MODULE 3:

COUNTING TECHNIQUES

Prepared by:
Engr. Fredalyn D. Igadna, RME
Instructor
Engineering Data Analysis CH3. Counting Techniques

CHAPTER 3
COUNTING TECHNIQUES
Learning Objectives
▪ Understand the concept of sample space and events
▪ Differentiate combination from permutation

3.1 Sample Space

Any activity or process that has a number of outcomes is called an experiment. An
experiment is often conducted in several trials to generate a set of data. Tossing a coin, throwing
a die, drawing a card and games of chance are typical example of experiments.
The set or collection of all possible outcomes of an experiment is called sample space.
Each outcome in a sample space is called an element, member or sample point.
The sample space is denoted by S. if the sample space has finite number of elements,
we may list the members separated by commas and enclosed in braces.
Example 3.1 The sample space S when a single coin is tossed can be written as
𝑆 = {𝐻, 𝑇}
where H and T corresponds to head and tail, respectively.
Example 3.2 Considering the experiment of throwing a single die, write the sample space.
𝑆 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Example 3.3 Suppose that three items are selected at random from a manufacturing process.
each item is inspected and classified defective D and non-defective N. List the sample space.
𝑆 = {𝐷𝐷𝐷, 𝐷𝐷𝑁, 𝐷𝑁𝐷, 𝐷𝑁𝑁, 𝑁𝐷𝐷, 𝑁𝐷𝑁, 𝑁𝑁𝐷, 𝑁𝑁𝑁}
3.2 Events
An event is a subset of a sample space.
To each we assign a collection of sample points, which constitute a subset of the sample
space. That subset represents all of the elements for which the event is true.
Example 3.4 The sample space when throwing a dice is
𝑆 = {1,2,3,4,6}
If we are interested in event A that the outcome will be divisible by 3, this will occur if
the outcome is an element of the subset 𝐴 = {3,6} of the sample space.
The events can be further classified into their relationships.
3.2.1 Complement
The complement of an event A with respect to S is the subset of all elements of
S that are in A. We can denote the complement of A by the symbol A’.
Example 3.5 In throwing a single die, the event A is when the die shows a number divisible by
three, find A’.
𝑆 = {1,2,3,4,6}
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𝐴 = {3,6}
𝑨′ = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟒, 𝟓}
3.2.2 Intersection
The intersection of two events A and B, denoted by symbol 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵, is the event
containing all elements that are common to A and B.
Example 3.6 In tossing a die, the event A happens when an even number is shown and B when
a number greater than 3 is shown. Obtain 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵.
𝑆 = {1,2,3,4,6}
𝐴 = {2, 4,6}
𝐵 = {4, 5, 6}
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {4, 6}
3.2.3 Disjoint
Two events A and B are mutually exclusive or disjoint if 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = ∅, that is if
A and B have no elements in common.
Example 3.7 Let 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑒, 𝑖, 𝑜, 𝑢} and 𝐵 = 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑓, 𝑔. then 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = ∅. There is no element
in A that matches with B and vice versa.
3.2.4 Union
The union of two events A and B, denoted by 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵, is the event containing all
the elements that belong to A or B or both.
Example 3.8 If 𝐴 = {2, 4, 6} and 𝐵 = {4, 5, 6}, then
𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {2, 4, 5, 6}
The relationship among events and the corresponding sample space can be illustrated
graphically by means of Venn Diagrams. In a Venn diagram, we let the sample space be a
rectangle and the circles be the events.

From the figure, it can be inferred that

𝐴 ∩ 𝐵= regions 1 and 2

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Engineering Data Analysis CH3. Counting Techniques

𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 = regions 1 and 3
𝐴 ∩ 𝐶= regions 1 and 4
𝐴 ∪ 𝐵= regions 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 7
𝐵 ∪ 𝐶= regions 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6
𝐴 ∪ 𝐶= regions 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 7
𝐵′ ∩ 𝐴= regions 4 and 7
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶= region 1
(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ 𝐶′= regions 2, 6 and 7

From the figure above, we can see that events A, B and C are all subsets of the sample
space S. it is also clear that event B is a subset of event A. Event 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 has no elements in
common so they are mutually exclusive. Event 𝐴 ∩ 𝐶 has atleast one element. Event 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 =
𝐴 since B is only a subset of A.

