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Life-span Development
The Importance of studying life span Development is Multidimensional
development
No matter what your age might be, your body,
- It helps you to deal with other people mind, emotions, and relationships are changing and
- Gain more insights about your own history affecting each other.
- Might have help to raise proactive issues
- Know the concepts until when life ends Development has biological, cognitive, and
socioemotional dimensions. Even within a
Development
dimension, there are many components
- Pattern of changes that begins at conception
- For example, attention, memory, abstract
and continues through life span
- It involves growth although it is also include thinking, speed of processing information,
decline brought on by aging and dying and social intelligence are just a few of the
components of the cognitive dimension.
Characteristics of life-span perspective
Development is Multidirectional
- Studying development emphasizes extensive
change with to adolescence Throughout life, some dimensions or components of
a dimension expand and others shrink. For example,
Life expectancy
when one language (such as English) is acquired
- Human life expectancy have contributed to early in development, the capacity for acquiring
the popularity of life-span development second and third languages (such as Spanish and
approach to development Chinese) decreases later in development, especially
- Average number of years that a person born after early childhood. During adolescence, as
in a particular years can expert to live individuals establish romantic relationships, their
Life-span perspective time spent with friends may decrease. During late
adulthood, older adults might become wiser because
- Development occurs throughout life is they have more experience than younger adults to
central to the life-span perspective on human
draw upon to guide their decision-making, but they
development
- Life span is viewed as life-long perform more poorly on tasks that require speed in
multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, processing information.
multidisciplinary, and contextual and as a Development is Plastic
pieces of growth maintenance and regulation
of loss. Plasticity means the capacity for change.
For example, can you still improve your intellectual
Development is lifelong skills when you are in your seventies or eighties? Or
might these intellectual skills be fixed by the time
In the life-span perspective, early adulthood is not
you are in your thirties so that further improvement
the endpoint of development; rather, no age period
is impossible? Researchers have found that the
dominates development. Researchers increasingly
cognitive skills of older adults can be improved
study the experiences and psychological
through training and acquisition of effective
orientations of adults at different points in their
strategies. However, possibly we possess less
lives.
capacity for change as we grow older.
Understanding plasticity and its constraints is a key
element on the contemporary agenda for
developmental research.
Developmental is Multidisciplinary during the 1990s, and time spent on social media in
the last decade.
How do your heredity and health limit your
intelligence? Do intelligence and social Non-normative life events (non-normative life
relationships change with age in the same ways events unusual occurrences that have a major
around the world? How do families and schools impact on an individual’s life).
influence intellectual development? These are
are unusual occurrences that have a major impact on
examples of research questions that cut across
the lives of individual people. These events do not
disciplines.
happen to everyone, and when they do occur they
Developmental is Contextual can influence people in different ways.
All development occurs within a context, or setting. Examples include the death of a parent when a child
Contexts include families, schools, peer groups, is young, pregnancy in early adolescence, a fire that
churches, cities, neighborhoods, university destroys a home, winning the lottery, or getting an
laboratories, countries, and so on. Each of these unexpected career opportunity.
settings is influenced by historical, economic,
Development Involves Growth, Maintenance,
social, and cultural factors. Contexts, like
and Regulation of Loss
individuals, change. Thus, individuals are changing
beings in a changing world. Assert that the mastery of life often involves
conflicts and competition among three goals of
As a result of these changes, contexts exert three
human development: growth, maintenance, and
types of influences: (1) normative age-graded
regulation of loss. As individuals age into middle
influences, (2) normative history-graded influences,
and late adulthood, the maintenance and regulation
and (3) non-normative or highly individualized life
of loss in their capacities takes center stage. Thus, a
events. Each type of influence can have a biological
75-year-old man might aim not to improve his
or environmental impact on development.
memory or his golf swing but to maintain his
THREE TYPES OF INFLUENCES independence and his ability to play golf at all. In
the chapters on “Physical and Cognitive
Normative age-graded influences
Development in Middle Adulthood” and
are similar for individuals in a particular age group. “Socioemotional Development in Middle
These influences include biological processes such Adulthood.
as puberty and menopause. They also include
Development Is a Co-construction of Biology,
sociocultural factors and environmental processes
Culture, and the Individual
such as beginning formal education (usually at
about age 6 in most cultures) and retiring from the Development is a co-construction of biological,
workforce (which takes place during the fifties and cultural, and individual factors working together.
sixties in most cultures).
For example, the brain shapes culture, but it is also
Normative history-graded influences shaped by culture and the experiences that
individuals have or pursue. In terms of individual
are common to people of a particular generation
factors, we can go beyond what our genetic
because of historical circumstances.
inheritance and our environment give us. We can
Long-term changes in the genetic and cultural author a unique developmental path by actively
makeup of a population (due to immigration or choosing from the environment the things that
changes in fertility rates) are also part of normative optimize our lives
historical change.
