studies, as well as our extensive use of cross-
referencing. As part of this process we believe it is vital that you spend time formulating
and clarifying your research topic. This we believe should be expressed as one overarching
research question that your research must answer, or an aim your research will address.
These will be accompanied by a set of objectives or investigative questions. However, we
would also stress the need to reflect on your ideas continually and revise both these and
the way in which you intend to progress your research.
We believe regular writing is an intrinsic part of developing your ideas and under-
standing your research. Indeed we, and our students, have found that it is not until we
write our ideas that we discover where our arguments need further clarification. Often
this will involve revisiting stages (including research question(s) and objectives) and
working through them again. There is also a need to plan ahead, thereby ensuring that

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 The research process

Begin to ink
about rese rc

e er e y r re e rc ide d
de el p e pr p l Chapter 2)

Critic lly review t e

literature Chapter 3)

Understand your p ilosop y

and appro c Chapter 4)

Formulate your rese rc

design Chapter 5)
ri i

Negotiate ccess and address

d re ec i

et ic l issues Chapter 6)

Plan your data collection and collect data considering one or more of:

Sampling econdary Observation Interviews and Question-

Chapter 7) data Chapter 9) rese rc diaries naires
Chapter 8) Chapter 10) Chapter 11)

Analyse your data eit er or bot :

Quantitatively Qualitatively
Chapter 12) Chapter 13)

Write your project report

and prepare your presentation
Chapter 14)

Forward Submit your project report Re ection

planning and give your presentation and revision

Figure 1.2 The research process

Source: © Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 2022

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 Chapter 1 Research, reflective diaries and the purpose of this book

the necessary preliminary work for later stages has been undertaken. This is emphasised
by Figure 1.2, which also provides a schematic index to the remaining chapters of the
book. Within this flow chart (Figure 1.2) the stages you will need to complete as part of
your research project are emphasised in the centre of the chart. However, be warned: the
process is far messier than a brief glance at Figure 1.2 suggests!

1.5 Keeping a reflective diary or research notebook

You will notice in Figure 1.2 we include a series of arrows labelled ‘reflection and revision’.
During your research project you will find it helpful to keep a separate reflective diary or
reflective journal – the terms are used interchangeably. In your diary you can note down
what has happened and the lessons you have learnt both from things that have gone well
and things that have not gone so well during the research process, on a regular basis.
Others keep a learning journal, which uses a more free-flowing structure to describe,
analyse and evaluate what has happened. Some researchers incorporate their reflective
diary or journal into a research notebook in which they chronologically record other
aspects of their research project such as useful articles they have read, notes of discus-
sions with their project tutor and other interesting conversations alongside their emergent
thoughts about all aspects of their research. We have also found this helpful. The process
of observing your own research practice and examining the way you do things is termed
reflection. However, there is a more complex recursive process incorporating interpreta-
tion as well as reflection and involving you in thinking about your experiences and ques-
tioning the way you have done things. This process, known as reflexivity, involves you
being constantly aware of your effects on your research. You should therefore be thinking
about and interpreting your role in the research and the way in which this is influenced
by the object of the research; and acknowledging the way you affect both the processes of
the research and the outcomes and how they have affected you (Corlett and Mavin 2018;
Box 1.3, Section 13.5).
Lincoln et al. (2018: 124) define reflexivity as ‘the process of reflecting critically on the
self as researcher’. As we say elsewhere in this book, research is like going on a journey.
It is a journey that involves you making a number of decisions. Being reflexive will ensure
you reflect on why and how you develop your research idea, why you prefer one research
strategy over another, how you engage with those whom you wish to take part in your
research, how you use the data they reveal to you, how you deal with any problems that
confront you during your project and so on. It will allow you to surface any preconceived
ideas that you may have about your topic and what you expect to find and help you to be
aware of your own biases. Through doing this you will recognise your role or ‘self’ within
the process of the research, remaining critically reflective and being open to new learning.
Critical reflectivity may be approached not just through an introspective examination of
the ways your attitudes and actions affect your role as researcher, but also in relation to
the way broader social assumptions and context may influence it (Charmaz 2017). Many
preconceived ideas and personal biases have a social basis. This can have consequences
for the research environment in terms of the need for researchers not only to reflect on
their own predilections, preconceived ideas and bias, but also on those of potential par-
ticipants in a research project. Such reflections are likely to also be appropriate as you
undertake your research project.
You will almost certainly remember from your earlier studies the work of Kolb and
of Honey and Mumford on the learning cycle (Marchington et al. 2021). This views the
learning process as going through a four-stage cycle of:

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 Keeping a reflective diary or research notebook

Box 1.3 feeling worried that I might not have really observed
all of what was happening. The programme makers
ocus on student had filmed the same purchase in a shop from three
research different views, presumably using different cameras.
One camera filmed the purchase from low down and
ee ing a reflecti e diary as art of a appeared to be quite a distance from the purchase. It
research notebook seemed as if the camera operator was sitting on a sofa,
As part of her master’s research project, Amanda’s rather like my observation. Another had filmed it more
project tutor had encouraged her to incorporate closely from behind the sales assistant so you could see
her reflective diary into a research notebook. Over the expressions on the customer’s face and easily hear
time she began to realise that her diary entries were the conversation. The final camera had filmed from
providing her with a useful way of not only record- behind the customer and this time you could see the
ing her experiences but also questioning her research sales assistant’s face; she looked really disinterested.
practice. An extract from her reflective diary follows. I had never really thought about the impact of my posi-
tion in the shop on what I would see and the data I
Monday 6 April 7:30 p.m. would be able to collect until I saw that programme.
I did my first observation today in a shop, watching e el ee o s o
and recording what people did when they came in,
browsed the shoes and then, perhaps, made a pur- Tuesday 7 April, 7:30 a.m.
chase and left. Following what the textbook had told On reflection I really need to think more carefully about
me, I sat as unobtrusively as possible in the corner on where would be the best place from which to observe
one of the sofas and used my tablet to make notes and collect my data. I have already thought about the
about the customers’ and the sales assistants’ behav- data I need, but given my emphasis on the interaction
iours. I’d prepared a checklist of what I was looking with customers, I think I was not in the right place to
for. It all seemed to go well and, using the checklist, collect it for my first observation. I need to be able to see
I made some interesting observations about the sorts both the customer and the sales assistant and to hear
of interactions customers were having with the sales what is being said and the tones of the voices. But, at
assistants when they purchased shoes. Also I feel my the same time, I need to be unobtrusive as well, so my
position was unobtrusive and I was not really noticed. presence does not influence the interaction. Also, there
What went less well was the fact I could not hear pre- is also only one of me, so I cannot be in three places
cisely what was being said. I was too far away from at once! However, if I remember correctly, there was
the sales assistant and the customer. I need to make a place to sit and try on shoes next to the sales desk.
adjustments and be closer next time, while still being Perhaps that would be a better place to observe. I can-
unobtrusive. not use videography to record what is happening as, if
I ask for permission to do this, it will completely change
10:00 p.m. the way the people react with each other. However,
I have just watched a television documentary on retail o l oe o a sa a ea e a el
shopping and the changing nature of such shops. I’m afterwards. I’ll talk to my project tutor.

1 concrete experience;
2 observation and reflection in relation to the experience;
3 forming abstract concepts and generalisations from these observations and reflections;
4 testing these concepts and generalisations in new situations.
The learning cycle emphasises that for learning to happen you need to pass through
the complete cycle, as without reflection there will be no learning from experience. Such

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 Chapter 1 Research, reflective diaries and the purpose of this book

Box 1.4 ✔ What has not gone so well?

