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INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER-1 branch of Public Health

Engineering:
collection,
deals with
conveyance,
treatment and disposal of
INTRODUCTION waste produced
SANITARY
Subject: Sanitary engineering ENGINEERING Concerned with safe
1 removal of wastewater
and solid waste without
causing any nuisance

DEFINITIONS OF SOME COMMON TERMS DEFINITIONS OF SOME COMMON TERMS

Rejected/left as worthless liquid, semi d) Sullage: wastewater from bathroom, kitchen,
liquid and solid wastes. wash basins and other washing places
Classified as follows:
e) Subsoil water: portion of ground water
entering into the sewer through faulty joints and
a) Garbage:
leakages.
❑ dry refuse including organic and putrefying
(rotten) matters
❑ waste paper, decayed fruits and vegetables, f) Storm water: rain water of the locality.
grass, leaves, street sweepings, sweeping from
A) Refuse markets/public places A) Refuse g) Sewage:
❑ liquid wastes (called wastewater nowadays)
b) Rubbish: sullage, discharge from toilet, urinals,
❑ dry and combustible from offices, residences groundwater, storm water, surface water,
etc. industrial wastewater etc.
❑ building material wastes, broken furniture, ❑ contain disease causing bacteria malodorous
paper etc. gas
c) Night Soil: human and animal excreta. ❑ Types: a) Storm sewage b)Sanitary sewage
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DEFINITIONS OF SOME COMMON TERMS DEFINITIONS OF SOME COMMON TERMS

underground conduit (generally closed e) Lateral sewer: receives sewage from house
and partial flowing) through which through house sewer and delivers it to a branch or
sewage is carried to the point of sub main sewer. It indicates the first stage of
discharge or disposal. sewage collection.
Classified as follows:
f) Branch or sub main sewer: receives sewage
a)Separate sewer: from a no of lateral sewers and delivers it to main
carrying domestic and industrial sewage. sewer.

g) Main or trunk sewer: receives sewage from a

B) Sewer b)Storm sewer: B) Sewer branch or sub mains and serves as an outlet for a
carrying storm water of the locality.
large area.
c) Combined sewer:
carrying domestic, industrial and storm sewage.
h) Outfall sewer: receives sewage from
d) House sewer: collection system and delivers it to a point of final
carries sewage from house and delivers it to a discharge or disposal point.
street or lateral sewer.
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DEFINITIONS OF SOME COMMON TERMS

CONTD….
The topmost portion of internal
cross-section of a sewer or drain is
C) Crown called crown.
Building Building Building Building

a a b b a a
The lowest portion of the internal
a a cross-section of a sewer or drain is
Building D) Invert called invert.
Building

c c c
Sewage Treatment
d e ❑ It includes the structures, device,
Figure : Nomenclature of sewers Plant
equipment used for removal of sewage.
1. House sewer : a
2. Lateral sewer: b
E) Sewerage ❑ In other word: indicates the entire
3. Sub-main sewer or branch sewer: c
science of collection and carrying of
4. Main sewer of Trunk sewer : d sewage through sewers by water
5. Outfall sewer : e carriage system.
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NECESSITY AND IMPORTANCE OF WASTE

WATER AND SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT OBJECTIVES OF SEWAGE DISPOSAL
▪ Wastewater and solid waste accumulated from the ▪ To achieve sanitary condition by proper disposal
community everyday. of human excreta to a safe place before it starts
▪ Accumulating waste might undergo
decomposition.
decomposition/produce bad smell/contaminate air, ▪ To evacuate waste water as soon as possible from
soil and water (surface and underground). the point of generation, so that mosquitoes, flies,
▪ Favorable condition for breeding bacteria etc. may not breed in it and cause
mosquitoes/flies/bacteria spreading diseases(Cholera, nuisance.
dysentery, typhoid, jaundice etc).
▪ To dispose sewage on natural water bodies after
▪ In-sanitary conditions /liable for environmental treatment so that the receiving water and land
degradation.
may not get polluted.
▪ Proper, scientific and efficient wastewater and solid
waste management is important and necessary for safe ▪ To prevent from sporadic outbreak of diseases.
collection, conveyance, treatment and disposal of ▪ To prevent land and water pollution.
waste products.
▪ To use sewage as fertilizer by sewage farming.
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SANITATION SYSTEM/SEWAGE SANITATION SYSTEM/SEWAGE COLLECTION SYSTEM

COLLECTION SYSTEM ❑ very old system /called dry system and even
used nowadays in underdeveloped areas.

❑ wastes are collected, conveyed and

1. Conservancy disposed separately by different methods.
system or dry system
❑ Garbage is collected separately in dustbins
SANITATION 1. Conservancy and conveyed by covered carts or trucks or
SYSTEM/SEWAGE system or dry tractors to suitable place.

COLLECTION system ❑ Non-combustible garbage such as sand, dust

etc. are used in sanitary landfill .
SYSTEM 2. Water carriage
system
❑ combustible portions such as leaves, waste
paper are burnt and the decaying matters such
as fruits, vegetable wastes are first dried then
burnt to make the manure.

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SANITATION SYSTEM/SEWAGE COLLECTION SYSTEM SANITATION SYSTEM/SEWAGE COLLECTION SYSTEM

❑ The human and animal waste are also called
night soil Merits/Advantages:
a) Environment friendly:
❑ Night soil are collected in pans and is ⮚ No fear of surface as well as ground
carried by labors in carts or trucks or water contamination so that storm
tractors for disposal outside where it is water is disposed separately.
buried for manure. ⮚ There is no water requirement for
flushing.
1. Conservancy 1. Conservancy
b) Cheap: Cheap initially due to
system or dry ❑ Sullage and storm waters are carried system or dry conservancy latrine and open
system separately in closed or open drains to the system drain for storm water.
disposal point (water courses, land for
farming). c) Treatment requirement: Night
soil and urine are collected
❑ This system is obsolete now and can be used in separately. Quantity reaching to
rural areas where there is scarcity of water. the treatment plant is low.
d) No silting problem in open drain
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SANITATION SYSTEM/SEWAGE COLLECTION SYSTEM SANITATION SYSTEM/SEWAGE COLLECTION SYSTEM

Demerits/Disadvantages: Demerits/Disadvantages:(Contd..)
a) Design of building: The latrine has to be f) Risk of epidemic: Due to improper or
built away from the residential building careless disposal of night soil, there are
which causes inconvenience. more chances of outbreak of epidemic.
b) Insanitary condition: The night soil is g) Conditions of drains: In sanitation may
carried once in 24 hours while it be there due to carriage of sullage
becomes insanitary after 5-6 hours through open drains laid in the streets.
1. Conservancy causing bad smell and fly nuisance. 1. Conservancy h) Pollution of water: The liquid wastes
system or dry c) Labor problem: If the labor goes on from latrines may seep into the ground
system or dry polluting groundwater.
system strike the system totally fails.
d) Land requirements: The night soil system i) Necessity of constant and proper
trenching ground required large areas supervision: For satisfactory working of
to be disposal. conservancy system constant and
e) Foul appearance: It is highly undesirable proper supervision is necessary.
to allow night soil carts to pass through j) Humiliation and social injustice: Since
roads of the town/city. human agency is directly involved in
this system, it is highly humiliating and
unjust.
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SANITATION SYSTEM/SEWAGE COLLECTION SYSTEM SANITATION SYSTEM/SEWAGE COLLECTION SYSTEM

❑ Water is used as a medium to carry wastes to the Merits/Advantages:

point of final disposal. a) Cost consideration: Though the initial cost of
installation of the system are very high, the
❑ In this system, water and night soil (sewage) is running costs are very small since manual
mixed (99.9 % water and 0.1 % solid matters) labor is very much reduced.
and then conveyed through properly designed b) Compactness in design: The latrines can be
2. Water sewerage systems then disposed off. 2. Water accommodated inside the building which
causes compact design of building and also
Carriage ❑ The garbage is collected separately as in
Carriage convenience.
system conservancy system. system c) Hygienic conditions: The sewage is carried in
covered drains thus the risk of epidemic are
reduced.
d) Land disposal requirements: Because of
❑ The sullage is also led to the sewers. The storm treatment facilities, the land required for the
water may be disposed of separately or disposal of the treated wastewater is very
combined with sanitary sewage. much smaller than that required for the
conservancy system.
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SANITATION SYSTEM/SEWAGE COLLECTION SYSTEM SANITATION SYSTEM/SEWAGE COLLECTION SYSTEM

Merits/Advantages:(Contd..) Demerits/Disadvantages:
e) Treatment aspect: The system permits the use a) Cost: High initial and maintenance cost.
of modern methods of treatment of the
sewerage collected through the sewers. The
b) Water pollution: Large quantity of
treated waste water and sewage can be safely water becomes polluted.
disposed off without any risk. c) Risk of overflow: Risk of sewage
2. Water f) Labor: This system does not depend on manual 2. Water overflow in rainy season if blockage of
labor at any time except when sewers get
Carriage choked.
Carriage sewer line.
d) Pumping cost: Pumping cost is high if
system g) Human agency: No human agency is directly system required.
involved in this system so less chance of
spreading disease. e) Large quantity of sewage is to be
h) Free from humiliation and social injustice: treated during monsoon.
No human agency is directly involved in
collection of night soil.

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TYPES OF SEWERAGE (WATER CARRIAGE) SYSTEM TYPES OF SEWERAGE (WATER CARRIAGE) SYSTEM

❑ Two separate sewers are used, one for

carrying sanitary sewage and other for storm
Sewerage system: water.
Network of sewers 1. Separate system
for collecting and 1. Separate ❑ Storm water collected can be directly
discharged into the water body since no
delivering sewage to system treatment is required.
a disposal point. 2. Combined system
The sewerage ❑ Sewage collected is treated adequately before
system can be divide it is discharged into the water bodies.
in to three types: 3. Partially separate
system

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TYPES OF SEWERAGE (WATER CARRIAGE) SYSTEM

Merits/Advantages:
❑ Treatment is economical due to
less quantity of sewage.
❑ Storm water is not unnecessarily
polluted.
1. Separate ❑ Cheaper because storm sewage
system can be conveyed through open
drains and sanitary sewage only
through closed drains.
❑ Cheaper if pumping is required.
❑ No fear of pollution created by
Fig: Separate Sewer
overflow during heavy rain
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TYPES OF SEWERAGE (WATER CARRIAGE) SYSTEM TYPES OF SEWERAGE (WATER CARRIAGE) SYSTEM
Demerits/Disadvantages:
❑ Due to small quantity of sewage, self- ❑ In this system both sanitary sewage and
cleansing velocity mayn't be available in storm water are carried in a single sewer.
all periods hence flushing system may be
required. Merits/Advantages:
❑ Risk of entry of storm sewage, which may ❑ No problem of flush because self-
cleaning velocity is available due to
cause overflow and heavy load on
1. Separate treatment. 2. Combined more quantity of sewage.
❑ Rainwater dilutes the sewage so
system ❑ Chances of blockage and difficult to system treatment process is easy and
clean. economical.
❑ Maintenance cost high due to two sets of ❑ No chances of choking due to larger size
sewers and lying in congested area is and availability of rainwater.
difficult. ❑ House plumbing is easy and economical
❑ Uneasy in house plumbing two sets of because only one set of pipe is required.
pipes for storm and sanitary sewage ❑ In congested area it is easy to lay one
separately. large sewer.
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TYPES OF SEWERAGE (WATER CARRIAGE) SYSTEM

Demerits/Disadvantages:
❑ High initial cost due to more
depth of laying because of large
size of sewer.
❑ Not suitable for areas having very
less rainfall because self-
2. Combined cleansing velocity can't be
system achieved in the dry period but
may get problem of silting.
❑ When pumping is required this
system is uneconomical.
❑ Rainwater is unnecessarily
polluted and overflow may occur
during heavy rain which causes
Fig: Combined Sewer
harm to the public health.
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TYPES OF SEWERAGE (WATER CARRIAGE) SYSTEM

COMPARISON OF SEWERAGE SYSTEM
❑ If a portion of storm water is allowed to
enter in the sanitary sewage-carrying SN Separate system SN Combined system
sewer and remaining storm sewage into
1. Suitable for more rainfall 1. Suitable for area having less
another sewer, the system is called intensity area. rainfall intensity
partially separate system. 2. Economical so that only sanitary 2. Uneconomical due to large
sewage is to be treated. quantity of sewage is to be
3. Partially ❑ In this system, storm water from roof, treated.
3. Pumping cost is low due to less 3. Pumping cost is high due to
Separate pavement and yards are allowed together
quantity of sewage is to be large quantity.
with sewer and remaining storm water is
system drained off from other drain.
pumped.
4. Cheaper because sanitary 4. Construction is expensive
sewage is conveyed by closed because both storm water and
❑ It is suitable in areas of rainfall throughout underground sewer where as sanitary sewage is conveyed
the year and when the self-cleansing storm sewage is in open drain. through one large closed and
under grounded.
velocity is not available due to smaller
5. Difficult to lay in narrow streets. 5. Suitable in narrow streets
quantity of sewage.
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Historical development of sanitation

▪ The need for proper drainage of wastewater
seems to have been felt even during the ancient

▪
times.
Ancient Babylonian excavations reveal drains and
CHAPTER-2
cesspools built over 6000 years ago QUANTITY OF WASTEWATER
▪ Indus valley civilization remains (Harappa,
Mohanjadaro) also point to existence of good Subject: Sanitary engineering
sanitary practices-bathrooms, latrines, drains etc 32
▪ First sewers of ancient Rome were built around
500 BC, these early drainage systems were
underground channels

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INTRODUCTION SOURCES OF SANITARY SEWAGE

❖ Known before designing any sewerage system
❖ Under estimation (inadequate size of sewer causing overflow) ❑Municipal supply : The amount of
❖ Overestimation (results in larger size of sewer, uneconomical and lack of water after certain losses on
self cleansing velocity) consumption becomes the source of
a) Public water supply
sanitary sewage.
❑ The flow through the sewers that
Quantity of wastewater would normally be available ❑ This quantity of ground water
(liquid waste of the community) during non-rainfall periods. It b) Ground water infiltrates in to sewers through
consists mainly of Sources of infiltration leaked joints and any other way.
1. Domestic sewage and
2. Industrial sewage sanitary
Sanitary sewage or dry weather
c) Unauthorized ❑ It includes entry of rain water and
flow (DWF) sewage connections an unauthorized connection
❑ Additional flow that would occur made by the people in the sewer
in rainy season during the
Storm water or wet weather flow rainfall.
(WWF) ❑ It consists of runoff available
d) Private ❑ It includes the wastewater generated
supply/sources from private sources like tube well,
from roofs, streets, yards, open
well etc.
spaces etc. during rainfall.
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FACTORS AFFECTING SANITARY SEWAGE DETERMINATION OF QUANTITY OF SANITARY

❑ Higher the water supply rate, higher
will be the quantity of sewage SEWAGE
❑ Quantity of wastewater entering the
sewer will be less than the total quantity
of water supplied (due to water lost in Average quantity of sanitary sewage (DWF)=70 to 90% of (population*rate of water supply)
a) Rate of water supply domestic consumption).