HEALTH AND WELL-BEING
Example: the integration of computers and cell
Health professionals today recognize the powerful
phones into everyday life
influences
of lifestyles and psychological states on health and certain inequalities. Differences in the ability to
well-being. Life-Span Development, issues of control resources and to participate in society’s
health and well-being are integrated into our rewards produce unequal opportunities.
discussions.
Gender
Parenting and Education
refers to the characteristics of people as males and
Sociocultural Contexts and Diversity females. Few aspects of our development are more
central to our identity and social relationships than
Health, parenting, and education— like
gender.
development itself—are all shaped by their
sociocultural context. Social Policy
Four Concepts is a government’s course of action designed to
promote the welfare of its citizens. Values,
Culture
economics, and politics all shape a nation’s social
Encompasses the behavior patterns, beliefs, and all policy. Out of concern that policy makers are doing
other products of a particular group of people that too little to protect the well-being of children and
are passed on from generation to generation. older adults, lifespan researchers are increasingly
undertaking studies that they hope will lead to
Culture results from the interaction of people over effective social policy.
many years.
Example: A cultural group can be as large as the
United States or as small as an isolated Appalachian CONNECTING DEVELOPMENT TO LIFE
town. Whatever its size, the group’s culture
Technology
influences the behavior of its members.
A final discussion in our exploration of
Cross-cultural studies
contemporary topics is the recent dramatic, almost
Compare aspects of two or more cultures. The overwhelming increase in the use of technology at
comparison provides information about the degree all points in human development.
to which development is similar (or universal)
THE NATURE OF DEVELOPMENT
across cultures, or is instead culture-specific.
BIOLOGICAL, COGNITIVE,
For example, in a recent study of 26 countries,
ANDSOCIOEMOTIONAL PROCESSES
individuals in Chile had the highest life satisfaction,
while those in Bulgaria and Spain had the lowest. Defined development as the pattern of change that
begins at conception and continues through the life
Ethnicity
span. The pattern is complex because it is the
(the word ethnic comes from the Greek word for product of biological, cognitive, and socioemotional
“nation”) is rooted in cultural heritage, nationality, processes.
race, religion, and language.
Biological
For example, in a recent study, strong ethnic group
Processes produce changes in an individual’s
affiliation and connection served a protective
physical nature. Genes inherited from parents, brain
function in reducing risk for psychiatric problems.
development, height and weight gains, changes in
Socioeconomic status (SES) motor skills, nutrition, exercise, the hormonal
changes of puberty, and cardiovascular decline are
refers to a person’s position within society based on all examples of biological processes that affect
occupational, educational, and economic development.
characteristics. Socioeconomic status implies
Especially in recent years with the advent of new Two Emerging fields:
techniques to study people’s actual genetic makeup.
 Developmental cognitive neuroscience,
There has been a substantial increase in studies that
which explores links between development,
focus on the role of genes in development at
cognitive processes, and the brain
different points in the life span. Likewise, with the
 Developmental social neuroscience, which
invention of brain-imaging techniques such as
examines connections between
magnetic resonance imaging, there has been an
socioemotional processes, development, and
explosion of research on how the brain influences
the brain
many aspects of development at different points in
the life span. In many instances, biological, cognitive, and
socioemotional processes are bidirectional. For
Cognitive processes
example, biological processes can influence
refer to changes in the individual’s thought, cognitive processes and vice versa. Thus, although
intelligence, and language. Watching a colorful usually we will study the different processes of
mobile swinging above the crib, putting together a development (biological, cognitive, and
two-word sentence, memorizing a poem, imagining socioemotional) separately, keep in mind that we
what it would be like to be a movie star, and solving are talking about the development of an integrated
a crossword puzzle all involve cognitive processes. individual with a mind and body that are
interdependent.
Socioemotional processes
PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT
Involve changes in the individual’s relationships
with other people, changes in emotions, and The interplay of biological, cognitive, and
changes in personality. An infant’s smile in socioemotional processes produces the periods of
response to a parent’s touch, a toddler’s aggressive the human life span.
attack on a playmate, a school-age child’s
A developmental period refers to a time frame in a
development of assertiveness, an adolescent’s joy at
person’s life that is characterized by certain
the senior prom, and the affection of an elderly
features. For the purposes of organization and
couple all reflect the role of socioemotional
understanding, we commonly describe development
processes in development.
in terms of these periods. The most widely used
Connecting Biological, Cognitive, and classification of developmental periods involves the
Socioemotional Processes eight-period sequence. Approximate age ranges are
listed for the periods to provide a general idea of
Biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes
when each period begins and ends.
are inextricably intertwined. Consider a baby
smiling in response to a parent’s touch. This PRENATAL PERIOD
response depends on biological processes (the
the time from conception to birth. It involves
physical nature of touch and responsiveness to it),
tremendous growth— from a single cell to an
cognitive processes (the ability to understand
organism complete with brain and behavioral
intentional acts), and socioemotional processes (the
capabilities—and takes place in approximately a 9-
fact that smiling often reflects a positive emotional
month period.