• Why has it not gone so well?
Checklist of • So what does this mean in relation to my
uestions to as research?
✔ What adjustments will/did I make to my research
yourself en following my reflection?
making reflective
diary entries oo ing ac
✔ How could I have improved on the adjustments
n relation to eac e erience made?
• Why?
✔ What has gone well? ✔ What key themes have emerged over several entries?
• Why has it gone well? ✔ How will I apply what I have learnt from each
• So what does this mean in relation to my experience to new situations?
research?

reflection is the process of stopping and thinking about a concrete experience that has
happened or is happening, and the subsequent forming of concepts and generalisations,
so you can apply what you have learnt from your experiences to new situations. In other
words, you need to have an inquiring imagination and persistently ask yourself ‘why?’,
‘what if?’ and ‘so what?’ (Gabriel 2015).
Given the benefits to learning, it is not surprising that many universities require stu-
dents to write a reflective essay or a reflective practice statement as part of the assessment
for their research project. To do this well, and more importantly to enhance your learning
during the research process, we recommend that you keep a reflective diary, research
notebook or learning journal. You should write in this frequently regarding what has gone
well, what has gone less well, what you have learnt from each experience and how you
will apply this learning in the future (Box 1.3). Indeed, as you read on you will find that
we ask you to do this at the end of each chapter in the section ‘Progressing your research
project’! Questions our students have found helpful to guide them when writing their
diary entries are listed as a checklist in Box 1.4. Be warned, many students forget to write
in their reflective diaries regularly; this makes writing a good reflective essay difficult as
much of the learning will have been forgotten!

1.6 The purpose and structure of this book

The purpose
As we stated earlier (Section 1.1), the overriding purpose of this book is to help you to
undertake research. This means that early on in your research project you will need to
be clear about what you are doing, why you are doing it and the associated implications
of what you are seeking to do. You will also need to ensure that you can show how your
ideas relate to research that has already been undertaken in your topic area and that you
have a clear research design and have thought about how you will collect and analyse your
data. As part of this you will need to consider the validity and reliability (or credibility
and dependability) of the data you intend to use, along with associated ethical and access

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 The purpose and structure of this book

issues. The appropriateness and suitability of the analytical techniques you choose to use
will be of equal importance. Finally, you will need to write and present your research
project report as clearly and precisely as possible, making sure you meet all your univer-
sity’s assessment criteria.

The structure of each chapter

Each of the subsequent chapters deals with part of the research process outlined in
Figure 1.2. The ideas, methods and techniques are discussed using appropriate terms but
as little jargon as possible. Where appropriate you will find summaries of these, using
tables, checklists or diagrams. When new terms are introduced for the first time they are
shown in bold, and a definition or explanation follows shortly afterwards. They are also
listed with a brief definition in the glossary. The use of appropriate information technology
is considered in most instances as an integral part of the book. Discussion of information
technology is not software specific but is concerned with general principles. However, we
recognise that you may wish to find out more about how to use data analysis software
packages and so have included tutorials for the quantitative data analysis software IBM
SPSS Statistics and the spreadsheet Excel™ (with practice data sets) on this book’s compan-
ion website. These will enable you to utilise whatever software you have available most
effectively. We have also included the Smarter Online Searching Guide to help you with
your online searches. Sections in chapters have been cross-referenced as appropriate, and
an index is provided to help you to find your way around the book.
Included within each chapter are one or more boxes titled Focus on student research.
These, like Box 1.3, reflect actual research projects, undertaken by students, in which
points made in the book are illustrated. In many instances these examples illustrate pos-
sible pitfalls you may come across while undertaking your research. Further illustrations
are provided by Focus on management research and Focus on research in the news boxes.
Focus on management research boxes (such as Box 1.2) discuss recent research in business
and management. These are normally derived from refereed academic journal articles, and
you are likely to be able to download the actual articles from online databases at your
university. Focus on research in the news boxes, one of which you will have already read
(Box 1.1), offer abridged versions of topical newspaper articles that illustrate pertinent
research-related issues. All these will help you to understand the technique or idea and
to assess its suitability or appropriateness for your research. Where a pitfall has been
illustrated, it will, it is hoped, help you to avoid making the same mistake. There is also a
series of boxed Checklists (such as Box 1.4) to provide you with further focused guidance
for your own research. At the end of each chapter there is a Summary of key points, which
you may look at before and after reading the chapter to ensure you digest the main points.
To enable you to check that you have understood the chapter, a series of Self-check
questions is included at the end. These can be answered without recourse to other (exter-
nal) resources. Answers are provided to all these self-check questions at the end of each
chapter. Self-check questions are followed by Review and discussion questions. These sug-
gest a variety of activities you can undertake to help you further develop your knowledge
and understanding of the material in the chapter, often involving discussion with a friend.
Self-test multiple choice questions with feedback are available on this book’s companion
website. Each chapter also includes a section towards the end headed Progressing your
research project. This contains a series of tasks that will help you to consider the implica-
tions of the material covered by the chapter for your research project. Undertaking the
tasks in the section Progressing your research project for each chapter will enable you to
generate all the material that you will need to include in your project report and, where

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 Chapter 1 Research, reflective diaries and the purpose of this book

required, your reflective statement. These tasks involve you in undertaking activities that
are more complex than self-check questions, such as an online literature search or design-
ing and piloting a questionnaire. They are designed to help you to focus on the aspects that
are most appropriate to your research project. However, as emphasised by Figure 1.2, you
will almost certainly need to revisit and revise your answers as your research progresses.
Each chapter is also accompanied by References, Further reading and a Case study.
Further reading is included for two distinct reasons:
• to direct you to other work on the ideas and concepts contained within the chapter;
• to direct you to further examples of research where the ideas contained in the chapter
have been used.
The main reasons for our choice of further reading are therefore indicated.
The new case studies towards the end of every chapter are drawn from a variety of
business and management research scenarios and have been based on the case study’s
authors’ and students’ experiences when undertaking a research project. All case studies
have been written to highlight real issues that occur when undertaking business and man-
agement research. To help to focus your thoughts or discussion on some of the pertinent
issues, each case is followed by evaluative questions. The additional case studies listed for
each chapter are available from the book’s companion website. This provides hyperlinks
to over 80 additional case studies.

An outline of the chapters

The book is organised in the following way.
Chapter 2 is written to assist you in the generation of ideas, which will help you to
identify a suitable research topic and offers advice on what makes a good research topic.
If you have already been given a research topic, perhaps by an organisation or tutor, you
will need to refine it into one that is feasible and should still therefore read this chapter.
After your idea has been generated and refined, the chapter discusses how to turn this idea
into an overarching research question(s), aim and objectives. Finally, the chapter provides
advice on how to develop your research proposal.
The importance of critically reviewing the literature for your research is discussed
in Chapter 3. This chapter commences by explaining what is meant by ‘critical’, when
reviewing literature. The chapter explains the purpose of reviewing the literature, high-
lighting the content and possible structures. The range of secondary and grey literature
sources are outlined, and a range of strategies discussed, including the use of Systematic
Review Methodology. We also offer advice on how to plan and conduct your searches
using online databases and search engines, and how to record (reference) items, evaluate
their relevance and subsequently draft your critical review, acknowledging the work of
others to avoid plagiarism.
Chapter 4 introduces the conceptualisation of the research process as peeling layers
from a (research) onion. We start with the outermost layer considering five different
research philosophies, including positivism, critical realism, interpretivism, post modern-
ism and pragmatism. Within this the functionalist, interpretive, radical humanist and
radical structuralist paradigms are discussed. The next layer considers deductive, induc-
tive, abductive and retroductive approaches to theory development. In this chapter we
challenge you to think about your own values and beliefs reflexively and the impact this
will have on the way you undertake your research.
These ideas are developed further in Chapter 5, which, using the next three layers of the
research onion, explores formulating your research design. Research design is the way you