❑ The quantity of sanitary sewage

Factors b) Population growth
increase with the increase in
population
affecting
sanitary ❑ Area to be served may be
c) Type of area to be industrial/commercial/residential.
sewage served

d) Infiltration of ground
water and exfiltration of Infiltration increases the quantity of
sewage ( addition and sewage(addition)
Exfiltration decreases the quantity of
subtractions )
sewage (subtraction)
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DETERMINATION OF QUANTITY OF STORM SEWAGE DETERMINATION OF QUANTITY OF STORM SEWAGE

❑ Runoff = [Total rainfall – losses due to evaporation, absorption, transpiration, a) Catchment area(A):
percolation etc.] ❑ From map showing streets, houses, playgrounds sewers etc
❑ Difficult to find out the losses due to evaporation, absorption, transpiration, percolation ❑ Drainage area having different types should be determined
etc. separately.

Limitations of Rational Method:

❑Applicable for small Catchments
(<500 ha)
❑Doesn’t consider shape, slope
and ditches of the drainage area.
❑Doesn’t consider degree of
saturation or initial wetness of
soil and groundwater table.

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DETERMINATION OF QUANTITY OF STORM SEWAGE DETERMINATION OF QUANTITY OF STORM SEWAGE

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DETERMINATION OF QUANTITY OF STORM SEWAGE DETERMINATION OF QUANTITY OF STORM SEWAGE

Time of TIME AREA GRAPH
concentration:

It is defined as the
time required for
flowing water to
travel from the most
remote point of the
catchment or
drainage area to any
point of
concentration.

41 Maximum flow occurs at ‘t = Tc ’ 42

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43 44

Numerical 2:The drainage area of the city is 200 hectares. The

classification of the surface of this area is as follows;
S.N. Type of surface Percentage of total Runoff
surface area coefficient
1 Roof surface 20 0.9
2 Pavement and yards 15 0.8
3 Garden and lawn 30 0.15
4 Road surface 20 0.4
5 Wooden area 15 0.1
If the time of concentration for the area is 30 minutes, find the
maximum runoff. Also, if the density of the population is 300
persons per hectares and the rate of the water supply is 110 lpcd,
calculate the quantity of sewage for;
a) Separate, b) Combined and c) Partially separate system
Assume peak factor equal to 3 and assume other suitable data if
necessary.
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49 50

CHAPTER-3
QUALITY OF SEWAGE
Subject: Sanitary engineering

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OBJECTIVES OF
INTRODUCTION
EXAMINATION OF SEWAGE
❑Sewage consists of residential, public and industrial ❑To identify the strength, characteristics, constituents
mixtures of wastewater etc. of the wastewater.
❑ Contain organic and inorganic materials in dissolved or ❑To control and regulate the sewage treatment plant.
suspended, or colloidal form
❑To find the behavior of water bodies after dilution.
❑Contain various microorganisms useful and harmful to
human life. ❑To prescribe degree of treatment and treatment
process.
❑before designing any sewage treatment system to work
efficiently we analysis of characteristics of sewage is ❑To know the physical, chemical and biological
needed. characteristics of wastewater.
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SAMPLING OF SEWAGE SAMPLING OF SEWAGE

❑process of collection of true representative sample to determine PRESERVATIVES AND STORAGE TECHNIQUE:
characteristics ❑Sample should be taken on quartz bottle with stopper also no air
should be entrapped and volume of the sewage should be 100-150
❑characteristics changes continuously with respect to time cc.
❑So 24 hours sample (100 to 150 cc) collection is done at onehour ❑Suitable preservatives (chloroform, sulphuric acid, formaldehyde
interval etc) to prevent change in quality
• for determination of alkalinity, acidity: No sulphuric acid is used
❑sample is classified as: • for organic matters and grease: No chloroform used.
a. Grab sample: • for BOD: no preservatives are used.
▪ manually collected sample taken at particular time and location. ❑samples kept in a cool place to prevent bacterial activity
▪ Suitable for testing pH, residual chlorine and dissolved oxygen. ❑Each sample should have label with information as under
b. Composite sample: (a) Source (b) Date (c) Time
(d) Preservatives used (e) Collector's identity (f) Temperature
Multiple Grab samples are collected and added together to make one (g)Atmospheric pressure
sample is called composite sample.
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▪
CHARACTERISTICS OF SEWAGE
1. Physical 2.Chemical and 3.Biological
1. Physical characteristics:
(a) Colour (b) Odour (c) Temperature (d) Turbidity (e) Solids
(a) Colour:
❑Due to suspended and other matters.
❑Fresh has a soap solution colour (i.e. grey-brown type) but
septic has dark grey then black colour
❑Colour of industrial sewage varies
❑Test by color test in terms of platinum cobalt scale as
described in water supply engineering
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2. Chemical characteristics: a. pH:

❑Sewage contains complex compounds from urine, faeces, ❑Fresh sewage is alkaline and pH is between 7.3 and 7.5.
inorganic chemicals etc. ❑With respect to time due to the production of acids by
❑ Chemical characteristics affects the selection and operation of bacterial action and become acidic.
various treatment component ❑After oxidation again becomes alkaline.
❑pH; Nitrogen content; chloride content; fat, grease and oil ❑Very lesser and very higher pH indicates industrial sewage.
content; sulphide, sulphates and H2S; dissolved oxygen (DO);
chemical oxygen demand (COD); biochemical oxygen demand ❑Test by pH meter and measured in terms of pH value as
described in water supply engineering
(BOD) etc.
b. DO:
❑We are concerned with
❑amount of oxygen dissolved in wastewater.
(a) pH (b) dissolved oxygen (DO);
❑Presence indicates fresh sewage or oxidation after
(c) chemical oxygen demand (COD); treatment.
(d) biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) ❑4 ppm of DO in stream for fish.
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c. BOD: 3. Biological characteristics:

Amount of oxygen required for the bacteria to • Domestic sewage consists of microorganism
oxidize the organic matter present in the sewage. • presence is 22 – 25 millions numbers in a liter of sewage
• may be pathogenic, indicator organisms etc.
• The main source of pathogenic microorganism is excreta from sick
people
• The microorganism can be classified as:
d. COD: (a) Aquatic plants (b) Aquatic animals
(c) Aquatic mold (fungi), bacteria and virus.
Amount of oxygen required for chemical oxidation • Aquatic Plants consists of waterweeds algae etc.
of organic matters. • Aquatic animals consist of fish, snails, amphibians, insects, earth worms,
hydra etc. These are responsible for disease.
• various types of bacteria and virus, dealt in water supply engineering.
63 • decomposition of sewage is possible due to these bacteria. 64

DECOMPOSITION OF SEWAGE ▪

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(c) Facultative decomposition: COD AND BOD

▪
❑Sewage can also be decomposed by the facultative bacteria
either in the presence or absence of free oxygen is called
facultative decomposition.
❑Produces similar products as in aerobic process if free oxygen
is available and produces similar products as in anaerobic
process if absence of free oxygen.
❑May occurs in trickling filters, contact beds, oxidation ponds
etc.

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69 70

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TESTS OF SEWAGE 2. Chemical tests:

▪ ❑Total solid, pH test, tests for oxygen consumed; DO; oxygen demand (BOD,
COD); Chloride test; nitrogen test; fats and oil test; tests for surfactants;
pesticides and agriculture chemicals test etc.
❑We are concerned with the following tests only.
A. pH test:
❑By Colorimetric or electrometric method.
❑Digital pH meter is common.

73 74

▪ ▪

75 76

▪ C. Dissolved oxygen test:

❑Winker's method modified by Alsterberg which is an oxidation–
reduction process.
❑ sewage is collected in special reagent bottle
❑Add 1 ml of manganous sulphates, 1 ml alkaline potassium
iodide and 2 ml concentrated sulphuric acid in different stages
❑Titrate with N/40 sodium thiosulphate using starch as indicator
❑till the colour change
❑DO is determined on the basis that 1 mg of N/40 sodium
thiosulphate requires 1 mg/l of DO.

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D. Chemical oxygen demand (COD) test: ▪

❑Take known volume of sewage sample diluted with distilled
water.
❑Add known quantities of standard potassium dichromate
solution and concentrated sulphuric acid and boil the mixture
with catalyst as silver sulphates for 2 hours
❑Cool it and calculate the amount of potassium dichromate
remaining by titration with standard ferrous ammonium sulphates
solution
❑Determine COD by calculating oxygen used in oxidizing the
sewage from potassium dichromate.

79 80

▪ F. Necessity of nitrogen, chlorine and chlorine demand test:

❑Determination of chloride is necessary to indicate sewage
strength. Very high may indicates infiltration of saline water into
sewer.
❑Nitrogen content indicates the presence of organic matters and
helps for selection of proper biological units.
❑Chlorine demand is the amount of chlorine used up in oxidizing
unstable organic matters and in killing bacteria. Chlorine
demand gives a rough measure of strength of sewage.

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3. Biological tests: ▪

❑Biological/bacteriological test of sewage is not carried out

❑Presence of bacteria has no effect on choice of treatment
method but essential for efficient working of treatment units
❑Absence indicates presence of industrial waste harmful to
bacteria.
❑Bacteriological test: to determine the degree of pollution of
water bodies like streams and rivers etc.

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▪ ▪

85 86

▪ ▪

87 88

▪ ▪

89 90

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▪ ▪

91 92

▪ ▪

93 94

▪ ▪

95 96

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Relative Stability Population Equivalent

▪ Relative stability of wastewater is defined as the ratio of ▪ The wastewater carried by a sewer consists mainly of domestic sewage
and the industrial wastewater.
available oxygen to the required oxygen satisfying first
stage BOD. ▪ Since the contribution of solids to sewage should be constant on a per
capita basis, the BOD contribution (expressed in grams/person per day)
▪ It is generally expressed as percentage of total oxygen should also be constant.
required. ▪ Generally, BOD contribution per capita per day may be taken as 80 g/day
▪ 𝑺𝑹 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎(𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟕𝟗𝟒𝒕𝟐𝟎 ) (or 0.08 kg/day).

▪ 𝑺𝑹 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎(𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎𝟓𝒕𝟑𝟕 ) ▪ Industrial wastewaters are generally compared with per capita domestic
sewage, through the concept of population equivalent (𝑃 ) using per capita
▪ Where, 𝑡 and 𝑡 are the number of days of incubation BOD value as the basis.
at 20℃ and 37℃ respectively. 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑩𝑶𝑫𝟓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 (
𝒌𝒈
)
𝒅𝒂𝒚
▪ 𝑷𝑬 =
𝑩𝑶𝑫𝟓 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒊𝒕𝒂/𝒅𝒂𝒚

97 98

CYCLES OF DECOMPOSITION

▪ The cycles of decomposition are

1. Nitrogen cycle
2. Carbon cycle
3. Sulphur cycle
4. Phosphorus cycle
5. Calcium cycle

Source: Punmia, B.C.

99 100

Source: Punmia, B.C.

Source: Punmia, B.C.

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Source: Punmia, B.C. Source: Punmia, B.C.

103 104

Membrane filter test

▪ Membrane filtration method
is an assessment of water
quality through the use of a
special filter, i.e. membrane
filter to trap the
microorganisms.
▪ It is a very effective method
for the isolation and
enumeration of
microorganisms in the test
water sample.
▪ Using the MF method, we Fig: Method of Membrane filtration
can determine the water Fig: Membrane filtration units
quality by knowing the
quantity of microbial mass in
105 106
the test sample.

INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER-4 ❑Sewage contains 99.9% water and 0.1% of solid matters.
❑Design similar to water supply pipes but
✔Design to ensure self cleansing velocity to overcome silting
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF problems
SEWERS ✔Design for open channel flow so laid in continuous downward
Subject: Sanitary engineering gradient
❑ Determine Q (Sanitary and Storm) as in chap 2.
107
❑Population forecast (as described in water supply) for
design year.

108

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A. Circular sewer: Common

❑Merits:
a. Least perimeter and maximum hydraulic mean depth/
hydraulically efficient / gives higher discharge.
b. No corners/ less chance of deposition of OM
c. Easy to construct, transport and handle
d. Stable in laying and useful in separate sewers.
❑ Demerits:
Not useful in combine system because self-cleansing
velocity cannot be maintained at DWF conditions.

109 110

B. Non-circular sewer: b) Egg shaped section:

❑Open sewer: used for draining storm water/ may be lined with ❑ closed sewer / depth is one and half times of width.
PCC, Cement soil, clay, brick, stone. ❑ has smaller radius at bottom and larger at top.
❑Closed Sewer: semi elliptical, Horse shoe, basket handle, ❑ mostly constructed with RCC.
rectangular and egg shaped
Merits:
(a) Rectangular section:
⮚ Closed or open • hydraulically efficient than circular.
⮚ Constructed by concrete at the bottom/ side walls with stone or brick • maintains self-cleansing velocity even in DWF
masonry/ plastered / may have separate cover. Or constructed with
RCC which may be precast or cast-insitu. • equally suitable for separate system because it can accommodate
⮚ Merit: It has more stability and ease in construction. the flow of sewage with the development of town
⮚ Demerit: It is not preferred in a sewer line because it is not so Demerits:
hydraulically efficient. Difficult in construction / less stable hence requires good masonry
backing.

111 112

Sewer section should be selected in such SEWER DESIGN CRITERIA

a way that it should: ❑ Sewage contains 99.9% water and 0.1% of solid matters

a. Develop self-cleansing velocity in minimum ❑ Design similar to water supply pipes

or dry weather flow (DWF). ❑ Open channel flow

1. Determine Q as in chap 2
b.Have sufficient free board during maximum
2. Select System (separate or combined or partially separate).
discharge.
3. Select shape and Type of sewer
c. Easy in cleaning and maintenance. (Closed/open/rectangular/circular etc)
d.Structurally safe and stable 4. Size range (min 15 cm
15, 20, 25, 30 ………60 etc. Max = 3 m
5. Sewer gradient: Min 1: 100 and Max 1:20
6. Designed for 1/2 to 2/3 full at peak or maximum discharge
113
7. Ensure: 114

a. Self-cleansing or non-silting or minimum velocity

b. Non-scouring or limiting or maximum velocity of flow

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115 116

LIMITING VELOCITY ▪

117 118

▪ ▪

119 120

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HYDRAULIC ELEMENTS FOR CIRCULAR SEWERS

121 122

▪ c. Circular sewer running Partially full:

123 124

▪ ▪

125 126

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▪ PARTIAL FLOW DIAGRAM

To overcome tedious nature in calculating, a graph called
partial flow diagram is used.