feeling and helps to connect us in positive ways
with other human beings). INFACY
Connection across biological, cognitive, and the developmental period from birth to 18 or 24
socioemotional processes more obvious than in two months. Infancy is a time of extreme dependence
rapidly emerging fields: upon adults. During this period, many psychological
activities— language, symbolic thought,
sensorimotor coordination, and social learning, for The transition from adolescence to adulthood has
example— are just beginning. been referred to as emerging adulthood, the period
from approximately 18 to 25 years of age (Arnett,
TODDLER
2015, 2016a, b). Experimentation and exploration
used to describe a child from about 1 ½ to 3 years characterize the emerging adult. At this point in
of age. Toddlers are in a transitional period between their development, many individuals are still
infancy and the next period, early childhood. exploring which career path they want to follow,
what they want their identity to be, and which
EARLY CHILDHOOD lifestyle they want to adopt (for example, single,
the developmental period from 3 through 5 years of cohabiting, or married.
age. This period is sometimes called the “preschool EARLY ADULTHOOD
years.” During this time, young children learn to
become more self-sufficient and to care for The developmental period that begins in the early
themselves, develop school readiness skills twenties and lasts through the thirties. It is a time of
(following instructions, identifying letters), and establishing personal and economic independence,
spend many hours playing with peers. First grade advancing in a career, and for many, selecting a
typically marks the end of early childhood. mate, learning to live with that person in an intimate
way, starting a family, and rearing children.
MIDDLE AND LATE CHILDHOOD
MIDDLE ADULTHOOD
the developmental period from about 6 to 10 or 11
years of age, approximately corresponding to the the developmental period from approximately 40 to
elementary school years. During this period, about 60 yearsof age. It is a time of expanding
children master the fundamental skills of reading, personal and social involvement and responsibility;
writing, and arithmetic, and they are formally of assisting the next generation in becoming
exposed to the larger world and its culture. competent, mature individuals; and of reaching and
Achievement becomes a more central theme of the maintaining satisfaction in a career.
child’s world, and self-control increases.
LATE ADULTHOOD
ADOLESCENCE
The developmental period that begins during the
The developmental period of transition from sixties or seventies and lasts until death. It is a time
childhood to early adulthood, entered at of life review, retirement, and adjustment to new
approximately 10 to 12 years of age and ending at social roles and diminishing strength and health.
18 to 21 years of age. Adolescence begins with
has the longest span of any period of development,
rapid physical changes—dramatic gains in height
and as noted earlier, the number of people in this
and weight, changes in body contour, and the
age group has been increasing dramatically. As a
development of sexual characteristics such as
result, life-span developmentalists have been paying
enlargement of the breasts, growth of pubic and
more attention to late adulthood. Argue that a major
facial hair, and deepening of the voice. At this point
change takes place in older adults’ lives as they
in development, the pursuit of independence and an
become the “oldestold,” on average at about 85
identity are preeminent. Thought is more logical,
years of age.
abstract, and idealistic.
For example, the “young-old” (classified as 65
There has been a substantial increase in interest in
through 84 in this analysis) have substantial
the transition between adolescence and early
adulthood. A transition that can be a long one as  potential for physical
individuals develop more effective skills to become  cognitive fitness,
full members of society.  retain much of their cognitive capacity
  can develop strategies to cope with the gains and then shows a modest decline through the
and losses of aging. early eighties. However, marked decline
can occur as individuals approach death.
In contrast, the oldest-old (85 and older) show
considerable loss in cognitive skills, experience an
 Pathological aging
increase in chronic stress, and become more frail.
characterizes individuals who show greater
 considerable plasticity and adaptability than average decline as they age through the
characterize adults from their sixties until adult years. In early old age, they may have
their mid-eighties but that the oldest-old mild cognitive impairment, develop
have reached the limits of their functional Alzheimer disease later on, or have a
capacity, which makes interventions to chronic disease that impairs their daily
improve their lives difficult. functioning.
 Nonetheless, as will be described in later
chapters, considerable variation exists in the  Successful aging
degree to which the oldest-old retain their characterizes individuals whose positive
capabilities. physical, cognitive, and socioemotional
development is maintained longer, declining
Four Ages later in old age than is the case
Life-span developmentalists who focus on adult for most people. For too long, only the
development and aging increasingly describe life- declines that occur in late adulthood were
span development in terms of four “ages”. highlighted, but recently there has been
increased interest in the concept of
First age: Childhood and adolescence successful aging.