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 The purpose and structure of this book

turn your overarching research question or aim and your objectives into a research project.
In this chapter we start with the methodological choice layer. This comprises quantita-
tive, qualitative, multiple and mixed methods and, within this, whether your research is
exploratory, descriptive, explanatory or evaluative. Next we explore the research strategy
layer considering Experiment, Survey, Ethnography, Grounded Theory, Narrative Inquiry,
Archival Research, Case Study and Action Research strategies. This is followed by a
discussion of the time horizon layer focussing upon when to adopt a cross-sectional or
longitudinal design. Consideration is also given to the implications of research design for
the quality of your research findings and conclusions.
Chapters 6 to 13 are concerned with aspects associated with obtaining or collecting data
collection and its subsequent analysis; the core of the research onion. Chapter 6 explores
issues related to negotiating access and to research ethics. It offers advice on how to gain
physical and cognitive access both to organisations and to individuals using both tradi-
tional and Internet-mediated and hybrid approaches. Potential ethical issues are discussed
in relation to each stage of the research process and different data-collection methods,
stressing the need to research ethically. Issues of data protection are also introduced.
A range of the probability and non-probability sampling techniques available for use
in your research is explained in Chapter 7. The chapter considers why sampling may be
necessary, how to determine an appropriate sample size and likely response rates for both
probability and non-probability samples. Advice on how to relate your choice of sampling
techniques to your research topic is given, and techniques for assessing the representative-
ness of those who respond are discussed. The extent to which it is reasonable to generalise
from a sample is also assessed.
Chapters 8, 9, 10 and 11 are concerned with different methods of obtaining or collect-
ing data. The obtaining and evaluating of secondary data is discussed in Chapter 8. This
chapter introduces the variety of survey, document (text, audio and visual) and multiple
source data that are likely to be available, suggesting ways in which they can be used.
Advantages and disadvantages of secondary data are discussed, and a range of procedures
for locating these data is suggested. Chapter 8 provides an indication of the myriad of
sources available online and also offers advice on how to evaluate the suitability of sec-
ondary data for your research.
In contrast, Chapter 9 is concerned with collecting primary data using observation.
The chapter examines three types of observation: participant observation, structured
observation and Internet-mediated observation, as well as the use of videography, audio
recordings and static images in the collection of observational data. Practical advice on
using each is offered, and particular attention is given to ensuring that data are obtained
ethically.
Chapter 10 is also concerned with collecting primary data, this time using interviews
and diaries. The appropriateness of using different structures, modes and mediums of
interview in relation to your research strategy is discussed. Advice is offered on how to
undertake one-to-one semi structured or in-depth interviews online, as well as face-to-face
and by telephone. Advice is also offered for conducting one-to-many and two-to-many
group interviews and focus groups online and face-to-face. Visual interviews are discussed
along with ways to conduct these online and face-to-face. We also consider the use of both
quantitative and qualitative research diaries.
Chapter 11 is the final chapter concerned with collecting primary data. It introduces you
to the use of both self-completed and interviewer-completed questionnaires and explores
their advantages and disadvantages. Practical advice is offered on the process of design-
ing, piloting and delivering online, SMS (text), postal, delivery and collection, telephone
and face-to-face questionnaires to enhance their response rates. Within this we consider
the use of images in questionnaires.

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 Chapter 1 Research, reflective diaries and the purpose of this book

Analysis of data is covered in Chapters 12 and 13. Chapter 12 outlines and illustrates the
main issues that you need to consider when preparing and analysing data quantitatively.
Different types of data variable are defined, and advice is given on how to categorise and
code text and visual data (including using content analysis) and create a data matrix.
Practical advice is also offered on the analysis of these data using statistical analysis
software. The most appropriate diagrams to explore and illustrate data are discussed,
and suggestions are made about the most appropriate statistics to use to describe data, to
examine associations and differences and strength of relationships, and make predictions
and examine trends.
Chapter 13 outlines and discusses the main approaches available to you to prepare
and analyse data qualitatively both manually and using computer-aided qualitative data
analysis software (CAQDAS). The diverse nature of qualitative data and issues associated
with transcription are considered. Several analytical aids that will help you analyse data
and record your ideas as you progress your research are outlined. The use of deductively
based and inductively based analytical approaches is discussed and a variety of techniques
are outlined to analyse text, audio and visual qualitative data.
Chapter 14 helps you with the structure, content and style of your final project report
and any associated online or face-to-face oral and poster presentations. Possible structures
for both academic and practitioner (consultancy) project reports are discussed and alterna-
tive ways of presenting quotations from interviews outlined. Above all, and as illustrated
by Figure 1.2, it encourages you to see writing as a daily activity and an intrinsic part of
the research process that should not be left until everything else is completed.

Appendices and glossary

This book contains three appendices designed to support you at different stages of your
research project. In the early stages, as you begin to read, you will need to keep a refer-
ence of what you have read using a recognised system, the most frequently used of which
are detailed in Appendix 1. When selecting your sample you may need to calculate the
minimum sample size required and use random sampling numbers (Appendix 2). Finally,
when designing your data collection tools and writing your project report you will need
to ensure that the language you use is non-discriminatory. Guidelines for this are given
in Appendix 3. A separate glossary of over 750 research-methods-related terms is also
included for quick reference.

1.7 Summary
• This book is designed to help you to undertake a research project whether you are an under-
graduate or postgraduate student of business and management or a practising manager. It is
designed as an introductory textbook and to support you through the entire research process.
• Business and management research involves undertaking systematic research to find out things.
It is transdisciplinary and engages with both theory and practice.
• All business and management research projects can be placed on a basic–applied continuum
according to their purpose and context.
• Wherever your research project lies on this continuum, you should undertake your research
with rigour and try to ensure it benefits broader society. To do this you will need to pay careful
attention to the entire research process.

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 e ie and discussion uestions

• To enhance your learning during your research we recommend you keep a reflective diary or
notebook.
• In this book, research is represented as a multi-stage process; however, this process is rarely
straightforward and will involve both reflecting on and revising stages already undertaken as
well as forward planning.
• The text of each chapter is supported through a series of boxed examples. These include focus
on student research, focus on management research and focus on research in the news. In
addition, there are checklists, self-check questions and review and discussion questions, an
assignment to progress your research project and a case study with questions. Answers to all
self-check questions are at the end of the appropriate chapter.
• Answering the questions in the section ‘Progressing your research project’ for Chapters 1–1
will enable you to generate all the material that you will need to include in your project report
and reflect on what you have learnt. When you have also answered the questions in this sec-
tion for Chapter 1 , you will have written your research report.

Self-check questions
Help with these questions is available at the end of the chapter.

1.1 Outline the features that can make business and management research distinctive from
research in other disciplines.
1.2 What are the key differences between basic and applied research (and consultancy)?
1.3 Examine igure 1.2. What does this suggest about the need to plan and to reflect on and
revise your ideas?

e ie and discussion uestions

1.4 Agree with a friend to each read a different quality newspaper. Make a note of at least
10 articles in your newspaper that mention the word ‘research’. Now examine the articles
one at a time. As you examine each article, does the reference to research:
• refer to the collection of facts or information with no clear purpose?
• refer to the reassembling and reordering of facts or information without
interpretation?
• provide a means of getting the reader to respect what is being written?
• refer to the systematic collection and interpretation of data with a clear purpose? Dis-
cuss your answers with your friend.
1.5 Re-read Section 1. paying particular attention to the Community for Responsible
Research in Business and Management seven principles of responsible research outlined in
Table 1. . To what extent does each relate to how you believe business and management
research should be undertaken?
1.6 Revisit Table 1.2 and look at the differences in management researcher and
practitioner orientations for foci of interest, methodological imperatives, key
outcomes and how each views the other. For each of the continua implied by this
table, where would you place yourself? To what extent do you believe that business
and management research should meet the practitioner requirements? Give reasons
for your answer.