127 128

▪ ▪

129 130

▪ ▪

131 132

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▪ ▪

133 134

▪ Requirements of Sewer Materials

❑Hydraulic efficiency: As far as possible Manning’s coefficient
should be low.
❑Abrasion resistance: Sewage contains inorganic particles
also like sand, silt etc. which on high velocity of flow the erosion
of material may take place due to abrasion.
❑Corrosion and chemical resistance
❑Structural Strength : It should be capable to resists
compressive and tensile stress.
❑Light in weight: It should be easy to transport, handle and
laying.
❑Imperviousness: The sewer material should be impervious
and should not allow seepage of sewage from the sewer.
135 136

Requirements of Sewer Materials Types of sewer materials

❑Durable: The sewer material should be durable so that
expenditure due to its frequent replacement is minimum. The sewers may be made of following
❑Easy to join and assembly materials
❑Flexibility of design a)Brick sewer
❑Easy to repair and maintenance b)Cement concrete pipe (Hume pipe)
❑Cost effectiveness
❑Impact resistance
c)Cast iron pipe (CI pipe)
❑Environment friendly d)Stoneware or Vitrified clay pipe
e)Asbestos cement pipe (AC pipe)
f) Plastic pipe
137 138

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a)Brick sewer ▪

❑Bricks are used for constructions of sewers,

since very early times, particularly for large
diameters.
❑Used in old days
❑Used for large size
❑Nowadays replaced by concrete
❑Externally plastered
❑Internally lined
139 140

c) Cast iron pipe (CI pipe) d) Stoneware or vitrified clay pipe

❑Cast iron pipes posses high strength. ❑These pipes are manufactured from vitrified clay
❑They can resist high tensile strength, compressive as well or stoneware(like as brick)
as bending.
❑Made of cast iron
❑During manufacture vitrified clay is moulded to
the shape of pipe thus obtained is called
❑High structural strength stoneware pipes
❑Diameter 150 mm to 750 mm ❑If common salt (NaCl) is added on hot condition
❑Length 3 to 3.5 m is called salt glazed sewers.
❑Widely used metal pipe ❑Economical, smooth, Hard, resistance to
❑Long life corrosion
❑Joints-spigot and socket joints ❑Brittle (handling risky)
❑It is brittle , heavy so difficult to transport and handling ❑Heavy and weak in tension
❑Expensive and easily acted upon by acids ❑Not in much use nowadays
141 142

▪ f) Plastic pipe
❑ These are of recent origin
❑Better in domestic sewer
❑Free from corrosion
❑Hydraulic efficiency high
❑Cheaper
❑Length long
❑Easy to handle, transport, join, repair etc.

143 144

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CONSTRUCTION OF SEWERS
1. Setting out of centerline of the sewer:
❑laid from the tail end
❑Positions of manholes are transferred to the ground from L-
sections and topo maps
❑The centerline marked on the ground by driving pegs at 7.5
m or 15m interval.
❑Following two methods are generally adopted.
A. First method:
⮚a offset line parallel to the CL is marked on the ground at (2 to 3
m) or (half trench width + 0.6 m) from centerline as shown in
figure 4.9.
⮚Useful to avoid inconvenience to traffic
145 146

B.Second method: 2. Alignment and gradient of sewers:

❑Two vertical posts called uprights ❑Sewers are laid at correct alignment and gradient with the
driven into the ground equal help of boning rods or travelers and sight rails or sometimes
distance from CL peg. with levels.
❑A horizontal wooden board called ❑Modified levels of inverts are obtained by adding suitable
sight rail is fixed between these vertical length to the invert level marked on the L-section.
uprights at a convenient height
❑Then these modified levels are marked on the sight rails by
❑These are placed at the suitable fixing nails or marks or by adjusting the top of the sight rails.
interval such as 30m and CL is
marked on the sight rails ❑The imaginary line parallel to the sewer is obtained on the
ground.
❑A cord is drawn between the
consecutive sight rails for taking ❑The boning rod or traveler of same height is traveled on the
level of the invert of the sewer line. cord to obtain required gradient. (Refer figure 4.11)

147 148

3. Excavation, timbering and

dewatering of trenches:
❑Minimum depth above sewer is to
be 0.9 m and width of 0.6 m.
❑ If depth increases to 1.5 to 2.0 m,
timbering of trenches is necessary.
❑At joints the width of the trench
should be higher for ease in
joining.
❑If water table is high, dewatering
with pumping or under gravity
flow is done.

149 150

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4.Laying and jointing of sewers: 5. Testing of sewer:

Sewers are tested for water tightness of joint.
❑Check bottom gradient with the help of set of
sight rails, travelers (boning rods) and plumb a)Water test:
bob. ❑Plug the upper and lower end. Lower end is plugged with
a provision of funnel and upper end has a provision of air
❑Adjust levels by excavation or earth filling if outlet with stop cock.
necessary. ❑Pass water through the funnel and all air is released
through upper end then close the stop cock.
❑Lay pipes so that sockets end faces at up ❑After thirty minutes, note the water level and calculate
gradient. loss of water.
❑The loss should not be greater than 2 liters per cm
❑Join properly and fill with cement mortar, diameter of pipe per KM length.
bitumen etc. as per the type of joints.
151 152

b) Air test: 6.Back filling:

❑If there is lack of water and pipe is too big, air ❑Do immediately after the successful testing. If beddings
testing is preferred are provided, do it only after the sufficient setting time.

❑plug the sewer at the both ends. ❑Backfilling soil should be free from pebbles, large lumps,
stones etc. Backfill in every 15 cm layers with watering for
❑Provide air pressure equivalent to 100 mm of 60 cm above the crown
water using hand pump from one end ❑After one week of weathering, complete back filling 15
❑Accept if the pressure is maintained at 75 mm of cm above the ground surface.
water.

153 154

SEWER APPURTENANCES MANHOLE

❑Structure/Appliances constructed at a suitable locations of ❑A masonry or RCC
a sewerage system is called Sewer Appurtenances chamber constructed
❑For efficient operation and maintenance along the sewer to
provide access for
inspection, testing,
cleaning and removal of
obstructions
❑May be circular,
rectangular or square in
shape and has a suitable
cover (generally of CI)
155 156

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Objective of providing manhole: Location of manhole:

a. To provide manual access for inspection, cleaning, ❑Directly over the centerline of sewer
testing
❑Every bend, junctions, and every change of gradient,
b. To allow joining, changing in directions or level or both direction, size and at other convenient locations.
c. To lay sewer in convenient length Spacing of manhole:
d. To achieve the ventilation of sewers ❑depends upon size of sewer, bends and junctions and
gradient etc.
❑normal spacing with respect to diameter

157 158

Construction of manhole:
1. Top cover and frame:
Classification of manhole:
⮚ Frame depth = 20 – 25 cm, width = 10 cm, opening > 50 cm. a. Shallow manhole:
⮚ Weight of cover with frame = 90 – 270 kg.
2. Access shaft: • Depth = 0.75 – 0.9 m
⮚ provides an access to the working chamber. • constructed at the start of branch sewer with light CI
⮚ 0.6m×0.75m (rectangular)/0.6 to 0.75m dia. (circular) cover
3. Working chamber:
⮚
⮚
lower portion of manhole, provides working space
minimum 0.9m×1.2m (rectangular)/1.2 m dia. (circular)
b.Normal or medium manhole:
• depth about 1.5 m
4. Bottom or invert or Benching:
semi-circular/U-shape concrete bed (150–300mm thick)/slope 1:6 to center • square (1m ×1m) or rectangular (0.8m × 1.2m)
5. Side walls:
minimum thickness 22.5 cm (1 brick thick). t = 10 + 4d, t is thickness of the c. Deep manhole:
wall in cm and d is depth of manhole in m.
• depth > 1.5 m
6. Steps or Ladder:
CI/steel steps placed 30 cm apart vertically for up and down to access. • larger at bottom and reduced at top.
159 160

DROP MANHOLE: LAMPHOLES:

❑Special manhole to connect ❑It is a small opening provided
branch sewer from a high- on sewers for the insertion of
lamp to inspect sewer for the
level (0.5 to 0.6 m) to low- detection of obstruction
level main sewer. useful, if there is a slight curve
and change in gradient and
❑Purpose of drop manhole is have limited space to provide
to avoid splashing of sewage manhole
as well as for smooth fall of ❑consists of a vertical shaft of
sewage. 20 – 30 cm diameter
connected to the sewer with a
❑May be inclined drop type tee and the top opening is
or vertical drop type covered by CI or RCC cover
flush with the road level.
(common)

161 162

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STREET INLETS: CATCH BASIN OR PITS:

❑constructed to intercept the storm water ❑RCC or masonry chamber
and surface wash along the street to constructed below the street inlets
convey it into the sewer by means of to prevent the flow of girt, sand or
pipes of 25 – 30 cm diameter
debris
❑provided at road junctions and at 100 –
130 m spacing ❑depth of 600 to 750 mm
❑three types ❑may be square, rectangular or
square of dimension 600 – 900 mm.
❑outlet pipe is fixed about 60 cm
above the bottom with trap to
prevent from out coming of odour.
❑Catch pits needs regular cleaning.
163 164

FLUSHING TANKS:
❑Required to clean the sewer from possible clogging due to
lack of self cleansing velocity.
❑a flushing chamber or tank is used to store the water to flush
sewers called flushing tank.
❑constructed at the head of the sewer. may be manually
operated or automatic.
❑In manual, water is stored to certain level and opened when
desired
❑Automatic type is common to flush for regular intervals
normally twice or thrice in a day.
❑It consists of a masonry /concrete chamber provided with a
inlet, an overflow and one outlet with U-tube and bell to
sewer.
165 166

SAND, GREASE AND OIL TRAP:

❑Sewage from hotels, restaurants, kitchen, automobile
workshop, garage and industries contains grease, sand oil
and fats
❑Stick to the sewers and captures suspended solids and
causes obstruction in flow may cause explosion
❑ Make sewage treatment complicated
❑So grease and oil trap or combined sand, grease and oil
trap is constructed.

167 168

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INVERTED SIPHON (DEPRESSED SEWER):

❑At depressions such as to cross roads, canals etc sewer is
depressed below called depressed sewers or inverted
siphon
❑Consists of an inlet and outlet chamber with cover and three
pipes of different sizes laid in parallel to each other.
❑At minimum flow central pipe of smaller diameter is used
and for more flow overflows to the other two

169 170

SEWER OUTLET:
❑Sewer outlet is masonry head
structure is made at the bank and
VENTILATING SHAFT:
a cast on pipe laid out to
❑Decomposition of OM produces explosive and
poisonous foul gases causes harm to health and
discharge into river or stream . reduces life of sewers.
❑It is the last point of sewer lines ❑Provided to escape gases
where sewage is disposal or
discharged. ❑Provided at every 80m – 300 meters
❑Disposal of sewage may be on; ❑In open areas hole in the lid of MH acts as
▪ Land ventilation.
▪ Water bodies ❑In crowded areas air tight RCC or CI pipe (15 –
❑If disposal is done on water 30 cm diameter with a cowl) is provided as
bodies, outlet should be taken ventilating shaft
certain depth to reduce surface ❑ Height > the tallest building in the locality.
pollution.
171 172

INTRODUCTION:
CHAPTER-5 ❑After the conveyance, sewage is required to
SEWAGE DISPOSAL throw with or without suitable treatment.
Subject: Sanitary engineering
❑The process of throwing away the sewage is
called sewage disposal.
173

174

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NECESSITY AND OBJECTIVES OF NECESSITY AND OBJECTIVES OF

WASTEWATER DISPOSAL: WASTEWATER DISPOSAL:
Necessity of wastewater disposal: Objectives of wastewater disposal:
❑Because after sometimes it become ❑To nullify the possible contamination of water
stale and cause nuisance supply, bathing areas etc by proper disposal
❑To prevent stress on fish and aquatic biota by not
❑Because treatment required depends allowing the raw sewage
upon its disposal methods and place ❑To convert the sewage into non-harmful entity and
at the same time reduce the odour and nuisance
175 176

WASTEWATER DISPOSAL SEWAGE TREATMENT BY

METHODS : DILUTION
(a) Sewage treatment by disposal ▪ In this process, either raw or treated sewage is
Sewage is thrown into large water bodies such as disposed into relatively large water bodies, e.g.,
rivers, streams, pond, lake, sea etc after or river, lake, sea, etc
sometimes without treatment. ▪ As such, the concentrated sewage (high BOD) gets
(b) Sewage treatment by land treatment diluted
Sewage is disposed evenly by spreading on the ▪ The sewage then gets purified as it travels along
surface of land with or without treatment. the flow length

177 178

ESSENTIAL CONDITIONS FOR DILUTION DILUTION FACTOR

▪ Relatively fresh sewage (not after 4-5hrs of production) ▪ The ratio of quantity of diluting water to that of sewage
▪ Sewage without floating and suspended matters ▪ Whether to dispose sewage without treatment or with some
▪ Large water volume at receiving water treatment depends on dilution factor such as the following
table (Case of England)
▪ Turbulent river (complete mixing when sewage hits the
receiving water)
▪ Receiving water with high DO content
▪ Source point of water supply not in vicinity
▪ Sewage does not contain industrial waste containing toxic
substances
▪ Water body not used for navigational purpose for at least
some reasonable distance
179 180

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SELF PURIFICATION OF STREAM

▪ When receiving water is added with sewage, it gets
FACTORS AFFECTING SELF
polluted PURIFICATION OF STREAM
▪ After travelling some distance, it gets purified due a. Dilution
to natural forces of purification such as dilution,
sedimentation, oxidation and reduction b.Current
▪ This process occurs in all running rivers and c. Temperature
streams – popularly known as Self Purification of d.Sunlight
Stream
e.Rate of Oxidation
▪ Example: Bagmati river reach between Kathmandu
and Sarlahi f. Reduction
181 182

▪ b. Current
❑ No current:- sewage matter deposit near the
outfall causes formation of sludge bank and foul
odour
❑ Heavy current:- sewage mixed thoroughly and
prevents all such nuisances but growth of algae is
not possible.
❑ Slow current:- sedimentation takes place causing
growth of algae resulting production of oxygen.
❑ Slow current is better for self-purification.

183 184

c. Sunlight d. Temperature
❑ Kills pathogens ❑ low temperature:- activities of the organism
❑ Essential for photosynthesis for algae slower.
❑ Stimulates the growth of algae and acts as a ❑ High temperature:- high rate of biological and
disinfectant. chemical activities; capacity to maintain DO is
low; rapid depletion of DO; causes anaerobic
❑ It makes self-purification better. reactions
❑ In summer, the self-purification occurs in lesser
time.

185 186

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e. Oxidation: f. Reduction:
❑ OM acted by the aerobic bacteria or chemically ❑ OM settled on the bottom reduced to liquids and
using DO present in water and deficit oxygen is gases due to hydrolysis either chemically or
filled up by absorbing oxygen from atmosphere. biologically.
❑ oxidation continues till BOD is fully satisfied. ❑ Anaerobic bacteria split the complex organic
❑ Self-purification fast even in highly polluted matters to liquids and gases for stabilization by
sewage, if stream water is capable to absorb oxidation.
atmospheric oxygen. ❑ Such reduction assists the self-purification of
stream.

187 188

OXYGEN SAG CURVE De-oxygenation curve (curve 2):

▪
❑Just after disposal, DO starts depletion to meet BOD in
decomposition of OM
❑ Called de-oxygenation and closely follows progress of
BOD of polluted water so it is sometimes called BOD
reaction.
❑The rate of de-oxygenation depends upon amount of
organic matter remaining to be oxidized, temperature of
diluting water and time available for decomposition

189 190

Re-oxygenation curve (curve 3): Oxygen sag curve (curve 1):

❑DO of stream water is rapidly consumed and oxygen is ❑Re-oxygenation & de-oxygenation occur
adsorbed from atmosphere when DO falls below its simultaneously in stream exposed to air.
saturation value. ❑The algebraic sum of re-oxygenation and de-
❑Oxygen is also contributed by green plants under oxygenation curves
photosynthesis. ❑Oxygen sag curve represents the DO deficit at
❑Adsorption of oxygen is called re-oxygenation or different time.
reaeration. ❑ Increase in DO deficit at the beginning
❑Rate of re-oxygenation depends upon depth of receiving ❑When oxygenation and de-oxygenation are equal,
water, velocity of stream flow and deficit of DO below
saturation value.
the maximum deficit is obtained
❑After this point oxygen deficit decreases till it
becomes zero.
191 192

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ZONE OF POLLUTION IN THE

STREAMS
Self-purification process of a stream polluted
by the wastewater can be divided into
following four zones
1. Zone of Degradation (Decomposition zone)
2. Zone of Active Decomposition (Septic
zone)
3. Zone of Recovery
4. Zone of clear water 193 194

1. Zone of Degradation ▪
❑Situated just below the outfall sewer
❑Water become dark and turbid with formation of
sludge deposits at bottom.
❑DO is reduced to 40% of the saturation values.
❑Reoxygenation is slower than deoxygenation.
❑This condition is unfavourable to aquatic life and
algae dies out.
❑Decomposition of solid matter takes place in this
zone and anaerobic decomposition prevails over
aerobic decomposition.