Second age: Prime adulthood, ages 20 through 59 Connections Across Periods of Development
Third age: Approximately 60 to 79 years of age A final important point needs to be made about the
Fourth age: Approximately 80 years and older periods of the human life span. Just as there are
many connections between biological, cognitive,
The major emphasis in this conceptualization is on and socioemotional processes, so are there many
the third and fourth ages, especially the increasing connections between the periods of the human life
evidence that individuals in the third age are span.
healthier and can lead more active, productive lives
than their predecessors in earlier generations. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF AGE
However, when older adults reach their eighties Age and Happiness
(fourth age), especially 85 and over, health and
well-being decline for many individuals. About 33 percent were very happy at 88 years of
age compared with only about 24 percent in their
Three Developmental Patterns of Aging late teens and early twenties. Why might older
Recently described three different developmental people report being happier and more satisfied with
patterns that provide a portrait of how aging can their lives than younger people? Despite facing
encompass individual variations: higher incidences of physical problems and losses,
older adults are more content with what they have
 Normal aging in their lives, have better relationships with the
characterizes most individuals, for whom people who matter to them, are less pressured to
psychological functioning often achieve, have more time for leisurely pursuits, and
peaks in early middle age, remains relatively have many years of experience resulting in wisdom
stable until the late fifties to early sixties, that may help them adapt better to their
circumstances than younger adults do.
CONCEPT OF AGE  Social age refers to connectedness with
others and the social roles individuals adopt.
According to some life-span experts, chronological
Individuals who have better social
age is not very relevant to understanding a person’s
relationships with others are happier and
psychological development. Chronological age is
more likely to live longer than individuals
the number of years that have elapsed since birth.
who are lonely.
But time is a crude index of experience, and it does
not cause anything. Chronological age, moreover, is DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES
not the only way to measure age. Just as there are
NATURE AND NURTURE
different domains of development, there are
different ways of thinking about age. Involves the extent to which development is
influenced by nature and by nurture. Nature refers
Age has been conceptualized not just as
to an organism’s biological inheritance, nurture to
chronological age but also as biological age,
its environmental experiences.
psychological age, and social age.
Proponents of the importance of nature
 Biological age is a person’s age in terms of
acknowledge that extreme environments—those
biological health. Determining biological
that are psychologically barren or hostile—can
age involves knowing the functional
depress development. However, they believe that
capacities of a person’s vital organs. One
basic growth tendencies are genetically
person’s vital capacities may be better or
programmed into humans.
worse than those of other people of
comparable age. The younger the person’s By contrast, other psychologists emphasize the
biological age, the longer the person is importance of nurture, or environmental
expected to live, regardless of chronological experiences, in development. Experiences run the
age. gamut from the individual’s biological environment
 Psychological age is an individual’s (nutrition, medical care, drugs, and physical
adaptive capacities compared with those of accidents) to the social environment (family, peers,
other individuals of the same chronological schools, community, media, and culture).
age. Thus, older adults who continue to
learn, are flexible, are motivated, have There has been a dramatic increase in the number of
positive personality traits, control their studies that reflect the epigenetic view which states
emotions, and think clearly are engaging in that development reflects an ongoing, bidirectional
more adaptive behaviors than their interchange between genes and the environment.
chronological age-mates who do not The epigenetic mechanisms involve the actual
continue to learn, are rigid, are unmotivated, molecular modification of the DNA strand as a
do not control their emotions, and do not result of environmental inputs in ways that alter
think clearly. A longitudinal study of more gene functioning. In “Biological Beginnings” we
than 1,200 individuals across seven decades will explore the epigenetic approach in greater
revealed that the personality trait of depth.
conscientiousness (being organized, careful,
and disciplined, for example) predicted Stability and Change
lower mortality (frequency of death) risk Stability-change issue, which involves the degree to
from childhood through late adulthood which early traits and characteristics persist through
(Martin, Friedman, & Schwartz, 2007). And life or change.
a recent study found that a higher level of
conscientiousness was protective of Many developmentalists who emphasize stability in
cognitive functioning in older adults. development argue that stability is the result of
heredity and possibly early experiences in life. For
example, many argue that if an individual is shy
throughout life his stability is due to heredity and Evaluating the Developmental Issues
possibly early experiences in which the infant or
Most life-span developmentalists acknowledge that
young child encountered considerable stress when
development is not all nature or all nurture, not all
interacting with people.
stability or all change, and not all continuity or all
Developmentalists who emphasize change take the discontinuity. Nature and nurture, stability and
more optimistic view that later experiences can change, continuity and discontinuity characterize
produce change. Recall that in the life-span development throughout the human life span.
perspective, plasticity, the potential for change,
Although most developmentalists do not take
exists throughout the life span, although possibly to
extreme positions on these three important issues,
different degrees.
there is spirited debate regarding how strongly
The roles of early and later experience are an aspect development is influenced by each of these factors.
of the stability-change issue that has long been hotly
Scientific method An approach that can be used to
debated. Some argue that warm, nurturant
obtain accurate information. It includes the
caregiving during infancy and toddlerhood predicts
following steps: (1) conceptualize the problem, (2)
optimal development later in life.
collect data, (3) draw conclusions, and (4) revise
Continuity and Discontinuity research conclusions and theory.
For the most part, developmentalists who Theory An interrelated, coherent set of ideas that
emphasize nurture describe development as a helps to explain phenomena and facilitate
gradual, continuous process. Those who emphasize predictions.
nature often describe development as a series of
Hypotheses Specific assumptions and predictions
distinct stages.
that can be tested to determine their accuracy.