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 Chapter 1 Research, reflective diaries and the purpose of this book

Progressing your ensure that your reflective diary or research note-

book entries will enable you to meet fully the
research project assessment criteria. Be sure to ascertain whether
you are expected to be reflective or reflexive.
Starting your reflective diary or • When doing this, amend the questions in Box 1.
notebook to guide your diary or notebook entries as
necessary.
• Find out if your university requires you to write a
• If the answer is ‘no’, we still believe it will be ben-
reflective practice statement, learning journal or
eficial to your learning for your research project or
keep a reflective diary or research notebook as
research methods module if you keep a reflective
part of your research project or research methods
diary or research notebook on a regular basis. The
module.
questions in Box 1. may help guide your reflec-
• If the answer is ‘yes’, look carefully at precisely
tive entries at the end of each chapter.
what is required by the assessment criteria and

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Lincoln, .S., Lynham, S.A. and Guba, E.G. (2018) ‘Paradigmatic controversies, contradictions and
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urt er reading
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the new production of knowledge’, Organization, Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 25– 7. A clear explanation
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Other documents randomly have
different content
 Subgenus 2. Euscenidium, Haeckel.

Definition.—Feet forked or branched.

6. Euscenium furcatum, n. sp.

Shell campanulate, smooth, with numerous irregular roundish pores. Basal plate with
nine pores (three larger central and six smaller distal). Horn club-shaped, half as long as
the columella. Feet twice as long, cylindrical, parallel, vertical, forked at the distal end.
(Similar to Tripospyris semantis, Pl. 84, fig. 2, but without sagittal feet.)

Dimensions.—Shell 0.07 long, 0.06 broad; horn 0.04 long, feet 0.1 long.

Habitat.—Tropical Atlantic, Station 348, depth 2450 fathoms.

7. Euscenium quadratum, n. sp.

Shell campanulate, smooth with subregular square pores. Basal plate with three large
pores. Horn and feet of the same size and shape, twice as long as the columella, three-
sided prismatic, each with four or five verticils of lateral branches. (Similar to the cephalis
of Clathrocorys murrayi, Pl. 64, fig. 8, but with four free spines without connecting
lattice-wings.)

Dimensions.—Shell 0.06 long, 0.05 broad; horn and feet 0.12 long.

Habitat.—Central Pacific, Station 272, surface.

8. Euscenium ramosum, n. sp.

Shell subspherical, rough, with small subregular circular pores. Basal plate with nine
pores (three larger central and six smaller distal pores). Horn and feet of the same size
and form, three to four times as long as the columella, three-sided prismatic, irregularly
branched.

Dimensions.—Shell 0.06 diameter, horn and feet 0.15 to 0.2 long.

Habitat.—Central Pacific, Station 271, depth 2425 fathoms.

 Genus 505. Cladoscenium,[122] Haeckel, 1881, Prodromus, p. 429.

Definition.—A r c h i p e r i d a (vel Monocyrtida triradiata clausa) with a free branched

internal columella, prolonged into an apical horn. Three basal feet free, without lateral
wings.

The genus Cladoscenium differs from the preceding Euscenium only in the ramification of
the internal columella, which bears one or more verticils of three ascending lateral
branches. The three branches of each verticil lie in the same equidistant meridian planes
as the three basal feet, and are inserted with their distal ends on the inner surface of the
simple lattice-shell. The three feet are also branched, but without vertical lattice-wings.
Cladoscenium is perhaps closely allied to Clathrocorys.

1. Cladoscenium fulcratum, n. sp.

Shell subspherical, smooth, with large irregular roundish pores. Basal plate with three
large pores. Columella with a single verticil of three ascending lateral branches. Apical
horn as long as the columella, simple, three-sided prismatic. Feet twice as long, widely
divergent, straight, prismatic, with some irregular basal branches.

Dimensions.—Shell 0.06 diameter, horn 0.05 long, feet 0.1 long.

Habitat.—Central Pacific, Station 266, depth 2750 fathoms.

2. Cladoscenium ancoratum, n. sp. (Pl. 53, fig. 13).

Shell campanulate, smooth, with irregular polygonal pores. Basal plate with six pores
(two large cardinal, two smaller jugular and two still smaller cervical pores). Columella
with a single verticil of three ascending lateral branches (by mistake not distinct in the
figure). Apical horn and the three feet of the same form and size, slender, prismatic,
twice to three times as long as the shell, straight, in the distal half with three slender
recurved branches, anchor-shaped.

Dimensions.—Shell 0.05 long, 0.04 broad; horn and feet 0.1 to 0.15 long.

Habitat.—Central Pacific, Station 274, depth 2750 fathoms.

3. Cladoscenium gladiatum, n. sp.

Shell subspherical, with irregular polygonal pores. Basal plate with three large pores.
Columella with two verticils of three ascending lateral branches. Apical horn as long as
the columella, three-sided prismatic. Feet of the same form, twice as long, in the distal
half with two opposite transverse branches, sword-shaped.

Dimensions.—Shell 0.05 long, 0.06 broad; horn 0.04 long, feet 0.1 long.

Habitat.—Western Tropical Pacific, Station 225, depth 4475 fathoms.

4. Cladoscenium pinnatum, n. sp.

Shell campanulate, with irregular polygonal pores. Basal plate with four pores (two major
cardinal and two minor jugular). Columella with two verticils of three ascending lateral
branches, and prolonged into a slender prismatic apical horn of twice the length, which
bears four such verticils. Feet twice as long as the horn, pinnate, each with four or five
pairs of opposite lateral branches, decreasing towards the thin distal end.

Dimensions.—Shell 0.06 long, 0.05 broad; horn 0.1 long, feet 0.2 long.

Habitat.—Tropical Atlantic, Station 347, depth 2250 fathoms.

5. Cladoscenium verticillatum, n. sp.

Shell campanulate, with subregular square pores. Basal plate with nine pores (three
larger central and six smaller distal). Columella with three verticils of three ascending
lateral branches. Apical horn and the three basal feet of equal size and similar form, four
to six times as long as the columella, three-sided prismatic, each with four to five
verticils of three lateral branches, which are irregularly ramified and tapering towards the
distal end. (Similar to Clathrocorys teuscheri, Pl. 64, fig. 10, but with four free spines,
without connecting lattice-wings.)

Dimensions.—Shell 0.07 long, 0.06 broad; horn and feet 0.2 to 0.25 long.

Habitat.—Central Pacific, Station 271, depth 2425 fathoms.

6. Cladoscenium pectinatum, n. sp. (Pl. 98, fig. 2).

Shell subspherical, with irregular roundish pores. Basal plate with three large holes.
Columella with two verticils of three ascending lateral branches. Apical horn and the
three feet of nearly the same size and form, three to four times as long as the columella,
straight, three-sided prismatic, each with five to eight verticils of three simple lateral
branches, tapering towards the distal end.

Dimensions.—Shell 0.07 long, 0.08 broad; horn and feet 0.16 to 0.22 long.

Habitat.—South Atlantic, Station 332, depth 2200 fathoms.

Genus 506. Archiscenium,[123] Haeckel, 1881, Prodromus, p. 429.

Definition.—A r c h i p e r i d a (vel Monocyrtida triradiata clausa) with a free simple

internal columella, prolonged into an apical horn. Three basal feet connected with the
horn by three vertical lateral wings.