195 196

3. Zone of Recovery 4. Clear Water Zone

❑Portion of zone formed at the downstream part of ❑In this zone, the natural condition of stream is
zone of active decomposition. restored with the result that:
❑Water become clearer and recovered from ▪ Water becomes clearer and attractive in appearance.
degradation. ▪ DO rises to the saturation level, and BOD drops to the
❑Stabilization of organic matter takes place in this lowest value.
zone. ▪ Oxygen balance is attained.
❑Most of the stabilized organic matter settles as
sludge, BOD falls and DO content rises above 90%
value.
❑Near the end of the zone, fungi wave out and algae
reappear.
197 198

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STREETER-PHELPS EQUATION
▪

199 200

202

201

▪ ▪

Item Effluent River

Flow (m3/s) 0.16 0.4
DO (mg/l) 1.6 8.2
Temp (0C) 25 22
BOD at 200C (mg/l) 32 2

Temp (0C) 18 20 22 23 24 25 26

DO (mg/l) 9.54 9.17 8.99 8.83 8.53 8.38 8.22

203 204

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 7/19/2022

▪ ▪

Temp (0C) 22 22.86 23

DO (mg/l) 8.99 DOsat=? 8.83

205 206

▪
SEWAGE DISPOSAL BY LAND TREATMENT
❑It is a method of sewage disposal in
which sewage is evenly spread into the
land
❑Organic solids (present in the sewage)
remains in surface while liquid part
percolated through
❑Organic matter is mostly oxidized by
bacteria while heat, sunlight will also aid
the process
207 208

Advantages: Disadvantages:
1. Natural method. 1.Larger land
2. Water bodies prevented from pollution. 2.Ineffective in rainy season and heavy
3. Disposal possible even absence of large rainfall area.
water body 3.Not suitable in clayey surface.
4. Fertilizing matters can be used 4.Supervision to prevent sewage sickness
5. Cheap and not require treatment. 5.Special care needed if used for
6. Operation and maintenance cost is low agriculture (disease spreading)

209 210

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Suitability of land treatment Methods of land treatment

❑Area having low rainfall
1. Irrigation
❑No large water bodies available for
dilution 2. Overland flow
❑When proper dilution could not be 3. Rapid infiltration
achieved due to large volume of sewage
❑Soil is porous (e.g. sandy)
❑Groundwater table is low even during
monsoon season
211 212

1.Irrigation/Sewage Farming
❑controlled discharge into the land to support plant growth
❑fertilizing elements and minerals are used by crops and
yield is increased (33%)
❑Water percolates, evaporates and released by
evapotranspiration
❑the fertilizing elements in organic matters are used by
crops.
❑scientific care, precautions and supervision is necessary
for the hygienic safety to the workers to protect against the
infection by pathogens and helminthes. Fig: Irrigation method

❑Applied only after primary treatment.

213 214

2. Overland flow
❑A thin layer of sewage is discharge to a land
having mild slope (2-8%)
❑The effluent appears as runoff (overland flow)
which can be collected in a ditch (canal)
❑The collected runoff can be discharged to natural
water body
❑Generally good for soil having significant clay
content
❑Land is generally covered with grass to avoid Fig: Overland Flow (source: Modi,2001)
erosion and to serve as habitant for bacteria

215 216

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3. Rapid infiltration
❑Rapid infiltration basins (also known as
spreading basins) are constructed in which
sewage is applied
❑Sewage then percolates through the soil
❑Soil with high permeability is needed
❑Ground water table should be at
considerable distance
❑2 or more basins are needed to be used Fig: Rapid Infiltration (source: Modi,2001)

alternatively as infiltration rate may be low

217 218

Broad irrigation and sewage farming: Method of application of sewage

Broad irrigation:
❑sewage is flooded on the vacant land having porous soil, which
acts as a filter media.
on land
❑The accumulated matters are acted by aerobic action. Below 1. Flooding method
the porous soil, an under-drainage system of 15 cm diameter 2. Surface irrigation method
porous pipes network of 10 to 30 cm spacing with open joints
are laid and collected filtered sewage is disposed on natural 3. Basin method
water courses.
4. Ridge and furrow method
Sewage farming:
❑Sewage when used in land for irrigation, it adds fertilizing
5. Sub surface irrigation method
elements and minerals which increases yield of corps 6. Sprinkler or spray irrigation method
❑So land treatment method of irrigation purpose is also called
sewage farming

219 220

1. Flooding method 2. Surface irrigation method

❑parallel drains connected to a distributary with regulator to control
❑land is divided into rectangular plots of flow in the field of sloped areas.
convenient dimensions with the help of dykes ❑sewage allowed to overflow through fields from one drain towards
❑Sewage distributed over these plots to a depth of other
30 cm to 60 cm. ❑sewage flows over the fields, its large quantity is adsorbed by the
fields and only excess quantity reaches to the drain from which it
❑subsoil drains provided to supply air to the soil goes to the another field or large water bodies
and to remove the percolated effluent through soil.

221 222

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3. Basin method 4. Ridge and furrow method

❑Big trees and plants are planted in isolated ❑Ridges and furrows of 15 to 30 m are formed
manner and basins are made around each tree. ❑ Furrow is a small ditch 30 cm to 50 cm deep and
❑Basins are filled with sewage which slowly 120 cm to150 cm wide whereas the ridge is 120 cm
percolates the root zones of the plant and maintains to 250 cm wide.
the root zone wet. ❑Furrows filled with sewage up to 2/3rd of depth
❑ Suitable for orchards and fruit gardens. causes saturation of root zones of plants in ridges
and some is percolated and evaporated.

223 224

5. Sub surface irrigation method 6. Sprinkler or spray irrigation method

❑Sewage applied at the root of the plants through the open ❑sewage is filled in the tanks to settle the
jointed porous drain pipes network laid about 30 cm below
the ground level
solids and then sprayed under pressure
❑sewage rises up due to capillary action and utilized by
through pipes fitted with nozzles spaced at
plant. suitable intervals to cover the entire field.
❑The excessive amount is used for other field or disposed
in natural water courses.

225 226

SEWAGE SICKNESS Prevention Sewage sickness

❑Choice of land with porous soil
❑Sewage sickness is a stage where after long
and continuous sewage application, the pores ❑Pre-treating the sewage thereby removing
present in the soil get clogged due to larger organic matters contained in the sewage
deposition of organic matter thereby reducing ❑Allowing sufficient rest time after application of
the air circulation within the soil sewage to the land
❑Aerobic decomposition stops and anaerobic ❑Allowing crop rotation
decomposition starts causing nuisance in the ❑Applying shallow depth of sewage to the land
area ❑Frequent tillage operation
❑The sewage treating capacity of the soil is ❑Providing under-drainage
exhausted
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INTRODUCTION
❑Sewage contains impurities/disease causing bacteria
❑Disposed by dilution/land after collection and conveyance.
CHAPTER-6 ❑Directly disposed: harm to public health/nuisance/pollution
water bodies.
of

WASTEWATER TREATMENT ❑ Before Disposal in river/streams/land, generally treated for

Subject: Sanitary engineering safety.
❑Process of changing harmful substances to harmless substance
❑Degree of treatment required depends upon the characteristics
229 of sewage and disposal point.
❑Treatment: to achieve some standard that is acceptable for
disposal in the land or water without causing any harm.

230

OBJECTIVES OF SEWAGE TREATMENT:

❑To reduce the strength of sewage (i.e.
BOD)
❑To kill pathogenic organism
❑To remove nuisance causing elements
❑To prevent water bodies from pollution
❑To prevent sewage sickness of land
❑To utilize the fertilizing element
containing in the sewage
231 232

TREATMENT PROCESS TYPES AND

IMPURITY REMOVAL
❑Depends on characteristics of sewage and
degree of treatment required
❑Can be classified as:
1. Physical process (Preliminary/primary process)
2. Chemical process (Preliminary/primary
process)
3. Biological process (Secondary process)
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a) Physical Method
Separation of floating matters, settleable solids, suspended solids,
grits from wastewater by physical means like screening, grit
CLASSIFICATION OF
chamber, skimming tank, sedimentation etc as we called physical
method. TREATMENT PROCESS
b) Chemical Method The treatment process may be classified as
Non-settleable suspended solid and colloidal cannot be arrested by
means of physical action in reasonable detention period hence such following:
particles are trapped by adding certain chemicals (like Alum, ferric
sulphate, ferric chloride, ferrous chloride etc.) known as chemical 1. Preliminary treatment
precipitation.
2. Primary treatment
c) Biological Method
The mixed population of micro organisms, naturally present in the 3. Secondary treatment
wastewater, is able to utilize the colloidal and dissolved biodegradable
organic matter as their food for their growth. The organic matters are 4. Final or advance or tertiary treatment
converted into stable inorganic matters due to biological action of
bacteria hence it is called biological method.

235 236

1. Preliminary treatment: 3. Secondary or biological treatment:

In preliminary treatment process only physical unit ❑effluent from primary treatment accomplished through
operations are used. biological decomposition of organic matter under aerobic
a. Screening: removes bulky suspended/floating particles /anaerobic condition to remove volatile organic matters using
(dead animals, tree branches, papers, piece of wood etc) bacteria.
b. Grit removal: settable heavy and coarse inorganic solids. ❑OM converted to stable inorganic matters due to biological
c. Skimming: oils and greases. action of bacteria so it is called biological process.
❑ Purpose/objective: to remove suspended/dissolved OM by
2. Primary treatment: utilizing bacteria of sewage for biodegradation to convert into
b. Plain sedimentation: remove large SS in settling basin stable substances.
c. Chemical precipitation: non settable SS and colloidal using ❑Principles of biological treatment:
chemicals. ⮚convert volatile OM into stable inorganics through aerobic
/anaerobic/facultative process using bacteria in sewage.
Sometimes both Preliminary and primary treatment
may be classified under primary treatment. ⮚Suitable environment for growth of bacteria is needed.
⮚Sewage must contain organic matters (food of the bacteria).
237 238

Classification of biological treatment:

A. Classification as per the decomposition process: 4. Final or advance or tertiary treatment:
a. Aerobic process: Aerobic bacteria in presence of dissolve oxygen.
(Trickling filters, activated sludge process, aerobic stabilization ❑Involves all operations and process used to
ponds, and aerated lagoons) remove impurities left from conventional(
b. Anaerobic process: Anaerobic bacteria in the absence of dissolved
oxygen. (Anaerobic sludge digestion, anaerobic contact process, preliminary, Primary and secondary) treatment
anaerobic filters, anaerobic logons and ponds) methods.
c. Facultative (aerobic-anaerobic) process: Facultative bacteria in
presence/absence of dissolved oxygen (Oxidation pond) ❑It is used to remove inorganic compounds of
B. Classification as per the growth process: nitrogen and phosphorus; toxic heavy metals,
a.Suspended growth process: microorganism responsible for residual organics, inorganic solids, bacteria,
converting OM are maintained in suspension within the liquid by
natural or mechanical mixing. (Activated sludge process, Aerated
lagoons, Sludge digestion system etc.)
virus etc.
b. Attached growth process: microorganism are attached to some ❑This treatment method is normally carried out for
inert medium such as rock, slag, plastic material etc. (Filter)
c. Combined process: mixed (Trickling filter activated sludge,
industrial wastewater treatment.
activated sludge trickling filter, facultative lagoons)

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SCREENING 1. Bar or rack screen:

❑first step of treatment
❑Removes relatively larger type particle
❑process of removing the large floating and suspended matters such
as dead animals, plastics, leaves, paper etc by the use of coarse /fine ❑ Made of circular or rectangular or square mild steel bars @
screen clear spacing of 20 – 150 mm
❑Matters trapped are called screenings which are disposed off by ❑placed vertically or at 30 – 80º inclined with vertical Structure
burial, incineration or digestion in sludge digesters. have a by pass and a platform for removing screenings.
❑Screenings are removed manually/mechanically.
❑Objectives :
⮚Reduce the load on the other treatment units and to reduce the damage to the ❑As per opening size, two types:
pumps, valves, gates etc from abrasion. a. Coarse screens:
⮚Remove any bulky and unsightly (threatening) floating matter. ▪ Rack/bar screen, clear openings of >= 50 mm (generally 75 – 150)
▪ kept at beginning to trap larger matters.
❑Types of screens : b. Medium screens:
1. Bar or rack screens
▪ Rack/bar screen, clear openings 20 – 50 mm used to trap medium matters.
2. Fine screen Comminuters or cutting screen ▪ kept at inlet of pumps.

241 242

2.Perforated or fine
screen
❑Generally not used
because of quick clogging
and needs rapid cleaning.
Used when sewage is
directly disposed without
treatment.
❑mechanically cleaned
device and made of
perforated plate of 0.7 – 1.5
mm diameter perforations.
243 244

3. Comminuter or GRIT CHAMBER

❑Next after screening to remove very heavy inorganic content of diameter
cutting screen: >= 0.2 mm or more with specific gravity around 2.65

❑In real sense, it is a ❑sand, gravel, ash, clinkers, egg shells, bones and other inert matters
❑allows them into a chamber for quiescent condition is called grit
cutter & cuts the big chamber.
❑ Objective:
particles present in ⮚Protect pumps valves etc against abrasion.
⮚Reduce overloading in other treatment units and clogging of sludge pipes.
the sewage to fine ⮚Reduce the frequency of cleaning of sludge digestion tanks and settling tanks.

particle. ❑ Construction:
⮚RCC/masonry (random rubble or brick) chamber may have two or more
compartments in plan
❑has rotating screen ⮚long but short in width and depth
⮚bottom made slope so that grit can be be collected towards the slope end.
with cutting blade ❑Grit disposed off by dumping, land filling or burial
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Design Consideration:
▪ Detention time (𝑡) = 45 to 90 sec (usually 60 sec)
▪ Horizontal velocity (𝑉 ) = = 0.15 to 0.3 m/s (usually 0.3 m/s)
▪ Length (𝑙) = 10 to 15 m
▪ Free board = 0.3 to 0.5 m
▪ Depth of liquid (𝑑) = 1 to 2 m
▪ Width (𝐵) = about 1 m
▪ Settling velocity for spherical discrete particle (𝑉 ) for diameter of grit (𝑑 ≥ 0.1 𝑡𝑜 1 𝑚𝑚) is
given by modified Hazen William's equation as;
3𝑇 + 70
𝑉 = 60.6 𝑆 − 1 𝑑 𝑚𝑚/𝑠
100
Where, 𝑆 = Specific gravity of grit
𝑑 = size or diameter of grit mm
𝑇 = Temperature of sewage °C

▪ Surface overflow rate (𝑆𝑂𝑅)=

▪ Horizontal or flow through velocity (𝑉 )= =

247

248

PU 2018 (FALL)

▪ Check velocity; ▪
Self cleansing velocity or scouring velocity has given by Camp-shield.
1. Critical velocity required just for scouring or self cleansing of organic matters;
8𝐾
𝑉 = 𝑆 − 1 𝑔𝑑
𝑓

2. Critical velocity required just for scouring or self cleansing of grit;

8𝐾
𝑉 = 𝑆 − 1 𝑔𝑑
𝑓
Where, 𝑑 and 𝑑 are sizes if grit and organic matter to be considered.
𝐾 = A constant = 0.04 to 0.8 (0.06 in grit chamber)
𝑓 = Darcy's friction factor = 0.02 to 0.03 (0.03 in grit chamber)
𝑔 = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2.
For 𝐾 = 0.06 and 𝑓 =0.03; Shield formula is modified to:
𝑉 =4 𝑆 − 1 𝑔𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉 =4 𝑆 − 1 𝑔𝑑
In grit chamber, organic matters should not settle but grit should settle. Thus, Velocity should be;
𝑉 <𝑉 <𝑉
▪ Space for grit storage or accumulation=0.5 m (optional)
250

249

▪ ▪

L= 10.85 m
Q/2
B= 1 m
Q
Q/2
B= 1 m
Q/2
B= 1 m

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FLOTATION/SKIMMING TANK
❑grease, oils, wax, soap, free fatty acid and fats etc.
❑allowed to remain quiescent condition for certain detention time (normally 3 minute)
❑rise to the surface (scum) and removed by manually or mechanically is called
flotation or skimming.
❑Done before sedimentation.
❑Main purpose: to remove oils, fats etc. which cause trouble in other treatment
processes.
❑Construction:
⮚ done in a tank called skimming tank (circular/rectangular)
⮚ has three different compartments
⮚ may have compressive air diffuser to aid flotation/prevent suspended particles to settling.