Continuity-discontinuity issue focuses on the
Psychoanalytic theories that describe development
degree to which development involves either
as primarily unconscious and heavily colored by
gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or distinct
emotion. Behavior is merely a surface
stages (discontinuity). In terms of continuity, as the
characteristic, and the symbolic workings of the
oak grows from seedling to giant oak, it becomes
mind have to be analyzed to understand behavior.
more of an oak— its development is continuous.
Early experiences with parents are emphasized.
Similarly, a child’s first word, though seemingly an
abrupt, discontinuous event, is actually the result of Erikson’s theory includes eight stages of human
weeks and months of growth and practice. Puberty development. Each stage consists of a unique
might seem abrupt but it is a gradual process that developmental task that confronts individuals with a
occurs over several years. crisis that must be resolved.
In terms of discontinuity, as an insect grows from a PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES
caterpillar to a chrysalis to a butterfly, it passes
through a sequence of stages in which change is describe development as primarily unconscious
qualitatively rather than quantitatively different. (beyond awareness) and heavily colored by
Similarly, at some point a child moves from not emotion. Psychoanalytic theorists emphasize that
being able to think abstractly about the world to behavior is merely a surface characteristic and that a
being able to do so. This is a qualitative, true understanding of development requires
discontinuous change in development rather than a analyzing the symbolic meanings of behavior and
quantitative, continuous change. the deep inner workings of the mind.
Psychoanalytic theorists also stress that early
experiences with parents extensively shape
development. These characteristics are highlighted
in the main psychoanalytic theory, that of Sigmund individual’s development. Unconscious thought
Freud (1856–1939). remains a central theme, but conscious thought
plays a greater role than Freud envisioned. One of
Freud’s Theory
the most influential revisionists of Freud’s ideas
As Freud listened to, probed, and analyzed his was Erik Erikson.
patients, he became convinced that their problems
Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
were the result of experiences early in life. He
thought that as children grow up, their focus of Freud’s contributions but believed that Freud
pleasure and sexual impulses shifts from the mouth misjudged some important dimensions of human
to the anus and eventually to the genitals. As a development. For one thing, Erikson (1950, 1968)
result, we go through five stages of psychosexual said we develop in psychosocial stages, rather than
development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and in psychosexual stages as Freud maintained.
genital. Our adult personality, According to Freud, the primary motivation for
human behavior is sexual in nature; according to
Freud (1917) claimed, is determined by the way we
Erikson, it is social and reflects a desire to affiliate
resolve conflicts between sources of pleasure at
with other people.
each stage and the demands of reality.
According to Freud, our basic personality is shaped
Freud emphasized sexual motivation, his stages of
during the first five years of life; according to
development are known as psychosexual stages. In
Erikson, developmental change occurs throughout
his view, if the need for pleasure at any stage is
the life span. Thus, in terms of the early-versus-
either undergratified or overgratified, an individual
later-experience issue described earlier in the
may become fixated, or locked in, at that stage of
chapter, Freud viewed early experience as being far
development.
more important than later experiences, whereas
ORAL STAGE (Birth to 1 ½ years) Erikson emphasized the importance of both early
and later experiences.
Infant’s pleasure centers on the mouth
Erikson’s theory, eight stages of development
ANAL STAGE (1 ½ to 3 years) unfold as we go through life. At each stage, a
Child’s pleasure focuses on the anus. unique developmental task confronts individuals
with a crisis that must be resolved. According to
PHALLIC STAGE (3 to 6 years) Erikson, this crisis is not a catastrophe but a turning
Child’s pleasure focuses on the genitals. point marked by both increased vulnerability and
enhanced potential. The more successfully an
LATENCY STAGE (6 to puberty) individual resolves each crisis, the healthier
Child represses sexual interest and develops social development will be.
and intellectual skills. Trust versus mistrust (Infancy –First years) is
GENITAL STAGE (Puberty onward) Erikson’s first psychosocial stage, which is
experienced in the first year of life. The
A time of sexual reawakening; source of sexual development of trust during infancy sets the stage
pleasure becomes someone outside the family. for a lifelong expectation that the world will be a
Freud’s theory has been significantly revised by a good and pleasant place to live.
number of psychoanalytic theorists. Many of Autonomy versus shame (infancy- 1 to 3years)
today’s psychoanalytic theorists maintain that Freud and doubt is Erikson’s second stage. This stage
overemphasized sexual instincts; they argue that occurs in late infancy and toddlerhood (1 to 3
more emphasis should be placed on cultural years). After gaining trust in their caregivers,
experiences as determinants of infants begin to discover that their behavior is their
own. They start to assert their sense of
independence or autonomy. They realize their will. done nothing to help the next generation is
If infants and toddlers are restrained too much or stagnation.
punished too harshly, they are likely to develop a
Integrity versus despair (Late adulthood- 60s
sense of shame and doubt.
onward) is Erikson’s eighth and final stage of
Initiative versus guilt (Early childhood- preschool development, which individuals experience in late
years, 3-5 year old) Erikson’s third stage of adulthood. During this stage, a person reflects on
development, occurs during the preschool years. As the past. If the person’s life review reveals a life
preschool children encounter a widening social well spent, integrity will be achieved; if not, the
world, they face new challenges that require active, retrospective glances likely will yield doubt or
purposeful, responsible behavior. Feelings of guilt gloom—the despair Erikson described.
may arise, though, if the child is irresponsible and is
COGNITIVE THEORIES
made to feel too anxious.