The genus Archiscenium and the following nearly allied Pteroscenium are derived from
the two preceding genera, from which they differ in the development of three free
vertical lateral lattice-wings; these arise from the upper edge of the three basal feet and
connect them with the three edges of the apical horn. The basal part of the latter,
enclosed in the shell, forms an internal free columella, which in Archiscenium is simple,
not branched.

1. Archiscenium quadrispinum, n. sp. (Pl. 53, fig. 11).

Shell hemispherical, smooth, with a small number of large irregular polygonal meshes
and thin bars. Basal lattice with three very large central meshes and six smaller
peripheral meshes (two on the base of each foot). Apical horn and the three feet of
equal size and similar form, slender, pyramidal, widely divergent, straight, as long as the
shell-diameter. Three lateral wings small, little prominent, each with two or three
irregular meshes. Central capsule subspherical.

Dimensions.—Shell 0.05 long, 0.1 broad.

Habitat.—Central Pacific, Station 274, depth 2750 fathoms.

2. Archiscenium clathrocorys, n. sp.

Shell campanulate, smooth, with numerous irregular square meshes. Basal lattice with
three very large meshes. Apical horn and the three feet of equal size and similar form,
three-sided prismatic, widely divergent, straight, twice as long as the shell-diameter.
Three lateral wings broad, each with a basal row of few very large irregular roundish
meshes, and several distal rows of small square meshes. This species is very similar to
Clathrocorys murrayi (Pl. 64, fig. 8), but has no trace of thorax-wall. The latter species
may be derived from the former by development of the thoracic lattice, which connects
the three free feet.

Dimensions.—Shell 0.05 long, 0.06 broad.

Habitat.—Central Pacific, Station 266, depth 2750 fathoms.

3. Archiscenium tripterygium, n. sp.

Shell hemispherical, smooth, with numerous irregular roundish meshes of very different
sizes. Basal lattice with four large meshes, two major cardinal and two minor cardinal
pores. Apical horn and the three feet of similar form and size, slender prismatic, three to
four times as long as the shell; the horn straight, the feet curved. Three lateral wings
very delicate, with a basal row of few large irregular polygonal meshes, and several distal
rows of similar small pores.

Dimensions.—Shell 0.04 long, 0.05 broad.

Habitat.—North Pacific, Station 244, depth 2900 fathoms.

4. Archiscenium cyclopterum, n. sp. (Pl. 98, fig. 3).

Shell hemispherical, with small irregular roundish pores. Basal lattice with four large
meshes, two major cardinal and two minor jugular pores. Apical horn and the three feet
of similar form and size, slender prismatic, straight, twice to four times as long as the
shell. Three lateral wings nearly semicircular, densely latticed, with the same pores as the
shell, and smooth convex margin.

Dimensions.—Shell 0.05 long, 0.06 broad.

Habitat.—South Pacific, Station 295, depth 1500 fathoms.

5. Archiscenium callimitra, n. sp.

Shell campanulate, with irregular polygonal pores. Basal lattice with nine meshes (three
larger central and six smaller distal pores, as in Callimitra carolotæ, Pl. 63, fig. 8). Apical
horn straight, prismatic, slender, conical, twice as long as the shell. Feet longer and more
slender, slightly curved. Three lateral wings very broad, densely fenestrated, with
irregular polygonal pores of the same shape as in the similar Callimitra carolotæ (Pl. 63,
fig. 1).

Dimensions.—Shell 0.05 long, 0.04 broad.

Habitat.—Western Tropical Pacific, Station 225, depth 4475 fathoms.

Genus 507. Pteroscenium,[124] Haeckel, 1881, Prodromus, p. 429.

Definition.—A r c h i p e r i d a (vel Monocyrtida triradiata clausa) with a free branched

internal columella, prolonged into an apical horn. Three basal feet connected with the
horn by three vertical lateral wings.

The genus Pteroscenium differs from the preceding Archiscenium only in the ramification
of the internal columella, and therefore exhibits to it the same relation that Cladoscenium
bears to Euscenium. The branches of the columella form also here verticils of ascending
branches, three in each verticil, and their distal ends are inserted on the inner surface of
the lattice-shell.

1. Pteroscenium arcuatum, n. sp. (Pl. 98, fig. 4).

Shell campanulate, smooth, nearly conical, somewhat broader than long, with irregular
dense network of small circular pores. Columella straight, with two or three triradiate
verticils of horizontal lateral branches, which are inserted in the shell-wall. Horn slender
pyramidal, as long as the shell. Three divergent feet twice as long as the horn, strongly
curved, thorny, three-edged; the distance of their pointed ends twice as broad as the
shell. From the outer edge of each foot arise numerous ascending bristles, which are
connected together and with similar lateral branches of the horn by curved arches,
forming three delicate spiny vertical wings.

Dimensions.—Shell 0.06 long, 0.08 broad.

Habitat.—Central Pacific, Station 271, depth 2425 fathoms.

2. Pteroscenium arcadophorum, n. sp.

Shell campanulate, smooth, with irregular polygonal pores, very similar to the preceding
species but with much broader wings, forming several arcades with three to five rows of
irregular meshes. Columella with five or six triradiate verticils of lateral branches. Horn
twice as long as the shell, of the same length as the strongly curved spinulate feet.

Dimensions.—Shell 0.09 long, 0.11 broad.

Habitat.—Central Pacific, Station 265, depth 2900 fathoms.

3. Pteroscenium pinnatum, n. sp. (Pl. 53, figs. 14, 15, 16).

Shell campanulate, smooth, somewhat longer than broad, with irregular delicate network
of small roundish pores. Columella straight, with numerous (eight to twelve) triradiate
verticils of ascending lateral branches, which are inserted in the shell-wall. The
uppermost end of the columella is a conical apical horn. The three divergent feet are
smooth, slender, conical, slightly curved, about as long as the shell, pinnate, with six to
ten pairs of ascending lateral branches, parallel to those of the columella and inserted on
the three vaulted lateral wings. (Fig. 14 exhibits the outside of the shell, fig. 15 the
internal structure of the cortina, fig. 16 the basal view.)

Dimensions.—Shell 0.1 long, 0.12 broad.

Habitat.—Central Pacific, Station 274, depth 2750 fathoms.

4. Pteroscenium spinulosum, n. sp.

Shell campanulate, spinulate, about as long as broad, with small and numerous irregular
polygonal pores, very similar to the preceding species, but differing in the more slender
form of the horn and the feet, bearing more numerous lateral branches (twelve to
sixteen pairs on each foot). Columella with six to eight triradiate verticils. Horn about as
long as the shell.

Dimensions.—Shell 0.1 long, 0.1 broad.

Habitat.—Central Pacific, Station 268, depth 2900 fathoms.

5. Pteroscenium macropodium, n. sp.

Shell campanulate, spinulate, with irregular polygonal pores; very similar to the two
preceding species, but differing in the size and shape of the three feet, which are for the
most part solid, triangular, nearly parallel, vertical, very slender, three times as long as
the shell, latticed only at the curved base, with few pairs of lateral branches. Columella
with four to six triradiate verticils, as long as the stout triangular pyramidal horn.

Dimensions.—Shell 0.1 long, 0.08 broad.

Habitat.—Central Pacific, Station 272, depth 2600 fathoms.

6. Pteroscenium tripocolpum, n. sp.

Shell campanulate, spinulate, similar to Euscenium tricolpium (Pl. 53, fig. 12) with three
vaulted hemispherical bosoms between the three delicate arachnoidal vertical wings.
Network loose, very irregular, with polygonal meshes of very different sizes. Columella
with three or four triradiate verticils, as long as the slender pyramidal horn. Three feet
twice as long, somewhat curved, widely divergent, with three or four pairs of lateral
branches. The three edges of the feet and of the horn are elegantly denticulated.