❑Skimming collected in the trough

❑disposed off by burning/burring/fuel gas.
❑used in the manufacture of soap, lubricants, wax

253 254

▪ SEDIMENTATION
❑process in which water is retained in a tank/basin so that
the suspended particles and organic solids present in the
sewage may be settle down under the action of gravity.
❑sludge removed manually/mechanically.
❑Purpose: to remove large amounts of SS & OS to reduce
the load on other units.
❑ One after (screening, grit removal, skimming) and before
chemical precipitation called primary settling tank.
❑Other after biological treatment called secondary settling
tank
❑Sediment disposed by dumping/sanitary land
filling/burial.
❑discussed in water supply engineering hence we are not
go in detail here.
255 256

Classification of Sedimentation tanks (details not necessary

but same as described in Water Supply Engineering):
1. Classification based on method of operation:
A. Fill and draw type
B. Continuous flow type
a. Horizontal flow type
i. Rectangular with longitudinal flow
ii. Circular with radial flow
▪ Circular with radial feed (common)
▪ Circular with peripheral feed
b. Vertical flow type (Hooper bottom tank)
2. Classification based on location:
A. Preliminary sedimentation tank (grit chamber)
B. Primary settling tank
C. Secondary settling tank

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Principle of sedimentation:
❑if sewage is retained in quiescent condition for certain period by
reducing velocity, the suspended particles will settle down due
to gravitational forces then the sediments (called sludge) and
floating matters (called scum) can be easily removed.
❑The retention tank/basin is called sedimentation tank/ basin or
settling basin/tank
❑the time period for which water is retained in the tank is called
retention period or detention period or detention time or
retention time.
❑affected by velocity of flowing sewage, size, shape and specific
gravity of particle; viscosity of water; detention time; effective
depth & length of settling zone; inlet & outlet arrangements.

259 260

261 262

▪
▪

263 264

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▪ ▪

Temperature (0C) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Kinematic viscosity (mm2/s) 1.792 1.519 1.308 1.141 1.007 0.897 0.804

𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒌 𝑽 = ∅𝟐 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟏∅ + 𝟎. 𝟕𝟖𝟓𝒅 ; 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒃𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒎 𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝟏: 𝟏𝟐
265 266

PU 2014 (Spring) similar

▪ ▪

267 268

▪ CHEMICAL PRECIPITATION
❑contains electrically charged colloidal particles and smaller
suspended solids not settled down in plain sedimentation.
❑settling down and removal of such fine suspended particles and
colloidal matter can be achieved by chemically assisted
sedimentation called Chemical Precipitation.
❑done before biological treatment.
❑chemicals added are called coagulants; the formed insoluble
gelatinous precipitate is called floc
❑the process of adding coagulants to sewage and mixing it
thoroughly is known as coagulation
❑the process of formation of floc is called flocculation.

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❑The theory is that the ions of floc are positively charged Chemical precipitation is analogous to
and attract negatively charged settleable suspended
particles of clay, silt and colloidal matter present in sedimentation with coagulation in water treatment
sewage thus the floc becomes heavier and settles down hence same process (as described in water supply
which is further removed by sedimentation. engineering) are required as given below:
❑Purpose: to remove the finely dispersed solids present in 1. Feeding the coagulant using feeding devices
sewage.
❑aluminum sulphates or alum, Iron salts, Lime and sodium 2. Mixing of coagulant in mixing basins with baffle
carbonate etc are used as coagulants walls or in flash mixture.
❑Alum is common and popular in water treatment because 3. Flocculation by the use of slow stirring device
it is cheaper and produces heavier floc in normal pH range
of 6 to 8. called flocculator to permit buildup of the floc
❑Iron Salts are used in wastewater treatment particles.
❑Optimum dose is determined by jar test. 4. Sedimentation in settling tank
271 272

The all four process (coagulant feeding, flash mixing, flocculation and
clarification) may be done in a single unit called Dorr clariflocculator. FILTRATION
❑primary treatment effluent: 60 – 80% of unstable OM
❑ treated by another process called secondary/biological
treatment.
❑Filtration : one of the secondary/biological process
❑The process in which sewage is passed through beds of
coarse/porous medium capable to passing air for growth of
aerobic bacteria and perform their functions on which the
organic matters forming a film at the top surface of filter.
❑Effluent to SST for secondary settling.
❑Three types of filters
1. Intermittent Sand filter
2. Contact beds
3. Trickling filter

273 274

1. INTERMITTENT SAND FILTER Construction:

Introduction and Purpose: ❑ Similar to slow sand filter.

❑Earliest type with sand as filter media ❑ Consists of a rectangular tank with
bed of sand constructed below the
❑Purpose of the biological treatment ground without lining.
❑1 – 1.25 m deep/ area 1000 – 4000
❑Rarely used because larger land required m2 / length width ratio 3 to 4.
❑Used in certain places such as tuberculosis ❑ 0.15 – 0.3 m layers of filter media
hospital because it produces highly nitrified and (sand)/effective size 0.2 – 0.5
polished effluent. mm/uniformity coefficient 2 – 5
❑Open jointed effluent pipes in the
❑Various units needed/ it can’t be used gravel bed at bottom.
continuously/needs rest and called intermittent ❑3 – 4 beds for rotational working/a
sand filter. symphonic dosing tank

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Working and cleaning: Advantages:

❑ No need of secondary sludge
2. CONTACT BEDS
❑ sewage is applied for 3 – 10 cm
depth once in 24 hours. treatment /occasional scrapping/ Introduction and Construction:
quality of effluent is good/ Purpose:
❑ Sewage percolates through the nitrogenous matters are removed. ❑ Rectangular water tight tank below
bed and suspended organic ❑No chance of anaerobic condition ❑An improvement over the ground/lined with cement
concrete or cement plaster on
matters get trapped in the voids so no foul gases intermittent sand filter masonry both at bottom and sides
of top portion of sand bed.
❑ Bed is keep at rest for some time
❑Simple operation, no need of heavy
mechanical equipment
called contact filter. ❑Filter media is gravel/brick
ballast/broken stones of size 2 – 2.5
for the action of organic bacteria
❑High efficiency (effluent BOD < 5 ❑Similar to intermittent cm/rate of filtration to 4500 – 6500
m3/ha/day so requires low area of
❑ Effluent is stable and highly mg/l; effluent SS < 10 mg/l) filter/used for the land.
nitrified. ❑No insects are attracted. purpose of biological ❑ 3 – 4 beds/depth 5 – 10 cm
❑At long use, the beds get clogged
/ scrapped sand, cleaned and
treatment. ❑ A dosing tank with siphon for
influent application/under drainage
reused. Disadvantages: ❑ Between intermittent pipes in open joint
❑ Rate of filtration depends upon ❑More land is required sand filter and trickling ❑For higher efficiency, placed in
the effective size of sand used. ❑Larger quantity of sand is required filter/not used now. series

277 278

Working and cleaning (8 – 12 hours) : Advantages:

(a) Filling: Close outlet/fill to 50 – 100 ❑Works under small heads/no
mm depth. (1–2 hrs)
nuisance of flies
(b) Contact: Close outlet for contact
and filtration (1 – 2 hrs contact ❑Problem of odour is less as
period) compared to trickling filter
(c) Emptying: Open outlet for Disadvantages:
emptying the effluent (1 – 2 hrs)
❑Lesser loading rate than trickling
(d) Resting for oxidation: Left for 5 – 6
hrs/ Atmospheric oxygen enters the filter
void spaces of media/supply ❑Requires larger area of land
oxygen to aerobic bacteria/results
oxidation ❑Skilled supervision/cost more than
❑After long use, clogged/ take filter trickling filter
media out, wash, dry and refill. ❑Requires longer rest period/high
❑Wash drain pipes once after every 4 – chance of clogging than other
5 years. filters
279 280

3. TRICKLING FILTER Construction:

Introduction: (A) Tank and distribution system:
❑Called ‘Percolation Filter’ because no standing water/sewage percolates ❑RCC or masonry rectangular/circular
through filter medium. (common) watertight tank above the
ground.
❑Applied by sprinkling so called Sprinkling Filter. ❑ Rotary distributors with distributing
❑Used for medium strong sewage. arms (generally 4 arms) rotating about
central support driven by an electric
❑For larger BOD, trickling filter & activated sludge process kept in series. motor/by the force of reaction of
Purpose: sprays are provided.
❑Aerobic biological treatment process to domestic and industrial sewage. (B) Contact media or filter media:
Location: ❑coarser materials of broken stone
(granite, limestone etc.)/ gravel/coal
❑After skimming & primary treatment so oils/fats/grease/suspended of effective size 2.5 – 7.5 cm.
particle do not clog the filter. ❑Should be hard, durable, clean and
❑Effluent passed to SST so settleable solids produced in filtration process hardly packed.
can be removed. ❑Normal rate trickling filter, depth is
1.8 – 2.4
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(C) Under drainage system: ▪

❑ Various under drainage to collect filtered Working:
effluent
❑Primarily treated sewage to distribution
❑Concrete blocks placed under the filter system
media in slope 1 in 50 – 1 in 200 towards
center ❑Bacteria grow at surface of filter media/forms
microbial film/slime layer in 2 weeks and
attacks on organic matters.
❑ Bacteria use organic matters as food in
presence of free oxygen in aerobic condition
and convert it into inorganic product.
❑Slime layer increases and bacteria below the
film die and layer comes out with flowing liquid
called sloughing.
❑Effluent goes to SST for settling.

283 284

Recirculation
▪ Advantages of recirculation:
❑Process of returning a portion of treated or partly treated sewage to
the treatment process 1. It ensures continuous
dosing of filter.
❑Only done in High Rate Trickling Filter
2. It equalizes flow or loading
❑Two types by seeding the bacteria
1. Single stage recirculation process accelerates biological
process.
3. Efficiency of process is
increased.
4. Aerobic reaction increases
1. Two or double stage recirculation process so it helps the sewage to
make fresh and no foul
odour.

285 286

Types of trickling filter:

Differences between normal rate Biofilters:
1. Conventional / Ordinary/ Normal rate/ Standard rate / Low rate trickling Filter (NRTF) and high rate ❑If two high rate trickling filters
trickling filter trickling filter (HRTF) are connected in series
2. High rate trickling filter or High rate filter NRTF HRTF
❑In the process of recirculation,
1. Low hydraulic loading 1. High hydraulic loading
the effluent can be passed
Comparison between normal rate and high rate trickling filter 2. Low rate of filtration (Q/As)
3. Low organic loading 2. High rate of filtration through same trickling filter but
Characteristics NRTF HRTF
4. Large area is required (20 – 50 times) in Biofilters, effluent is passed
1.Hydraulic loading(m3/m2/day) 1 to 4 10 to 40 (including recirculation) 5. Large initial cost 3. Higher organic through another trickling filter.
2.Organic loading as 5-day BOD 0.08 to 0.32 0.32 to 1.0 (excluding recirculation) 6. High depth is required loading
(kg BOD/m3/day) 7. Has high efficiency 4. Large area is not ❑Two stage recirculation
3. Depth (m) 1.8 to 3.0 0.9 to 2.5 8. No need of required trickling filter is same as biofilter
recirculation 5. Initial cost is low
Humus tank:
4. Land required Larger Lesser 6. Low depth is
5. Cost of operation More Less sufficient Secondary sedimentation tank
6. Recirculation Usually not provided 0.5 to 4 (Always provided) 7. Has low efficiency where effluent of trickling filter is
8. Due to lower
settled down
7. Interval of dosing Not more than 5 min Not more than 15 sec efficiency, BOD
8. Sloughing Intermittent Continuous removal is low so to
9. Characteristics of effluent BOD<20 mg/l (highly BOD<30 mg/l (lightly oxidized), 287 improve efficiency, 288
oxidized), effluent effluent brown, less nitrified recirculation is done
black, nitrified

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▪
▪

289 290

▪ ▪

291 292

▪ ▪

293 294

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▪
▪

295 296

▪ ▪

297 298

OXIDATION POND Function:

Definition:
❑To retain sewage for sufficient long time to
❑Artificially constructed earthen basin/pond of controlled design Biological or secondary satisfy the BOD for change in the
treatment process.
characteristics of the sewage into stable
❑For raw/treated sewage after sedimentation. substances by aerobic action of aerobic
❑Synonymously termed as stabilization pond. bacteria of sewage itself and the algae in
Theory: the presence of free oxygen and sunlight.
❑if waste water is retained in the shallow depth tank open to the atmosphere, the aerobic Location:
bacteria present in the sewage convert into stable substances by aerobic action in the presence
of free oxygen and sunlight. ❑Located at least 300 m far from the
❑Algae grown in the pond exerts O2 in the process of photosynthesis in the presence of air and inhabitants.
sunlight.
❑ No tree and buildings around at the 50 to
❑CO2 and other elements are taken by algae whereas the O2 produced by algae is used by 60 m distance so that sunlight can reach to
aerobic bacteria.
the pond. Water sources should be at least
❑Combined action of aerobic bacteria and algae together for their mutual benefit is called 15 m far
‘Bacterial-algal-symbiosis’ and responsible for satisfying BOD.
❑Produced solids settles at the bottom and the intermediate products lies in the liquid. ❑ Located on the leeward side of the
❑ When the accumulated sludge fills 1/3rd of the depth of pond it should be cleaned.
building

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Commissioning:
Construction: ❑ Way to start the new pond after construction
❑Earthen dykes of 1 to 1.5 m wide on ❑ Two methods. (a) Culture method (b) Natural Method
top in 1:15 to 1:3 slopes (a) Culture method:
❑30 cm above and below the ❑Sewage is first filled to a depth of 15 cm and the seeds of algae is grown
operation level of inner portion of ❑Every day portion of decreased sewage is refilled and pond should turn completely green (1
the dykes are with stone riprap or week).
PCC or brick lining to prevent from ❑Sewage is applied to the operation level.
erosion and seepage as well as for ❑ For 2 – 3 days the algae growth should be let to grow to top.
the fluctuation of sludge. ❑Inlet and outlet are opened and works are carried out.