Whereas psychoanalytic theories stress the
Industry versus inferiority (Middle and late
importance of the unconscious, cognitive theories
childhood- elementary to 6 years to puberty) is
emphasize conscious thoughts. Three important
Erikson’s fourth developmental stage, occurring
cognitive theories are Jean Piaget’s cognitive
approximately during the elementary school years.
developmental theory, Lev Vygotsky’s
Children now need to direct their energy toward
sociocultural cognitive theory, and the information
mastering knowledge and intellectual skills. The
processing theory.
negative outcome is that the child may develop a
sense of inferiority—feeling incompetent and Piaget’s theory
unproductive.
states that children go through four stages of
During the adolescent years, individuals need to cognitive development as they actively construct
find out who they are, what they are all about, and their understanding of the world. Two processes
where they are going in life. This is Erikson’s fifth underlie this cognitive construction of the world:
developmental stage. organization and adaptation. To make sense of our
world, we organize our experiences. For example,
Identity versus identity confusion (adolescences-
we separate important ideas from less important
10 to 20 years) If adolescents explore roles in a
ideas, and we connect one idea to another. In
healthy manner and arrive at a positive path to
addition to organizing our observations and
follow in life, then they achieve a positive identity;
experiences, we adapt, adjusting to new
if they do not, identity confusion reigns.
environmental demands (Miller, 2015).
Intimacy versus isolation (Early adulthood- 20s to
Piaget (1954) identified four stages in
30s) is Erikson’s sixth developmental stage, which
understanding the world (see Figure 12). Each stage
individuals experience during early adulthood. At
is age-related and consists of a distinct way of
this time, individuals face the developmental task of
thinking, a different way of understanding the
forming intimate relationships. If young adults form
world. Thus, according to Piaget (1896–1980), the
healthy friendships and an intimate relationship
child’s cognition is qualitatively different from one
with another, intimacy will be achieved; if not,
stage to another.
isolation will result.
Four stages of cognitive development
Generativity versus stagnation (Middle
adulthood- 40s to 50s) Erikson’s seventh SENSORIMOTOR STAGE
developmental stage, occurs during middle
adulthood. By generativity Erikson means primarily which lasts from birth to about 2 years of age, is the
a concern for helping the younger generation to first Piagetian stage. In this stage, infants construct
develop and lead useful lives. The feeling of having an understanding of the world by coordinating
sensory experiences (such as seeing and hearing)
with physical, motoric actions—hence the term VYGOTSKY’S SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY
sensorimotor.
Like Piaget, the Russian developmentalist Lev
PREOPERATIONAL STAGE Vygotsky (1896–1934) argued that children actively
construct their knowledge. However, Vygotsky
which lasts from approximately 2 to 7 years of age,
(1962) gave social interaction and culture far more
is Piaget’s second stage. In this stage, children
important roles in cognitive development than
begin to go beyond simply connecting sensory
Piaget did. Vygotsky’s theory is a sociocultural
information with physical action and represent the
cognitive theory that emphasizes how culture and
world with words, images, and drawings. However,
social interaction guide cognitive development.
according to Piaget, preschool children still lack the
ability to perform what he calls operations, which Vygotsky portrayed the child’s development as
are internalized mental actions that allow children inseparable from social and cultural activities
to do mentally what they previously could only do (Daniels, 2017). He maintained that cognitive
physically. For example, if you imagine putting two development involves learning to use the inventions
sticks together to see whether they would be as long of society, such as language, mathematical systems,
as another stick, without actually moving the sticks, and memory strategies. Thus in one culture,
you are performing a concrete operation. children might learn to count with the help of a
computer; in another, they might learn by using
CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE
beads. According to Vygotsky, children’s social
which lasts from approximately 7 to 11 years of interaction with moreskilled adults and peers is
age, is the third Piagetian stage. In this stage, indispensable to their cognitive development.
children can perform operations that involve Through this interaction, they learn to use the tools
objects, and they can reason logically when the that will help them adapt and be successful in their
reasoning can be applied to specific or concrete culture (Holzman, 2017). In later chapters, we will
examples. For instance, concrete operational examine ideas about learning and teaching that are
thinkers cannot imagine the steps necessary to based on Vygotsky’s theory.
complete an algebraic equation, a task that is too
The Information-Processing Theory
abstract for individuals at this stage of development.