Dimensions.—Shell 0.06 long, 0.09 broad.

Habitat.—Central Pacific, Station 266, depth 2750 fathoms.

Genus 508. Peridium,[125] Haeckel, 1881, p. 429.

Definition.—A r c h i p e r i d a (vel Monocyrtida triradiata clausa) without internal

columella, with an apical horn.

The genus Peridium (or Archiperidium, Prodromus, loc. cit.) and the two following nearly
allied genera form together the small group of Archibursida, differing from the four
preceding genera (the Euscenida) in the absence of an internal free columella. The three
basal feet have therefore no direct connection with the apical horn. Peridium, the
ancestral form of the Archibursida, may have originated either from Euscenium by
reduction and loss of the columella, or directly from Tripospyris by loss of the sagittal
ring and the longitudinal constriction.

Subgenus 1. Peridarium, Haeckel.

Definition.—Feet smooth, simple, neither spiny nor branched.

1. Peridium lasanum, n. sp.

Shell subspherical, smooth, with subregular circular pores. Basal plate with three large
meshes. Horn apical, vertical, of the same size and form as the three divergent smooth
feet, slender pyramidal, twice to three times as long as the shell.

Dimensions.—Shell-diameter 0.06 to 0.07, length of the three spines 0.15 to 0.2.

Habitat.—North Pacific, Station 253, depth 3125 fathoms.

2. Peridium papillatum, n. sp.

Shell subspherical, papillate, with subregular circular pores. Basal plate with four meshes
(two major cardinal and two minor jugular pores). Horn occipital, oblique, three-sided
pyramidal, half as long as the shell and as the three widely divergent, subhorizontal,
smooth feet.

Dimensions.—Shell diameter 0.07 to 0.08, length of the horn 0.04, of the feet 0.08.

Habitat.—Central Pacific, Station 268, depth 2900 fathoms.

3. Peridium curvipes, n. sp.

Shell hemispherical, thorny, with irregular roundish pores. Basal plate with six pores (two
larger middle cardinal, two smaller anterior jugular and two smaller posterior cervical
pores, as in Pl. 53, figs. 13, 18). Horn conical, oblique, arising from the middle of the
occipital face, half as long as the shell. Feet slender, conical, curved, smooth, twice as
long as the shell.

Dimensions.—Shell 0.04 long, 0.06 broad; horn 0.02 long; feet 0.08 long.

Habitat.—Tropical Pacific, Station 206, depth 2100 fathoms.

Subgenus 2. Archiperidium, Haeckel.

Definition.—Feet spiny or branched.

4. Peridium spinipes, n. sp. (Pl. 53, fig. 9).

Shell ovate, rough or thorny, with irregular roundish pores. Basal plate with four pores
(two larger cardinal and two smaller jugular pores). Horn oblique, occipital, three-sided
pyramidal, half as long as the shell, connected with the caudal foot by a prominent crest.
Three feet horizontally expanded, prismatic, spiny, about as long as the shell.

Dimensions.—Shell 0.08 long, 0.06 broad; horn 0.04 long, feet 0.06 to 0.09 long.

Habitat.—Central Pacific, Station 266, depth 2750 fathoms.

5. Peridium palmipes, n. sp. (Pl. 53, fig. 10).

Shell ovate, smooth, with irregular roundish pores. Basal plate with three large pores.
Horn oblique, three-sided pyramidal, about as long as the shell, inserted near its occipital
base. Three feet prismatic, slender, half as long, ending with a broad dentate plate.

Dimensions.—Shell 0.06 long, 0.05 broad; horn 0.05 long, feet 0.03 long.

Habitat.—Western Tropical Pacific, Station 224, depth 1850 fathoms.

6. Peridium alatum, n. sp. (Pl. 97, fig. 7).

Shell subspherical smooth, with regular circular, hexagonally-framed pores. Basal plate
with nine pores (three larger central and six smaller distal pores). Horn apical, of equal
size and the same form as the three feet, three-sided prismatic, with three broad
prominent wings, somewhat longer than the shell.

Dimensions.—Shell 0.07 long, 0.08 broad; horn and feet 0.1 to 0.12 long.

Habitat.—Central Pacific, Station 272, depth 2600 fathoms.

7. Peridium cervinum, n. sp.

Shell subspherical, spiny, with subregular circular pores. Basal plate with four pores (?).
Horn apical, conical, about as long as the shell. Feet three to four times as long,
cylindrical curved, with irregular simple or forked branches like the antlers of a deer.

Dimensions.—Shell diameter 0.1, horn 0.1 long, feet 0.3 to 0.4 long.

Habitat.—Central Pacific, Station 266, depth 2750 fathoms.

Genus 509. Archipera,[126] Haeckel, 1881, Prodromus, p. 429.

Definition.—A r c h i p e r i d a (vel Monocyrtida triradiata clausa) without internal

columella, with two or more apical horns.

The genus Archipera differs from the preceding Peridium only in the multiplication of the
apical horn, which in the latter is always simple. The number of horns is usually two or
three, sometimes four or more. The species bearing three horns may be derived directly
from Triceraspyris by loss of the sagittal ring.

1. Archipera cortiniscus, n. sp. (Pl. 98, fig. 5).

Shell ovate, thorny, with large roundish pores, which are closed by sieve-plates with
numerous small porules. Basal plate with two pairs of simple large pores (two smaller
jugular and two larger cardinal, similar to Pl. 98, fig. 10b). Two horns divergent, curved,
slender, pyramidal; the apical horn longer than the shell, the frontal horn shorter. Three
feet divergent, longer than the shell, three-sided prismatic, at the distal end club-shaped,
thorny.

Dimensions.—Shell 0.1 long, 0.08 broad; horns and feet 0.11 to 0.14 long.

Habitat.—Tropical Pacific, Station 225, depth 4475 fathoms.

2. Archipera pentacantha, n. sp.

Shell pear-shaped, smooth, with numerous and small irregular roundish pores. Basal
plate with three larger pores. Two horns and three feet of nearly equal size and similar
form, three-sided prismatic, about as long as the shell diameter, somewhat curved. The
apical horn stands on the apex, the frontal horn half-way up the shell.

Dimensions.—Shell 0.08 long, 0.06 broad; horns and feet 0.05 to 0.07 long.
Habitat.—Central Pacific, Station 272, depth 2600 fathoms.

3. Archipera bicornis, n. sp.

Shell ovate, rough, with small regular circular, sparsely scattered pores. Basal plate with
four larger central and a peripheral coronal of twelve smaller pores. Two horns near the
apex widely divergent, somewhat shorter than the shell, of equal size and similar form.
Three feet twice as long, horizontally expanded. All five spines slender, three-sided
pyramidal, straight.

Dimensions.—Shell 0.07 long, 0.06 broad; horns 0.05 long, feet 0.1 long.

Habitat.—Central Pacific, Station 271, depth 2425 fathoms.

4. Archipera tricornis, n. sp.

Shell subspherical, smooth, with subregular circular pores. Basal plate with four large
meshes (two major cardinal and two minor jugular pores). On the apex three divergent
pyramidal horns of different size, one larger occipital and two smaller frontal horns.
Three feet prismatic, about twice as long as the shell.

Dimensions.—Shell diameter 0.05, length of the feet 0.1.

Habitat.—North Pacific, Station 253, depth 3125 fathoms.