❑Sewage is discharged at the centre (b) Natural Method:

of the pond from inlet chamber ❑Algae are made to grow naturally.
through inlet pipe from bell mouth ❑Sewage is kept to operation level and inlet and outlet are closed.
end. ❑The reduced amount is added daily.

❑ Outlet chamber for combined ❑Growth of algae in 2 weeks itself.

outlet from different units. ❑Inlet and outlet are opened and works are carried out.

301 302

Operation and maintenance:

❑Does not require equipment and
Advantages:
❑Low initial cost where lands are
Design criteria
skilled personals but time to time the cheap.
fallen leaves, papers should be
removed ❑No equipment required.
❑Grass should be removed daily. 1. Detention period(t) =10-45 days
❑ Low maintenance cost. Detention time ‘t’ can be calculated as follows if influent or
❑Fish farming is done so that the larva ❑ No skilled persons required. inlet BOD ‘La’ and effluent or outlet BOD ‘Lt’ in oxidation pond are known:
of mosquito and flies are fed by fish. 𝐿 = 𝐿 10
❑Settled sludge should be removed ❑ Efficiency is high. 1 𝐿
𝑡 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ,
from time to time. ❑Can be used as fish farming. 𝐾 𝐿
❑If the depth of pond is 120 cm, then Disadvantages: 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 , 𝑡 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛
the sludge can be removed only once 10
in 6 years. For 150 cm depth it cm be ❑Larger area of land is required. − 45 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐾 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐵𝑂𝐷 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 10 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠 0.1/𝑑𝑎𝑦
done once in 12 years.
❑ Creates mosquito nuisance. 2. Surface Area (As)=0.2-0.4 ha/1000 persons
❑Sewage after primary treatment
should be discharged in the pond. ❑ Creates foul nuisance. 3. Volume (V) = Q*t
❑It removes BOD > 90%; SS > 90% ❑ Not suitable for that place where
and coliform bacteria > 99%. high rainfall occurs.

303

304

▪
4. Organic loading (U)= = 40 − 330 𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑎/𝑑𝑎𝑦
Where, 𝐴 = 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 and 𝑊 = 𝐵𝑂𝐷 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 = 𝑄 ∗ 𝐿
It can also be computed by the relationship:
𝑈 = 20𝑇 − 120 𝑘𝑔 − 𝐵𝑂𝐷/ℎ𝑎/𝑑𝑎𝑦
Where,
𝑇 = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛 ℃ 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟

5. Shape = rectangular
6. Effective depth(d) =80-150 cm (No sludge depth is required)
7. Free board (FB) = 20 cm-50cm
8. Length width ratio (L/B) =2-3
9. Side slope = 1:15-1:3
306

305

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▪ ▪

307 308

ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS Process:

❑Sewage from Primary sedimentation tank (PST) is mixed with 20 – 30% of
Definition and theory: own volume of returned activated sludge
❑Biological treatment is the process ❑ The mixture to an aeration tank where microorganisms coated around the
❑Non-settleable colloidal solids are removed after sludge solids and the sewage are mixed together with large quantity of air
for about 4 – 8 hours.
converting it into stabilized organic matter with the help of
living organism (bacteria) containing in the sewage itself. ❑Organisms kept in moving state oxidizes the organic matter then the
suspended and colloidal matter tend to coagulate and form a precipitate
❑Microorganisms maintained in suspension which settles down in SST
❑ASP: aerobic suspended growth biological treatment ❑This aerated settled sludge containing microorganisms called activated
sludge and recycled to the head of aeration tank
process
❑New activated sludge is continuously being produced by this process
Theory: ❑A portion sent back to the aeration tank whereas excess is disposed off
❑Aerobic bacteria are maintained in suspension within the ❑Sludge is called returned sludge and fresh sewage in aeration tank is
liquid. called Mix Liquor (ML) and the suspended solid in the tank is called Mix
❑Provides an excellent method of treating raw/settled Liquor Suspended Solid (MLSS).
sewage.
309 310

Principle or action of Activated sludge Disadvantages: Operations and units required:

process has:
Physical action: 1. Primary treatment units
After aeration, small particles combine to form bigger ❑Skilled persons required.
flocs and settled down easily. 2. Aeration tanks
Biochemical action: ❑Operation cost high. 3. Secondary sedimentation tank
▪ Flocs contain bacteria and organic matter.
▪ Bacteria use organic matter and convert it to ❑Sludge produced may create 4. Sludge treatment and disposal
inorganic products.
problem on sludge disposal. ❑Primary treatment unit consists of screening/ grit chamber/ PST before aeration
Advantages: tanks.
❑Effluent high quality that TF ❑Sensitive: temperature is more ❑ SST required after the AT
❑80 – 95% BOD removal and bacteria removal is or low, bacteria may die. ❑Sludge treatment and disposal is described in chapter 6
90 – 95%
❑ Land area lesser than that for TF. ❑Requires more oxygen supply Aeration tanks of an activated sludge plant:
❑ Designed unit made compact for industrial ❑3 – 4.5 m deep, 4 – 6 m wide and 20 – 200 m long usually rectangular tanks
use. ❑New plant requires seeding
❑Detention time: 4 – 8 hrs
❑Initial cost lower than TF.
❑Requires four weeks if not ❑Types of aeration tanks:
❑Process is free from foul and insect nuisance.
seeding is done. 1. Diffused aeration unit
❑Sludge has a high fertilizing value/the effluent 2. Mechanical aeration units
can be used for irrigation. 3. Combined diffused and mechanical aeration units

311 312

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1. Diffused aeration unit:

❑size 30 m × 5 m × 3 m to 120 m × 10 m × 5 m. a) Ridge and furrow type aeration unit:
❑ Compressor is used to pass air through diffusers (plates or tubes having ❑Rectangular channels of 30 – 120 m length, 4.5 – 9 m wide and
nozzles) under pressure from atmosphere. 3 – 4.5 m deep laid parallel to each other.
❑ Air passed at a pressure of 0.55 – 0.7 kg/cm2 whereas velocity be 60 – 90 ❑Diffuser plates are fixed in the furrow portion.
cm/minute.
❑There are two types of diffused aeration tanks
(a) Ridge and furrow type aeration unit
(b)Spiral flow type aeration unit

313 314

(b) Spiral flow type aeration unit: 2) Mechanical aeration unit:

(a) Simplex aeration unit
(b) Link-Belt aeration unit
(c) Kessner Brush aeration unit

315 316

317 318

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3. Combined diffused and mechanical aeration unit:

When strength of sewage is high

319 320

Where, Vs = Volume of sludge in ml and Xt = Mix liquor

suspended solids (MLSS) in gm/ml.

321 322

4. Ratio of MLVSS to MLSS (X/Xt ) = 0.8 – 1

• MLSS may be assumed as 1000 – 4000 mg/l.

323 324

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325 326

Numerical :Design a conventional activated sludge plant to treat

domestic sewage with diffused air aeration system with the following
data: Population = 120000; Per capita sewage flow = 160 l/d; BOD5 of
sewage = 200 mg/l; F/M ratio = 0.2/day ; MLSS = 3000 mg/l; SVI = 100
ml/g; Effluent BOD5 required = 15 mg/l

327 328

329 330

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331 332

SOURCE OF SLUDGE
❑Sewage treatment produces:
✔Effluent and

CHAPTER-7 ✔Sludge and screening, grit and scum.

❑Effluent: disposed in water bodies or land.
❑Screenings: buried or incinerated
SLUDGE TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL
❑Grit: dumped or disposed by sanitary landfill
Subject: Sanitary engineering
❑Scum: burial or burning
❑Sludge: disposed only after certain treatment.
333 ❑Sources: the components of treatment plant i.e grit
chamber, primary settling tanks, secondary settling
tank, septic tanks, chemical precipitation, activated
sludge unit, trickling filter etc.

334

NECESSITY/OBJECTIVE OF SLUDGE
TREATMENT: CHARACTERISTICS OF SLUDGE
a)To reduce large bulk volume by dewatering ❑Characteristics and quantity depends upon the
characteristics of raw sewage, process and the
for easy transportation, handling and degree of the treatment.
disposal
❑Generally liquid or semi-solid liquid containing
b)To digest decomposable substances to 0.25–12% of solid mostly putrescible organic
stable substances. substances needs further treatment
c)To kill bacteria and pathogens for the safety
of the public health.
d)To recover and reuse oils, grease due to its
industrial value.
335 336

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(a)Characteristics of Sludge from Primary settling tank c) Sludge from activated sludge process (secondary
(plain sedimentation): treatment):
❑Gray colour, greasy, odourous slurry of settleable solids ❑ Golden brown colour, inoffensive at fresh but septic after
containing 50 to 60% of suspended solid applied and skimming. biological activity.
❑Contains fine silt, vegetable matters and faecal matter ❑Rich in organic matter.
❑Solid content = 6 – 8% in which 60 – 80% are volatile. ❑Voluminous and contains 0.5 – 2% of suspended solids but 98 –
❑Quantity about 20 m^3 per million liters of sewage. 99% of water. Volatile matters as 70 - 80 % of SS.
(b)Characteristics of Sludge from chemical ❑Quantity about 35 - 30 m^3 per million liters of sewage.
precipitation (primary treatment): d) Sludge from trickling filter (secondary treatment):
❑ Precipitated chemicals entangled with solids ❑Dark brown colour, less offensive when fresh, contains humus
❑Colour from the coagulants added. with dead worms so produces offensive gases after some time
❑Generally contains about 70 – 90% SS and 10 -30% water ❑Contains dissolved OM and some settlable solids with 50 –
❑Slightly heavier than PST sludge. 60% of non-settlable SS
❑Quantity about 20 m3 per million liters of sewage. ❑ Quantity about 5 m^3 per million liters of sewage.

337 338

DETERMINATION OF SLUDGE VOLUME: ▪

▪

339 340

▪ ▪

341 342

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SLUDGE METHODS:TREATMENT
▪
❑Include all or a combination of the following unit operations and
process.
A. Grinding and blending
B. Thickening or concentration (Commonly by Gravity
thickening)
C. Digestion or stabilization
a) Conventional or low rate digester
b) High rate digester
D. Dewatering
a) Drying Beds
b) Mechanical Method
E. Incineration (taken as separate process)
F. Composting (taken as separate Process)

343 344

1.Grinding and blending: 2. Thickening or concentration:

❑Preliminary operation done to produce ❑Process used to increases the solid content
of the sludge by removing the liquid fraction
homogenous and uniform size sludge by
grinding machine. ❑Purposes: To :
⮚Reduce the capacity of sludge tank
❑Blending is done in blending tank to mix ⮚Use small size equipment/less chemicals
sludge of different character. This operation ⮚Minimize the land use and save fuel to burn
is optional. the sludge
❑Done by gravity thickening, floatation
thickening and centrifugation but most
common is gravity thickening and dealt here.
345 346

Gravity thickening:
❑Most common and least expensive because it uses the forces of
gravity.
❑Adopted for primary as well as combined primary and activated
sludge or combined sludge having greater than 40% of activated
sludge.
❑Done in a circular tank called gravity thickener
❑Simple open circular tank, similar to a conventional sedimentation
tank but deep with heavier but slowly rotating racking mechanism
like deep truss.
❑It has steeply sloping floor.
❑Bridge fastened to the tank wall supports the truss type scraper arm
mounted on a pipe shaft equipped with a power lift device for open
up channels for water to escape and promoting densification.
347 348

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❑The slow motion of the scraper removes the gas 3. Digestion or stabilization:
bubbles. ❑A biological process, in which the organic matters
present in sludge is decomposed by microorganism and
❑Dilute sludge is entered in the center feed well convert it into simple stable compound.
where it is allowed to settle and compact whereas
thickened sludge is withdrawn from bottom sump ❑The volume of sludge is reduced by 60 to 75%.
in the tank. ❑ Removes the coli forms by 99.8% after 30 days digestion
at 95 – 100°F.
❑Diameter should not exceed 60 m, depth 3m and a
free board of 0.5 – 1m, detention period of 3 -4 ❑Digested sludge has good fertilizing value.
hours ❑Digestion can be achieved by the following:
(a) Anaerobic digestion (b) Aerobic digestion
❑Surface loading @ 15 – 35 m^3/day of sludge/m^2
area of tank may be used. ❑Done after thickening and is the biochemical process of
breaking down of organic matters using bacteria.
349 350

A. Aerobic digestion:
B. Anaerobic digestion:
❑Degradation of organic matter by the aerobic bacteria in
the presence of free oxygen is called aerobic digestion. ❑ The biological degradation of organic
❑More reduction of volatile solids in aerobic digestion then matter by the anaerobic bacteria in the
anaerobic digestion.
absence of free oxygen.
❑ Supernatant from this process has low BOD.
❑Requires one or more tanks provided with diffused ❑Most of the organic matter is converted into
aeration system for the supply of air necessary for methane, carbon dioxide and water.
digestion.
❑Requires high oxygen supply and has high operating cost ❑Anaerobic digestion is a net energy
and no methane gas can be recovered as byproduct. So it producer.
is never done for sludge digestion.
❑Hence sludge digestion is meant for anaerobic digestion.
❑Digestion is normally done in anaerobic
condition
351 352

Anaerobic Digestion Process: ii. Period of acid regression:

Three stages/periods: ❑It is called intermediate stage in which the
i. Acid production stage volatile acids and nitrogenous compounds are
ii. Acid regression stage attacked by bacteria
iii. Alkaline fermentation stage ❑ Produces acid carbonates, ammonia compounds
i. Period of acid production (acid fermentation stage):
as well as smaller amount of CO2 and H2S.
❑Anaerobic and facultative bacteria act on the easily available
❑The products are still acid but weaker and lesser
foods (non-nitrogenous organic matters) as sugar, cellulose, in amount than the period of acid production.
sugar etc ❑This period is called the period of acid
❑Produce volatile organic acids, acid carbonates,CO2, CH4 and regression.
H2S.
❑pH increases from 6 - 6.8.
❑pH decreases to less than 6 due to production of acid
❑Takes about 3 months or so at 21°C.
❑This period is called period of acid production which requires 15
days or so in ordinary condition of about 21°C.
353 354

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iii. Period of intensive digestion

(Methane or alkaline fermentation
stage): DIGESTERS
❑The final stage of anaerobic digestion, bacteria
acts on more resistant materials like protein and ❑Complete anaerobic digestion process takes
organic acids about 4 and half months at 21°C on controlled
❑Breaks into simple substances as Ammonia, conditions.
organic acid, larger amount of CH4, some CO2 and
other gases ❑Sludge digestion is done in a closed tank called
❑pH of over 7 (about 7.5) digesters which are of two types:
❑Takes about 1 month or at 21°C.
a)Conventional or low rate digester
b)High rate digester
❑Huge amount of CH4 produced and recovered for
other use.
355 356

(a) Conventional or low rate Digesters

❑Digestion, thickening and supernatant formation is carried out
simultaneously in a tank.
❑may be of
✔Floating cover type in which anaerobic digestion, gravity thickening
and storage may be done
✔Fixed roof digester.
❑Fixed roof digester is circular in plan and hopper bottom in section,
top cover is cylindrical and made of RCC.
❑ Sludge is fed from center and the mixing device mixes sludge.
❑Solid particle settles at the bottom and the gases are collected in the
gas chamber from where gas is released.
❑To remove liquids, openings at different levels are provided
❑ Solid particles are removed by gravity or pumping.
❑Manhole is for maintenance
❑Lightening rod is kept to protect it from thundering.