emphasizes that individuals manipulate information,
FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE
monitor it, and strategize about it. Unlike Piaget’s
which appears between the ages of 11 and 15 and theory, but like Vygotsky’s theory, information-
continues through adulthood, is Piaget’s fourth and processing theory does not describe development as
final stage. In this stage, individuals move beyond stage-like. Instead, according to this theory,
concrete experiences and begin to think in abstract individuals develop a gradually increasing capacity
and more logical terms. As part of thinking more for processing information, which allows them to
abstractly, adolescents develop images of ideal acquire increasingly complex knowledge and skills
circumstances. They might think about what an (Knapp & Morton, 2017).
ideal parent would be like and compare their parents
to this ideal standard. They begin to entertain
possibilities for the future and are fascinated with
what they can be. In solving problems, they become
more systematic, developing hypotheses about why
something is happening the way it is and then
testing these hypotheses. We will examine Piaget’s
cognitive developmental theory further in other
chapters.
  a leading expert on children’s information Contributions of cognitive theories include a
processing, states that thinking is positive view of development and an emphasis on
information processing. In other words, the active construction of understanding. Criticisms
when individuals perceive, encode, include skepticism about the pureness of Piaget’s
represent, store, and retrieve information, stages and too little attention to individual
they are thinking. Siegler emphasizes that an variations.
important aspect of development is learning
good strategies for processing information.
For example, becoming a better reader BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL COGNITIVE
might involve learning to monitor the key THEORIES
themes of the material being read.
 also argues that the best way to understand Behaviorism essentially holds that we can study
how children learn is to observe them while scientifically only what can be directly observed
they are learning. He emphasizes the and measured. Out of the behavioral tradition grew
importance of using the microgenetic the belief that development is observable behavior
method to obtain detailed information about that can be learned through experience with the
processing mechanisms as they are environment (Maag, 2018). In terms of the
occurring from moment to moment. Siegler continuity-discontinuity issue discussed earlier in
concludes that most research methods this chapter, the behavioral and social cognitive
indirectly assess cognitive change, being theories emphasize continuity in development and
more like snapshots than movies. The argue that development does not occur in stage-like
microgenetic method seeks to discover not fashion.
just what children know but the cognitive Two versions of behaviorism: Skinner’s operant
processes involved in how they acquired the conditioning and Bandura’s social cognitive theory.
knowledge. A typical microgenetic study
will be conducted across a number of trials Skinner’s Operant Conditioning According to B.
assessed at various times over weeks or F. Skinner (1904–1990), through operant
months. conditioning the consequences of a behavior
produce changes in the probability of the behavior’s
Information-processing approach often uses the occurrence. A behavior followed by a rewarding
computer as an analogy to help explain the stimulus is more likely to recur, whereas a behavior
connection between cognition and the brain followed by a punishing stimulus is less likely to
(Radvansky & Ashcraft, 2018). They describe the recur. For example, when an adult smiles at a child
physical brain as the computer’s hardware, and after the child has done something, the child is more
cognition as its software. In this analogy, the likely to engage in that behavior again than if the
sensory and perceptual systems provide an “input adult gives the child a disapproving look.
channel,” similar to the way data are entered into
the computer. As input (information) comes into the In Skinner’s (1938) view, such rewards and
mind, mental processes, or operations, act on it, just punishments shape development. For Skinner the
as the computer’s software acts on the data. The key aspect of development is behavior, not thoughts
transformed input generates information that and feelings. He emphasized that development
remains in memory much in the way a computer consists of the pattern of behavioral changes that are
stores what it has worked on. Finally, the brought about by rewards and punishments. For
information is retrieved from memory and “printed example, Skinner would say that shy people learned
out” or “displayed” (so to speak) as an observable to be shy as a result of experiences they had while
response. growing up. It follows that modifications in an
environment can help a shy person become more
Evaluating Cognitive Theories socially oriented.
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory little emphasis on cognition in Skinner’s theory and
inadequate attention paid to developmental changes.
Some psychologists agree with the behaviorists’
notion that development is learned and is influenced ETHOLOGICAL THEORY
strongly by environmental interactions. However,
Ethology stresses that behavior is strongly
unlike Skinner, they also see cognition as important
influenced by biology, is tied to evolution, and is
in understanding development (Mischel, 2014).
characterized by critical or sensitive periods. These
Social cognitive theory holds that behavior,
are specific time frames during which, according to
environment, and cognition are the key
ethologists, the presence or absence of certain
factors in development. American psychologist experiences has a long-lasting influence on
Albert Bandura (1925– ) is the leading architect of individuals.
social cognitive theory. Bandura (1986, 2004,
illustrated an important application of ethological
2010a, b, 2012, 2015) emphasizes that cognitive
theory to human development. Bowlby stressed that
processes have important links with the
attachment to a caregiver over the first year of life
environment and behavior. His early research
has important consequences throughout the life
program focused heavily on observational learning
span. In his view, if this attachment is positive and
(also called imitation or modeling), which is
secure, the individual will likely develop positively
learning that occurs through observing what others
in childhood and adulthood. If the attachment is
do. For example, a young boy might observe his
negative and insecure, life-span development will
father yelling in anger and treating other people
likely not be optimal.