5. Archipera quadricornis, n. sp.

Shell ovate, smooth, with a small number of irregular roundish, widely scattered pores.
Basal plate with four crossed meshes of nearly equal size. On the equator there arise
four divergent prismatic horns of nearly equal size, three of which correspond to the
three feet, whilst the fourth is opposite to the caudal foot. The three feet are also
prismatic, as long as the shell, horizontally expanded. (Similar to the upper half of
Lithomelissa decacantha, Pl. 56, fig. 2, but without thorax.)

Dimensions.—Shell 0.05 long, 0.04 broad; horns and feet 0.06 long.

Habitat.—South Pacific, Station 300, depth 1375 fathoms.

6. Archipera multicornis, n. sp.

Shell hemispherical, spiny, with irregular polygonal pores. Basal plate with six meshes
(?). Between the smaller spines of the surface arise six larger conical divergent horns.
Three feet also conical, divergent, about twice as long as the shell and the horns.

Dimensions.—Shell 0.05 long, 0.07 broad; horns 0.05 long, feet 0.1 long.

Habitat.—Central Pacific, Station 274, depth 2750 fathoms.

Genus 510. Archibursa,[127] Haeckel, 1881, Prodromus, p. 429.

Definition.—A r c h i p e r i d a (vel Monocyrtida triradiata clausa) without internal

columella and without apical horn.

The genus Archibursa has probably arisen from Peridium by loss of the apical horn, and
is the only genus of Archiperida which bears no horn. The three basal feet are well-
developed. It differs from the similar Tristylospyris by the absence of the sagittal ring and
the corresponding longitudinal constriction.

1. Archibursa tripodiscus, n. sp. (Pl. 98, fig. 6).

Shell subspherical, smooth, with irregular roundish pores. Basal plate with three large
triangular pores of equal size (fig. 6). Three feet widely divergent, straight, three-sided
prismatic, about as long as the diameter of the shell.

Dimensions.—Diameter of the shell 0.07, length of the feet 0.09.

Habitat.—Central Pacific, Station 272, depth 2600 fathoms.

Family LX. P h æ n o c a l p i d a , n. fam.

Archiphormida et Archiphænida, Haeckel, 1881, Prodromus, pp. 428,

429.

Definition.—M o n o c y r t i d a multiradiata. (C y r t o i d e a with a simple, not jointed

shell, resembling a simple cephalis, with numerous radial apophyses (four to nine or
more).
The family P h æ n o c a l p i d a , composed of the Archiphormida and Archiphænida of my
Prodromus, comprises those C y r t o i d e a in which the lattice-shell is quite without
transverse constriction, but bears numerous radial apophyses. The two subfamilies differ
in the shape of the basal mouth, which in the Archiphormida is a simple wide opening,
but is closed in the Archiphænida by a lattice-plate.

Several Phænocalpida were formerly described by Ehrenberg, viz., Halicalyptra virginica

(in 1844) and Litharachnium arachnodiscus (in 1872, called by him Carpocanium, though
it is quite different from this genus, and closely allied to my Litharachnium tentorium,
figured in 1862). These forms belong to the Archiphormida (with open mouth). Several
fossil Archiphænida (with closed mouth) were figured by Ehrenberg, in 1875, as
belonging to Petalospyris (ocellata, carinata, flabellum), though the absence of the
sagittal ring and the corresponding longitudinal constriction demonstrates their character
as Phænocalpis.

The Phænocalpida are probably an artificial family, composed of three or four (or
perhaps more) different groups, which have a quite different origin. The Litharachnida
(genera 511-515) and the Haliphormida (genera 516-518) are probably derived from the
Sethophormida by loss of the cephalis, the retrograde metamorphosis of which may be
observed in all its different stages. The Halicalyptrida (genera 519-521) are perhaps
independent of the other Phænocalpida, and may be Archicorida which have produced a
corona of teeth around the mouth, without relation to lost radial ribs. The Phænoscenida
(Phænocalpis, Phænoscenium) may be derived from the Euscenida (genera 504-507) by
interpolation of interradial feet between the three primary ones, or directly from the
P l e c t o i d e a . The Calpophænida, on the other hand (Calpophæna, Archiphæna), may
have arisen from the Zygospyrida (Petalospyris, Gorgospyris) by loss of the sagittal ring
and the longitudinal constriction. The phylogeny of the Phænocalpida is therefore a very
complicated problem, as yet unsolved.

Synopsis of the Genera of Phænocalpida.

 Shell simple, with
simple network, 511. Bathropyramis.
Shell slender,
pyramidal Shell simple, with
(without double network, 512. Cinclopyramis.
Radial ribs horn).
Shell double, with an
enclosed outer mantle, 513. Peripyramis.
in the
wall of Shell flatly
campanulate Radial ribs simple,
the shell, 514. Litharachnium.
usually or discoidal
I. Subfamily prolonged (without Radial ribs branched,
Archiphormida. into free horn). 515. Cladarachnium.
Basal mouth of terminal Mouth smooth,
the shell a feet. constricted (no horn), 516. Cystophormis.
simple wide Shell ovate,
opening. urceolate or Mouth, With horn, 517. Haliphormis.
campanulate. with a
corona
of feet. No horn, 518. Archiphormis.

Shell With horn, 519. Halicalyptra.

simple
No radial ribs in the wall of the without
mantle. No horn, 520. Carpocanistrum.
shell. Mouth surrounded by a
corona of free terminal feet. Shell double, with an
external mantle (no
horn), 521. Arachnocalpis.
II. Subfamily In the axis of the shell-cavity a Columella simple, 522. Phænocalpis.
Archiphænida. free columella. Columella branched, 523. Phænoscenium.
Basal mouth
closed by a Shell-cavity simple, without Apex with a horn, 524. Calpophæna.
lattice-plate. axial columella. No apical horn, 525. Archiphæna.

Subfamily 1. Archiphormida, Haeckel, 1881, Prodromus, p. 428.

Definition.—P h æ n o c a l p i d a with the basal mouth of the shell open (vel Monocyrtida
multiradiata aperta).

Genus 511. Bathropyramis,[128] Haeckel, 1881, Prodromus, p. 428.

Definition.—A r c h i p h o r m i d a (vel Monocyrtida multiradiata aperta) with simple,

slender pyramidal shell and numerous radial beams (six to nine or more). Network
simple, with large, unfenestrated, quadrangular meshes.

The genus Bathropyramis and the following four nearly allied genera form together a
peculiar group of Archiphormida, the Litharachnida, possessing near relations to
Sethopyramis and the allied Sethophormida, from which they are probably derived by
reduction and loss of the small cephalis. The shell in all these forms is distinctly
pyramidal, composed of numerous divergent radial beams (commonly six to nine), which
form the edges of the pyramid, and are connected by parallel horizontal rings. The
quadrangular meshes so produced are quite simple in Bathropyramis. This genus cannot
be sharply separated from Sethopyramis, its ancestral form.

Subgenus 1. Acropyramis, Haeckel, 1881, Prodromus, p. 428.

Definition.—Shell smooth, without spines on the surface.

1. Bathropyramis acephala, n. sp.

Shell smooth, slenderly pyramidal, with three cortinar pores at the apex and with six
stout radial beams or longitudinal ribs, connected by twelve to sixteen complete
hexagonal horizontal rings. Meshes nearly square, increasing gradually in size towards
the mouth.

Dimensions.—Shell 0.25 long, 0.15 broad.

Habitat.—South Pacific, Station 295, depth 1500 fathoms.

2. Bathropyramis quadrata, n. sp. (Pl. 54, fig. 1).

Shell smooth, slenderly pyramidal, with three cortinar pores at the apex and nine stout
radial beams, connected by eight to twelve complete circular horizontal rings. Meshes
subregular, square, increasing in size gradually towards the circular mouth.

Dimensions.—Shell 0.2 to 0.3 long, 0.12 to 0.2 broad.