357 358

(b) High rate Digesters

❑Solid loading rate is higher.
❑Sludge is mixed and heated to achieve optimum
digestion rates. Consists of two tanks in series.
❑ First is used for mixing, heating for anaerobic
digestion
❑Other is used for separation of supernatants,
thickening and storage.

359

360

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Factors affecting digestion b. pH:

❑pH is due to acid formation.
a. Temperature: ❑If 4 > pH > 10, bacteria dies but acts normally at pH of 7.2 – 7.4.
❑Higher is the temperature, rate pH should be checked and maintained.
of digestion is higher ❑Addition of lime is done to make pH in range.
❑Up to 40°C the mesophilic c. Seeding with digested sludge:
organism acts and called ❑At first operation, seed with digested sludge from the another
mesophilic digestion tank for proper and quick operation
❑Above 45°C the thermophilic d. Mixing and stirring of the raw sewage with digestive
sludge:
bacteria acts and called
thermophilic digestion. ❑ Fresh sewage is mixed with digested one to make a
homogenous mass for uniformly distribution of bacterial enzymes
❑ Operated normally in a for effective digestion.
mesophilic range in which 25°C ❑ Done by stirring with slow stirring mechanical device
to 40°C gives reasonably short ❑Excessive stirring may kill bacteria.
period.
361 362

Digester Design Criteria ▪

a.Maximum capacity of flow:

❑1 unit, 20MLD for high rate digester
❑1 unit; 4MLD for normal rate flow
b.Shape:
Circular of maximum diameter 55 m and minimum
diameter 6 m
c.Depth:
Minimum 4 m and maximum 9m
d.Free board: 0.4 – 0.8 m
e.Bottom slope: 1:12
363 364

Numerical: Design a sludge digestion tank to treat sludge of

primary sedimentation tank to treat sludge of primary sedimentation Volume of sludge
tank from the following data:
Capacity of sedimentation tank=812.5m3
Detained time in ST=3hrs
SS in raw sewage=250 mg/lit
Water content in fresh sludge = 95% Now,
Water content in digested sludge = 80%
Specific gravity of sludge=1.02
Digestion period=2 months
PST removes 55% of SS Capacity of digester
Solution:
365 366
Sewage flow =

Weight of solid generated in PST ( )=

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Effective depth 4.Dewatering:

❑Done after digestion
Diameter of the digester
❑Process of removal of water from the digested
sludge.
Provide free board 0.5 m, then overall depth ❑Purpose: to remove water from sludge after
digestion
Thus provide a tank of 11.6m diameter with 5.5m deep. ❑Reduces the volume and cost of subsequent
process as well as transportation and protects
landfill site from leachate formation.
❑Done by air drying on open sludge drying beds or
by mechanical method

367 368

A. Sludge drying Beds:

❑Sludge can be dried in an open atmosphere where temperature
is higher.
❑ Consists of specially prepared beds on land
❑Consists of sloping bottom layer of gravel over which bed of
clean sand with effective size of 0.3 – 0.75 m and coefficient of
uniformity less than 4 is laid.
❑Open jointed under drains laid in the gravel to drain off the
liquid passed from sand and then gravel.
❑Sludge is partly dried by evaporation in sunlight and infiltration
of water to under drains through sand and gravel beds.
❑Drying takes place in about 2 – 3 weeks.
❑Should be located 100 m far from the inhabitants
❑Should be covered by glass roofing where rainfall is high.
❑Dried sludge cakes can be removed for disposal.

369 370

B.Mechanical Method:
❑Various mechanical methods but Vacuum filter method is common
❑ Consists of a cylindrical drum whose outer surface is of copper
mesh over which a filter cloth is stretched and wired.
❑Inner space between the solid shell and outer shell is subdivided
into various compartments
❑Each compartment is connected to a vacuum pump and the drum is
suspended horizontally so that one quarter of its diameter is
submerged in the tank containing sludge.
❑On immersion, the vacuum is created inside of filter compartments
and the pump sucks out the water from the sludge.
❑The sludge blanket made at the surface of drum is scraped by
means of scraper from the rotating drum just before it enters above
scraper for re-submersion.
371 372

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5.Incineration (also discussed in chap 10): b) Multiple Hearth type incinerator

❑A most hygienic method in which sludge is changed into ashes. ❑Consists of furnace with series of circular hearths (fireplace) one
❑Raw or digested wet sludge may be treated and disposed off upon another.
❑ Equipment/structure for burning is called incinerator ❑ Wet sludge cake placed on the top hearth and passed through
five/six successive hearth
❑Two Types:
a) Flash type incinerator ❑Useful for large quantity of sludge.
b) Multiple hearth type incinerator ❑High cost due to fuels so not used in developing countries.
a) Flash type incinerator ❑Drying zone: dried at 550°C,
❑A tower first heated by burning fuel then wet sludge is thrown from ❑Burning zone: burnt at 1000°C
top.
❑Cooling zone: cooled to 300°C.
❑Hot gases from the bottom removes the moisture
❑Smoke released to atmosphere through chimney
❑Dried sludge collected at the bottom and used as burning material
for the same tower. ❑Ash disposed off by sanitary land filling.
373 374

6.Composting (also discussed in chap 10):

❑Destroy organic matters present by aerobic SLUDGE DISPOSAL METHODS:
decomposition through a biochemical
process
❑Converts into stable mineral compounds a)Dumping
which can be used as a fertilizer. b)Spreading on the land
❑Done in thermo filling zone and to develop c)Land filling
thermo filling range
d)Lagooning
❑Sludge is mixed with dry organic mix and
water content is reduced. different methods
of composting is discussed in chapter 9.
375 376

a)Dumping: b)Spreading on Land:

❑If disposed off in an abandoned ❑Stabilized or digested sludge
mine/quarry/depressions/ water by spreading over farm /land as a fertilizer
throwing away, called dumping. for raising crops
❑Suitable for stabilized sludge ❑After application , land ploughed
❑adopted for digested sludge, clean before raising crops
grit and incinerator residue. ❑Applied to 2 – 4 cm depth per year
❑Not hygienic method. ❑Not suitable for larger quantity sludge.
377 378

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c) Landfilling: d) Lagooning:
❑Ifdisposed into the lagoons/ pond, called Lagooning.
❑ Hygienic method ❑Lagoon: a shallow earth basin used for storage/digestion/ dewatering
and first disposal of dried sludge adopted for untreated as well as
❑Both raw and stabilized sludge after dewatering can be digested sludge
disposed off by filling in low lying areas in scientific way ❑ Natural depressions can be used as lagoons.
is called land filling. ❑Organic matters: stabilized by aerobic/anaerobic actions so
objectionable odour may risen
❑Dewatering is necessary to reduce hauling cost ❑Located in porous soil and away from locality.
❑The following are important for land filling. ❑Located at such place where there is no chance of ground water
pollution.
i. Covering to protect from foul gases /odour.
❑ Lagoon is of fill and draw type
ii. Maintain surface topography for proper draining of runoff.
❑Detention period of 1 to 2 months after stabilization of sludge
iii. Monitoring and control of leachate to protect water pollution. ❑Water is drained/evaporated
iv. Control of erosion by planting. v. Ash from incineration of ❑The dried contents can be used as good manure.
sludge also disposed in land filling ❑Runoff water is abrupt by banks of lagoon

379 380

CHAPTER-8
Disposal of wastewater in unsewered area
Subject: Sanitary engineering

382

381

Introduction and Necessity of disposal On site sanitation- Definition and

of sewage from isolated buildings Types
▪ Off-site sewage disposal ▪ Definition
Sewage is collected, conveyed using water carriage system then method of sanitation system where, sewage are collected and disposed off at the
treated in massive amount and disposed far from source generation site in the scientific way

▪ On site sewage disposal ▪ Types

Sewage is collected and disposed off at the generation site 1. Privies:
▪ Commonly underground chamber or pit
▪ Necessity ▪ May be of masonry or just pit only with or without super structure.
 Off site method: not possible in unsewered towns, villages and ▪ Various types available but in Nepal following are common:
cities due to high cost and difficulty in construction ▪ (a) Pit privy ( vfN6] rkL{ )
 In such isolated built up area and unsewered area sewage is not ▪ (b) VIP (Ventilated Improved Pit) latrine ( ;'wfl/Psf] vfN6] rkL{ )
transported but disposed in the site of generation ▪ (c) Pour flush latrine ( ;'ne zf}rfno )
 In rural areas, construction of bathrooms and latrines are
2. Septic Tank with Soak Pit/other effluent disposal methods
neglected.
 So different method is necessary to dispose off sewage in such 3. Imhoff Tank
areas. We are concerned with 1and 2 only

383 384

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Pit Privy (vfN6] rkL{) Pit Privy (vfN6] rkL{)

▪ Widely used in developing country ▪ When digested sludge
reaches to the level 50 cm
▪ Pit is made inside the latrine to collect and disposal of
below the top, pit is filled
human excreta
with a 50 – 75 mm thick
▪ Purpose: To collect and safe on site disposal of human earth layer
excreta
▪ Super structure and
▪ Construction: squatting plate is shifted to
▪ A pit of (90 – 120 cm diameter) or (1m ×1m) in plan and (2 – 3 m the next position (i.e. next
depth) pit).
▪ May be lined or unlined
▪ The filled pit can be re used
▪ Covered with a squatting plate seat slab with a cover in hole
after 2 years
▪ Temporary foundations and superstructure to protect from rain
and for privacy
Fig: Pit Latrine

385 386

VIP (Ventilated Improved Pit) VIP (Ventilated Improved Pit)

latrine (;'wfl/Psf] vfN6] rkL{) latrine (;'wfl/Psf] vfN6] rkL{)
▪ Construction:
▪ Pit privy: unhygienic and
dangerous for children ▪ 12 – 15 m away from the buildings
▪ A lined or unlined 1.2 m diameter and 1.5 m deep pit
▪ Improvement over pit privy by ▪ Liquid absorption by the surrounding soils
a vent pipe is called VIP latrine ▪ A concrete or timber squatting plate (pan) with a hole with two
▪ Slightly offset superstructure footrests and a cover.
▪ A 90 mm diameter vent pipe to escape foul gases
▪ Purpose: To collect and ▪ Top of vent pipe with wire net or cowl to prevent flies and other
dispose of human excreta for insect
maintaining hygienic conditions ▪ Vent pipe painted black and more height than building at the
locality.
▪ Superstructure for maintaining privacy and to protect from rain.
▪ Use of local materials (brick, stone masonry, straw and bamboo etc
Fig: VIP latrine
▪ Lined pits can be cleaned after fill
▪ Unlined pit is covered with thick layer of soil and
▪ Another hole is constructed nearby.
387
▪ Types: single pit, double pit, multiple pits 388

Numerical 1: Design a VIP latrine for a family of 8 persons. Assume

Design criteria for VIP necessary data.
Solution:
▪ One pit for at least 2 years and two pits for alternate use Given, Number of users (𝑁) = 8
▪ Vent pipe minimum 90 mm diameter. Dimension of pit =?
▪ Circular pit Assuming digested sludge accumulation rate (𝑅) = 0.05 m3/person/yr
and desludging period (𝑇) = 2 years
▪ GWT at least 2 m below from the bottom of pit
Volume (𝑉) = 𝑁𝑅𝑇 = 8 × 0.05 × 2 = 0.8 m3
▪ No Large depth for unlined pits.
Assume effective depth (𝑑) = 1m
▪ The effective volume of pit is given by:
.
V = NRT Then top area of pit (𝐴) = = = 0.8 m2
where,
N = No. of users; If Φ is diameter of pit, then 𝐴 =
R = digested sludge accumulation rate taken as 0.04 to 0.05
m3/person/year
T = Design period or filling periods in years (minimum 2 years) 4𝐴 4 ∗ 0.8
Φ= = = 1.009 ≈ 1 m
▪ One pit for 100 students and for each 50 students, 1 pit is 𝜋 𝜋
added. 389 390

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Provide, free board (FB) = 0.5m

Pour flush latrine (;'ne
then overall depth (D) = d + FB = 1 + 0.5 = 1.5m zf}rfno)
Adopt 2 pits (for alternate use) of 1m diameter and 1.5m deep each. ▪ VIP latrine built outside the
house
▪ Pour flush latrine built inside
the house.
▪ Ventilation pipe is not
necessary
▪ Cleaned by pouring about 1.5
to 2 liter of water hence it is
called pour flush latrine.
▪ Purpose: To collect and
disposal of human excreta for
hygienic conditions
Fig: Pour flush latrine

391 392

Pour flush latrine (;'ne

zf}rfno)
Construction:
▪ A water seal pan
▪ Pipe 1 in 5 to 1 in 15 (pan to junction chamber to pits)
▪ A brick masonry junction chamber of minimum clear size 300 mm ×
300 mm
▪ For loose soil, pit lined with brick or cement masonry or honey
combed brick wall or perforated concrete ring
▪ The pit is covered with a RCC slab.
Fig: Section of water seal pan ▪ If one pit is filled, next pipeline is opened for another pit and after 3
years the old pit can be reused.
▪ A brick or stone masonry superstructure inside or outside the house

Design criteria:
▪ same as VIP latrine
▪ require no vent pipe
▪ minimum diameter of pipe is 100 mm

393 394

SEPTIC TANK Working

▪ Anaerobic digestion
▪ Sedimentation cum digestion tank
▪ Settling
▪ Rectangular watertight chamber ▪ Floating of lighter fats etc
▪ Gas escape from vent
▪ Brickwork or stone masonry or RCC
▪ Effluent proper disposal
▪ Built underground to collect the human excreta (sometimes
Maintenance
other sewage also) in the un-sewered area
▪ No disinfectants, soap water,
▪ Much more costly than pit latrines hence used by not poor paper, kitchen water,
people in semi-urban areas. garbage and surface water
are allowed
▪ Purpose: To collect the sewage, settle the solid matters, ▪ The digested sludge is
create the digestion process effective and dispose effluent in withdrawn from septic tank
the safe way. at least in 6 months to 3 years
and properly disposed off
Fig: Septic tank for 25 users

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SEPTIC TANK DESIGN CRITERIA SEPTIC TANK DESIGN CRITERIA

a) Detention time 𝑡 = 1 𝑡𝑜 3 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠
1. Sewage flow: Dry sludge = 70g/d/person
b) Width 𝐵 = 0.75 𝑡𝑜 4𝑚 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 0.75 𝑚
Probable peak discharges (Q) in liter/minute
c) Effective depth 𝑑 = 1 𝑡𝑜 1.8 𝑚
d) Free Board 𝐹𝐵 = 0.3 𝑡𝑜 0.45 𝑚
e) Length width ratio = 2 𝑡𝑜 4
f) Effective volume (𝑉): It is summation of following;
i. Volume for settling of sewage 𝑉 =𝑄∗𝑡 (𝑚 )
ii. Volume for sludge digestion 𝑉 = 0.0425𝑁 𝑚 [𝑖. 𝑒. 0.0425 ]
iii. Volume for storage for digested sludge 𝑉 = 𝐶 ∗ 𝑁, where 𝐶 is
digested sludge rate which depends upon cleaning period ‘𝑇’.
∴ 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉 = 𝑉 + 𝑉 + 𝑉

397 398
In another way, determination of sanitary sewage as described
in chapter 2 may be followed to compute the design discharge

SEPTIC TANK DESIGN CRITERIA Septic tank effluent disposal methods

Digested sludge rate (𝐶 ) for different cleaning period ‘𝑇’.