with hostility; with his peers, the young boy later
acts very aggressively, showing the same  attachment should occur in order to promote
characteristics as his father’s behavior. Social optimal development of social relationships
cognitive theorists stress that people acquire a wide  emphasizes biological foundations of
range of behaviors, thoughts, and feelings through development—evolutionary psychology—
observing others’ behavior and that these will be presented in the chapter on
observations play a central role in lifespan “Biological Beginnings,” along with views
development. on the role of heredity in development.
 Contributions of ethological theory include a
What is cognitive about observational learning in
focus on the biological and evolutionary
Bandura’s view? He proposes that people
basis of development, and the use of careful
cognitively represent the behavior of others and
observations in naturalistic settings.
then sometimes adopt this behavior themselves.
Criticisms include too much emphasis on
Bandura’s (2004, 2010a, b, 2012, 2015) most recent
biological foundations and a belief that the
model of learning and development includes three
critical and sensitive period concepts might
elements: behavior, the person/ cognition, and the
be too rigid.
environment. An individual’s confidence in being
able to control his or her success is an example of a ECOLOGICAL THEORY
person factor; strategies are an example of a
cognitive factor. As shown in Figure 13, behavior, Ethological theory stresses biological factors,
person/cognitive, and environmental factors operate ecological theory emphasizes environmental
interactively. factors. One ecological theory that has important
implications for understanding life-span
Evaluating Behavioral and Social development was created by Urie Bronfenbrenner.
Cognitive Theories Contributions of the behavioral Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory holds that
and social cognitive theories include an emphasis development reflects the influence of several
on scientific research and environmental environmental systems.
determinants of behavior. Criticisms include too
The theory identifies five environmental systems:
Microsystem during the first year after the divorceBy two years
after the divorce, family interaction has become
The setting in which the individual lives. These
more stable. As an example of sociohistorical
contexts include the person’s family, peers, school,
circumstances, consider how career opportunities
and neighborhood. It is in the microsystem that the
for women have increased since the 1960s.
most direct interactions with social agents take
place—with parents, peers, and teachers, for
example. The individual is not a passive recipient of
experiences in these settings, but someone who
helps to construct the settings. Bronfenbrenner subsequently added biological
influences to his theory, describing it as a
Mesosystem
bioecological theory. Nonetheless, it is still
involves relations between microsystems or dominated by ecological, environmental contexts.
connections between contexts. Examples are the Contributions of ecological theory include a
relation of family experiences to school systematic examination of macro and micro
experiences, school experiences to religious dimensions of environmental systems, and attention
experiences, and family experiences to peer to connections between environmental systems. A
experiences. For example, children whose parents further contribution of Bronfenbrenner’s theory is
have rejected them may have difficulty developing an emphasis on a range of social contexts beyond
positive relationships with teachers. the family, such as neighborhood, religion, school,
and workplace, as influential in children’s
Exosystem
development (Shelton, 2018). Criticisms include
consists of links between a social setting in which inadequate attention to biological factors, as well as
the individual does not have an active role and the too little emphasis on cognitive factors.
individual’s immediate context. For example, a
AN ECLECTIC THEORETICAL
husband’s or child’s experiences at home may be
ORIENTATION
influenced by a mother’s experiences at work. The
mother might receive a promotion that requires Psychoanalytic theory best explains the unconscious
more travel, which might increase conflict with the mind. Erikson’s theory best describes the changes
husband and change patterns of interaction with the that occur during adult development. Piaget’s,
child. Vygotsky’s, and the information-processing views
provide the most complete description of cognitive
Macrosystem
development.
involves the culture in which individuals live.
The behavioral and social cognitive and ecological
Remember from earlier in the chapter that culture
theories have been the most adept at examining the
refers to the behavior patterns, beliefs, and all other
environmental determinants of development. The
products of a group of people that are passed on
ethological theories have highlighted biology’s role
from generation to generation. Remember also that
and the importance of sensitive periods in
crosscultural studies—the comparison of one
development.
culture with one or more other cultures—provide
information about the generality of development. In short, although theories are helpful guides,
relying on a single theory to explain development is
Chronosystem
probably a mistake. This book instead takes an
consists of the patterning of environmental events eclectic theoretical orientation,
and transitions over the life course, as well as
which does not follow any one theoretical approach
sociohistorical circumstances. For example, divorce
but rather selects from each theory whatever is
is one transition. Researchers have found that the
considered its best features. In this way, you can
negative effects of divorce on children often peak
view the study of development as it actually exists
—with different theorists making different
assumptions, stressing different empirical problems,
and using different strategies to discover
information. Figure 15 compares the main
theoretical perspectives in terms of how they view
important issues in lifespan development.