Habitat.—Central Pacific, Station 272, depth 2600 fathoms.

3. Bathropyramis trapezoides, n. sp. (Pl. 54, fig. 3).

Shell smooth, broadly pyramidal, with four cortinar pores at the apex and eight (or
sometimes nine) stout radial beams, connected by twelve to sixteen complete octagonal
horizontal rings. Meshes trapezoidal, of nearly equal length, but gradually increasing in
breadth.
Dimensions.—Shell 0.3 long, 0.3 broad.

Habitat.—Central Pacific, Station 265, depth 2900 fathoms.

4. Bathropyramis interrupta, n. sp. (Pl. 55, fig. 7).

Shell smooth, flatly pyramidal, nearly discoidal, with four cortinar pores at the apex and
nine to ten stout radial beams, connected by eight to sixteen interrupted rings; the rings
are complete only in the apical part, in the distal part more or less irregularly interrupted.

Dimensions.—Shell 0.12 long, 0.36 broad.

Habitat.—North Atlantic, Station 354, surface.

5. Bathropyramis medusa, n. sp.

Shell smooth, flatly pyramidal, nearly discoidal, with four cortinar pores and numerous
radial beams (thirty to fifty); the four perradial of these are prolongations of the four
cortinar beams, and alternate with four interradial of the same size. Between these are
intercalated eight adradial beams arising from the third ring; and between the former
and the latter, sixteen to twenty-four peripheral radial beams, arising from the fourth to
the sixth ring. The inner four to six rings are complete, the outer ten to fifteen irregularly
interrupted.

Dimensions.—Shell 0.08 long, 0.3 to 0.4 broad.

Habitat.—South Atlantic, Station 338, surface.

Subgenus 2. Cladopyramis, Haeckel, 1881, Prodromus, p. 428.

Definition.—Shell spiny, with prominent simple or branched spines on the surface.

6. Bathropyramis spinosa, n. sp.

Shell spiny, slenderly pyramidal, with three cortinar pores at the apex and with nine
strong radial beams, connected by fifteen to twenty complete parallel rings. Meshes
subregular square, increasing gradually in size. Surface covered with simple, strong
conical spines, arising from the nodal points.
Dimensions.—Shell 0.24 long, 0.16 broad.

Habitat.—North Pacific, Station 244, depth 2900 fathoms.

7. Bathropyramis ramosa, n. sp. (Pl. 54, fig. 4).

Shell spiny, slenderly pyramidal, with three cortinar pores at the apex, and with nine (or
sometimes eight or ten) strong radial beams, connected by fifteen to eighteen complete
parallel rings. Meshes subregular, square, increasing gradually in size. Surface covered
with forked or irregularly branched spines, arising from the nodal points.

Dimensions.—Shell 0.3 long, 0.17 broad.

Habitat.—Tropical Atlantic, Station 347, depth 2250 fathoms.

Genus 512. Cinclopyramis,[129] Haeckel, 1881, Prodromus, p. 428.

Definition.—A r c h i p h o r m i d a (vel Monocyrtida multiradiata aperta) with simple,

slender, pyramidal shell, and numerous radial beams (six to nine or more). Network
double, with a delicate arachnoidal fenestration, filling up the large quadrangular
meshes.

The genus Cinclopyramis differs from the preceding Bathropyramis in the development of
a very delicate secondary network, filling up the large quadrangular meshes, which are
produced by the crossing of the radial beams and the parallel horizontal rings. It
therefore bears the same relation to the preceding genus that Plectopyramis does to
Sethopyramis; it is perhaps derived directly from the former by loss of the small cephalis.

1. Cinclopyramis cribellum, n. sp.

Cinclopyramis cribellum = "Ladder of lattice-shape," Bury, 1862, Polycystins of Barbados, pl. xii. fig.
6.

Shell slender, pyramidal, with six strong radial ribs, which are connected by twelve to
sixteen complete horizontal rings. Meshes trapezoidal, filled up by a very delicate and
regular secondary network with square porules (two to four horizontal threads in each
larger mesh).

Dimensions.—Shell 0.2 to 0.3 long, 0.12 to 0.16 broad.

Habitat.—Fossil in Barbados.

2. Cinclopyramis infundibulum, n. sp. (Pl. 54, fig. 7).

Shell slender, pyramidal, with nine strong radial ribs, which are connected by eighteen to
twenty-four complete horizontal rings. Meshes subregular square, filled up by a very
delicate and regular secondary network with square porules (ten to twelve horizontal
threads in each larger mesh). Apex of the pyramid with three very small cortinar pores.

Dimensions.—Shell 0.3 to 0.4 long, 0.2 to 0.25 broad.

Habitat.—Tropical Atlantic, Station 338, depth 1990 fathoms.

3. Cinclopyramis lithosestrum, n. sp.

Shell slender, pyramidal, with twelve strong radial ribs (six primary longer and six
secondary shorter) connected by twelve to fifteen interrupted irregular rings. Meshes
irregular square or trapezoidal, filled up by a delicate secondary network with irregular
polygonal porules.

Dimensions.—Shell 0.4 to 0.5 long, 0.2 to 0.3 broad.

Habitat.—Fossil in Barbados.

Genus 513. Peripyramis,[130] Haeckel, 1881, Prodromus, p. 428.

Definition.—A r c h i p h o r m i d a (vel Monocyrtida multiradiata aperta) with double,

slenderly pyramidal shell, and numerous radial beams (six to nine or more). Network
double, with an external arachnoidal or spongy envelope around the primary lattice-shell.

The genus Peripyramis differs from its probable ancestral form, Bathropyramis, by
development of a delicate external envelope around the primary shell, and therefore
bears to it the same relation that Spongopyramis among the Dicyrtida does to
Sethopyramis. It may also be derived directly from the former by loss of the cephalis.

1. Peripyramis circumtexta, n. sp. (Pl. 54, fig. 5).

Shell slender, pyramidal, with nine strong radial beams, connected by fifteen to twenty
transverse horizontal rings, which are partly complete, partly interrupted. Meshes
subregular, square. From the nodal points of the surface there arise branched spines,
which at equal distances from it are connected by thin threads, forming a delicate outer
arachnoidal shell with large irregular polygonal meshes.

Dimensions.—Shell 0.32 long, 0.16 broad.

Habitat.—Central Pacific, Station 271, depth 2425 fathoms.

2. Peripyramis spongiosa, n. sp.

Shell slender, pyramidal, with nine strong radial beams, connected by twelve to eighteen
irregular interrupted rings. Meshes irregular, square or polygonal. From the whole surface
arise numerous branched spines, which by communication and dense ramification form
an outer spongy envelope around the shell. (Similar to Spongopyramis spongiosa, Pl. 56,
fig. 10.)

Dimensions.—Shell 0.45 long, 0.32 broad.

Habitat.—Central Pacific, Station 274, depth 2750 fathoms.

Genus 514. Litharachnium,[131] Haeckel, 1860, Monatsber. d. k. preuss. Akad. d. Wiss.

Berlin, p. 835.

Definition.—A r c h i p h o r m i d a (vel Monocyrtida multiradiata aperta) with flatly conical,

tent-shaped or nearly discoidal shell, and numerous, simple, radial beams in its wall.

The genus Litharachnium, and the closely allied genus Cladarachnium, differ from the
preceding similar genera mainly in the flat form of the depressed shell, which is not
slenderly pyramidal, but more tent-shaped or nearly discoidal. The radial ribs are
generally not straight, but more or less curved. The top of the tent exhibits three or four
important meshes, the original pores of the cortinar septum. Litharachnium may be
derived directly from Sethophormis by reduction and loss of the cephalis.

Subgenus 1. Litharachnidium, Haeckel.

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