 Effluent: septic and malodorous containing

Desludging 6 months 1 year 2 years 3 years
period(T) organic matters and pathogens
Digested 0.0283 0.0490 0.0708 0.0850  Nuisance and hazard on public health
sludge rate
(𝑪𝒅𝒔 ) in  Properly disposed off
m3/person
 By various methods
a) Drain field
b) Evapo-transpiration mound
c) Leaching cesspool
d) Soak pit

399 400

Drain field or dispersion trenches Construction: (Drain field)

▪ A trench constructed ▪ Shallow and narrow but long trenches in the ground
on the land and ▪ 15 to 30 m long, 30 cm to 1m wide and effective depth of 1m with
filled with coarse 0.25% slope
materials. ▪ 80 to 100 mm diameter earthenware or concrete perforated pipes
are laid over 15 to 25 cm gravel
▪ Also called soakage
▪ Then trench is filled with gravel and soil,
pits or dispersion
trench. ▪ Turfing and finishing is done to protect from rain.
▪ more dispersion trenches may be used according quantity of
▪ Purpose: To effluent.
provide the wider
▪ If more than one trench is used it is called drain field.
area to adsorb
sewer effluent by ▪ Spacing between two dispersion trenches should be 2 times the
Fig: Drain field or dispersion trenches
depth or 2 m whichever is greater.
the soil and
evaporation 401 402

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Design criteria: (Drain Evapo-transpiration mound

field)
▪ The base of trench is responsible for infiltration ▪ Used if very high GWT
and in rocky areas,
▪ Minimum depth of 1 m is provided,
▪ Effluent is applied over
▪ Minimum depth taken is 1m sand and gravel laid on
▪ Length ‘L’ is given by; ground
𝑄
𝐿= ▪ Purpose: To provide
𝐵𝐼 the wider area and
𝑄 = rate of flow of effluent (m3/d); 𝐵 = Width (m) 𝐼 = artificial absorption to
Infiltration capacity of soil (m3/m2/d) adsorb sewer effluent
and evaporation
Fig: Evapotranspiration mound

403 404

Evapo-transpiration mound Leaching cesspool

▪ Circular or rectangular underground chamber or tank whose top portion
acts as an absorption field and bottom as a septic tank.
Construction :
▪ Both collection and disposal of sewage is done.
▪ 15 cm thick sand layer is laid over the top soil
60 cm of gravel is kept over sand media. ▪ Called combination of septic tank and soak pit.

▪ Inside the gravel layer perforated pipes are ▪ Purpose:

 To collect and dispose sewage effluent by settlement of heavier
laid in open joints. particles whereas the liquid is absorbed by the surrounding soil.
▪ Over the gravel, moist straw of 10 cm depth is ▪ Construction:
kept  At least 1 m diameter
▪ slope 1 in 3 and depth of 2 to 5 m  Watertight bottom (if the cesspool bottom is above water table) or
mayn’t with watertight bottom (if the cesspool bottom is below the
▪ Water and nutrients are absorbed by the water table)
plants  Retain the heavier sludge for digestion.
▪ Evaporation and transpiration takes place.
405 406

Soak pit or seepage pit

▪ The circular (more common) pit preferred to disposed effluent by
soaking in the surrounding soil.
▪ Preferred when water table is sufficiently below GL and land available is
low
▪ It is economical, stable and high efficient if soil is porous
▪ Purpose:
 To dispose the septic tank effluent by absorption in the surrounding
soil.
▪ Construction:
 Unlined pit is filled with bricks, stone aggregate and sand and cover
is not necessary
 Lined soak pit is empty inside but filled with sand, gravel and stone
Fig: Leaching cesspool
in outside shell and a cover is required
 Lined pit wall may be honey combed and air dry.

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Soakpit Design criteria:

▪ The minimum diameter 0.9 m
▪ Maximum diameter 3.5 m
▪ Depth as per GWT
▪ Effective depth (depth below invert of inlet) > 100 m.
▪ No ground water sources with in the radius of 60 m.
▪ Design formula:

Where, Φ = Diameter in m; d = Effective depth in m; Q = Effluent discharge in

m3/d and I = infiltration capacity of soil in m3/m2/d

Fig: Soak pits ▪ If more than one soak pits are designed then the clear distance
between the two pits should be kept 3 times the diameter of the
largest diameter pit.
409 410

Soakpit Design criteria: Numerical2: Design a septic tank for a house having 8 persons. The rate of
sewage is 100 lpcd. Assume sludge is cleaned from ST once in 3 years. If
percolation rate is 25 min/cm, design the drain field to dispose the effluent. If
soak pit is used, what will be the dimension of soak pit. Given that GWT is 4.5 m
▪ Infiltration capacity is computed as: below ground surface.
Solution:
Given, Number of users (𝑁) = 8
Rate of sewage flow (𝑞) = 100 lpcd
Desludging period (𝑇) = 3 yrs
▪ where Tr depends upon soil type. Infiltration rate of soil (𝑇 ) = 25 min/cm

▪ In absence of data Tr = 25 min/cm may be taken GWT = 4.5 m below GL

Dimension of ST =?
Dimension of DF =?
Dimension of SP =?

411 412

Here, Sewage discharge 𝑄 = 𝑞 ∗ 𝑁 = 100 ∗ 8 = 800 𝑙/𝑑 = 0.8 𝑚 /𝑑 Assume effective depth (𝑑) = 1𝑚
Septic tank .
Then top area of tank 𝐴 = = = 1.82 𝑚
Assume detention period (𝑡) = 1 𝑑𝑎𝑦 and
Taking Length width ratio (𝐿/𝐵) = 3 [𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 2 𝑡𝑜 4]
sludge digestion volume rate = 0.0425 𝑚 /𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛 𝐴 = 𝐿 ∗ 𝐵 = 3𝐵 ∗ 𝐵 = 3𝐵
Volume for settling of sewage 𝑉 = 𝑄 ∗ 𝑡 = 0.8 ∗ 1 = 0.8 𝑚 𝐴 1.82
Volume for sludge digestion 𝑉 = 0.0425 𝑁 = 0.0425 ∗ 8 = 0.34 𝑚
𝐵= = = 0.77 ≈ 0.8 𝑚 > 0.75𝑚, ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑘
3 3
Volume for storage of digested sludge 𝑉 = 𝐶𝑑𝑠 ∗ 𝑁
Now, length 𝐿 = 3𝐵 = 3 × 0.8 = 2.4 𝑚
From Table, for 𝑇 = 3 𝑦𝑟𝑠,
taking free board (𝐹𝐵) = 0.4𝑚
Digested sludge rate 𝐶 = 0.085 𝑚 /𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛
then overall depth (𝐷) = 𝑑 + 𝐹𝐵 = 1 + 0.4 = 1.4𝑚
So, 𝑉 = 𝐶 ∗ 𝑁 = 0.085 ∗ 8 = 0.68 𝑚
Total effective volume (𝑉) = 𝑉 + 𝑉 + 𝑉 = 0.8 + 0.34 + 0.68 = 1.82 𝑚 Adopt 2.4𝑚 ∗ 0.8𝑚 ∗ 1.4𝑚 Septic tank

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Soak Pit
Drain field
We know, GWT should lie 2m below the bottom of SP, then,
Soil infiltration capacity 𝐼 = 𝑙/𝑚 /𝑑 = = 26 𝑙/𝑚 /𝑑 Maximum depth of soak pit = 4.5 – 2 = 2.5 𝑚

Area required for infiltration 𝐴 = = = 30.77 𝑚 Soil infiltration capacity 𝐼 = 𝑙/𝑚 /𝑑 = = 26 𝑙/𝑚 /𝑑

Assume width of trench (𝐵) = 0.6 𝑚 and 1𝑚 deep, then, length Area required for infiltration 𝐴 = = = 30.77 𝑚
of trench,
𝐴 30.77 Assuming number of circular pits (𝑛) = 2 of diameter ‘Φ’ and
𝐿= = = 51.28 𝑚
𝐵 0.6 effective depth (𝑑) = 2 𝑚,
If two trenches are used, length of each trench, We have,
𝐿 51.28 𝐴
𝑙= = = 25.64 ≈ 26 𝑚 𝜋Φ𝑑 =
2 2 𝑛
𝐴 30.77
Adopt 2 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 of 26𝑚 × 0.6𝑚 × 1𝑚 trench with clear Φ= = = 2.448 ≈ 2.5𝑚 (> 0.9 𝑎𝑛𝑑 < 3.5𝑚 𝑜𝑘)
𝜋n𝑑 𝜋 ∗2∗2
spacing of 2 m.
Provide, free board (𝐹𝐵) = 0.5𝑚,
then overall depth (𝐷) = 𝑑 + 𝐹𝐵 = 2 + 0.5 = 2.5𝑚
415 416
Adopt 2 numbers of 2.5𝑚 diameter 2.5𝑚 deep circular SP

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLID
WASTE:
CHAPTER-9 ❑Contains dry state waste matters produce in the
community
SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL
❑May be organic and inorganic
Subject: Sanitary engineering
❑May be combustible or non combustible
417 ❑ Consists of following:
a.Garbage
b.Ash
c.Rubbish
418

A.Garbage: C.Rubbish:
❑All putrescible organic wastes from kitchen, ❑All non-putrescible waste excluding ashes
hotels, restaurants etc. ❑All combustible and non-combustible wastes such
❑Waste food, vegetable and fruit peelings, grass, as paper, broken furniture, glass, plastic bottles,
leaves, animal and bird excreta. card board, dismantled building materials etc.
❑Decomposes by producing foul gases and creates ❑Sources: house, street and trade centers
health hazard. ❑House refuse: vegetable and animal wastes, ashes,
❑Leads to breeding of flies, mosquitoes and insects. debris, garbage etc.
B.Ash: ❑Street refuse: empty bottles, cigarette box, match
box, fruit peels, tree leaves, street sweepings etc.
❑Incombustible waste obtained from house,
industries and furnaces ❑Trade refuse: refuse produced from commercial
areas, factories etc.
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QUANTITY OF SOLID WASTE:

❑Quantity of solid waste production varies from place to place,
COLLECTION AND TRANSPORTATION
season to season, living standard and food habitat of people, OF SOLID WASTE:
type of area, availability of food etc.
❑ Average production = 0.5 to 0.8 kg/capita/day (45% inorganic ❑Collected in individual house in small covered containers or
bins and removed by scavengers.
and 55% organic)
❑Sometimes public dust bins by the municipality at suitable
❑Less in developing country and high in developed country. location where the individual householder throws.
✔Developed country (Europe and USA) = 2 kg/capita/day ❑Solid wastes on the road collected once or twice a day by
✔Developing country = 0.3 – 1 kg/capita/day scavengers.
✔Kathmandu = 0.8 kg/person/day ❑Handcarts may also be used for collection and removal
❑Most of all in Nepal is dust, rotten food, papers etc. ❑Collected solid waste is transported manually or by trucks,
❑If not properly disposed-off, create foul gases and diseases, tractors, auto-rikshaw, trailers etc.
nuisance and damages aesthetic appearance of the city ❑Developed countries: truck with compressor is used.
421 422

SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL 1.Dumping:

METHODS: ❑Throwing away method to fill low lying
areas.
1. Dumping
❑Normally waste without garbage is
2. Sanitary landfill thrown so that no nuisance is produced.
3. Incineration
❑It is common in developing country.
4. Composting
❑Advantages: Cheaper in construction
❑Disadvantages: Unhygienic
423 424

2.Sanitary Landfill: Advantages:

❑Improvement of dumping method i. Simple, no costly plants and equipment required
ii. Separation is not needed.
❑Hygienic method.
iii. No residue left for further disposal.
❑Solid wastes dumped into low lying areas of iv. Pits of low lying land are reclaimed.
the locality.
❑Dumping in layer of 1 to 2 m, covered by Disadvantages:
min of 20 cm good earth to prevent from i. Requires more land
exposure to avoid nuisance of flies and ii. Creates foul gases and nuisance near site.
vermin. iii. Difficult to get good earth for covering.
❑Next layer is added after 1 wk. iv. Leachate in rainy season may pollute surface/ ground water
❑All the layers are compacted v. Insecticides required to prevent fly nuisance
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3.Incineration:
❑Most hygienic method
❑Separated into combustible and non-
combustible. Combustible are burnt into
furnace or incinerator.
❑Several types of incinerator but a
simple incinerator may be used
❑Hospital wastes are incinerated in B&B
hospital, Patan hospital, TU teaching
Fig: Sanitary Landfill
hospital, Bir hospital etc.
427 428

Advantages:
i. Hygienic/completely destroys pathogens and insects.
ii. No odour and dust nuisance
iii. The heat produced may be used for other purposes
iv. Clinker may be used in road construction.
v. Lesser space requirement and
vi. not affected by adverse weather condition.
Disadvantages:
i. Improper incineration: air pollution (high chimneys required.
ii. Large initial cost
iii. Residue obtained further needs to be disposed-off Fig: Incinerator

429 430

4.Composting: a.Composting by trenching:

❑Useful only for putrescible organic matters so ❑Trenches of (L=3 to 12 m, B= 2 to 3 m D=1 to 2 m)
excavated with a clear spacing of 2 m
separation is a must
❑Organic solid waste is filled in 15 cm layers with 5 cm
❑Decomposed aerobically or anaerobically thick night soil or animal excreta for adding bacteria.
❑Converts into humus rich in nitrogen and stable ❑Covered by 10 cm layer (30 cm above the ground
mineral compounds having high fertile value and surface) of good earth
called compost is used as a fertilizer. ❑After 2 or 3 days biological action starts/temp rises to
75°C.
❑Three methods:
a.Composting by trenching ❑After 4 to 6 months it changes into brown and
odourless powder called humus, called ‘compost mal’
b.Open windrow composting is obtained
c.Mechanical composting
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b.Open windrow Composting: c.Mechanical Composting:

❑Organic and putrescible matters is dumped on the ground at D =
0.6 to 1 m L = 6 m and B=1 to 2 m wide piles at about 60% moisture
content. ❑Other methods of composting require larger area
❑Covered with animal dung, cattle urine, night soil etc. of land so Mechanical composting is useful in that
❑aerobic reaction, the temp rises to 75°C. case.
❑Arrangement to pass air (inserting bamboos) and temperature is
measured by inserting thermometer. ❑Principle is same but composting is carried out in
❑The temperature < 70°C, pH between 7.2 to 7.4 otherwise bacteria a closed room.
dies.
❑If temp rises to 70°C, pile is overturned and the moisture
❑Solid waste stabilizes within 3 – 7 days.
content/pH is adjusted. ❑Sprayers are used to adjust moisture content /coils
❑ When temperature do not increase (the indication of completion of
bacterial activity) it means composting is completed. are used to adjust temp constant at 70°C for
❑takes about 7 to 10 weeks bacterial work
❑Compost can be used as a fertilizer. ❑Costlier and done in large scale.
433 434

Processes are:
i. Reception of refuse
ii. Segregation of paper, rags, card boards,
bottles ferrous and other larger objects
either manually or mechanically.
iii.Shredding and pulverizing of remaining
matters.
iv.Digestion and stabilization
v. Market preparation for manure by
packing. 435 436

THANK YOU
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