3.3 Permutation
A permutation is an arrangement of all or part of a set of objects.
3.3.1 Permutation of Different Objects
Example 3.9 In how many ways can the letters of the word “sample” be arranged?
There are 6 letters in the word. Using the box method, create the same number of boxes
as the number of letters.
1 2 3 4 5 6

The fist compartment can be filled in 6 ways because there are 6 choices. The second
compartment can be filled in 5 ways because there are only 5 choices left after the first
compartment is filled, the third with 4 choices, the fourth with 3 choices, the fifth with 2 choices
and the sixth with 1 choice.
1 2 3 4 5 6
6 5 4 3 2 1
By multiplication rule, the number of permutations
𝑛 = 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 𝟕𝟐𝟎 𝒘𝒂𝒚𝒔
In general, the number of permutations of 𝑛 different objects is 𝑛! where
𝑛! = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) … (𝑛 − 𝑛 + 1)

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Engineering Data Analysis CH3. Counting Techniques

𝑛! read as “n factorial” is the product of counting numbers from 1 to n.

3.3.1.1 Permutations of Distinct Objects Taken r at a Time
The arrangement of 𝑟 objects without repetition, from the set of 𝑛 objects in a definite
order is also a permutation. The number of permutations or arrangements of 𝑛 objects taken 𝑟
at a time is denoted by
𝑛!
𝑛𝑃𝑟 =
(𝑛 − 𝑟)!
Example 3.10 From the letters a, b, c, d, e, how many 3-letter arrangements are possible if no
letter may be repeated?
𝑛=5 𝑟=3
𝑛! 5!
𝑛𝑃𝑟 = = = 𝟔𝟎 𝒂𝒓𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔
(𝑛 − 𝑟)! (5 − 3)!
3.3.1.2 Permutations of Objects Not All Different
In a set of 𝑛 objects having 𝑛1 elements alike of one kind, 𝑛2 elements of another kind
and so on for 𝑘 kinds of objects, the number of permutations of the 𝑛 subjects, taken all together
is
𝑛!
𝑃=
𝑛1 ! 𝑛2 ! 𝑛3 ! … 𝑛𝑘 !
Where 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 + 𝑛3 + ⋯ + 𝑛𝑘 = 𝑛
Example 3.11 In how many ways can the letters of the word “assess” be arranged all at a time?
𝑛=6 𝑛1 (𝑎) = 1 𝑛2 (𝑠) = 4 𝑛3 (𝑒) = 1
𝑛! 6!
𝑃= = = 𝟑𝟎 𝒘𝒂𝒚𝒔
𝑛1 ! 𝑛2 ! 𝑛3 ! … 𝑛𝑘 ! (1!)(4!)(1!)
3.3.2 Permutations for Two Kinds of Objects in a Set
If a set of 𝑛 objects consists of 𝑟 elements of one kind and (𝑛 − 𝑟) elements of the
other, then the number of permutations of the 𝑛 objects taken all together is
𝑛!
𝑃=
𝑛! (𝑛 − 𝑟)!
Example 3.12 How many arrangements can be made of the letters of the word “Mississippi”
taken all together?
𝑛 = 11 𝑛1 (𝑚) = 1 𝑛2 (𝑖 ) = 4 𝑛3 (𝑠) = 4 𝑛4 (𝑝) = 2
𝑛! 11!
𝑃= = = 𝟑𝟒𝟔𝟓𝟎 𝒘𝒂𝒚𝒔
𝑛! (𝑛 − 𝑟)! (1!)(4!)(4!)(2!)
Example 3.13 How many arrangements can be made from the letters of the word “equations”,
provided that the vowels must always remain the order e,u,a,i,o?
𝑛=9 𝑛1 (𝑣𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑠) = 5 𝑛2 (𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠) = 4

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Engineering Data Analysis CH3. Counting Techniques

The 5 vowels in the word are restricted to be in one definite order so they cannot be permutated
and is considered as one object. The problem involves finding the number of permutations of
9 letters taken all together where 5 letters are considered identical. So
𝑛! 9!
𝑃= = = 𝟏𝟐𝟔 𝒘𝒂𝒚𝒔
𝑛1 ! 𝑛2 ! 𝑛3 ! … 𝑛𝑘 ! 5! 4!
3.4 Combination
A combination happen when 𝑛 different objects taken 𝑟 at a selection out of the 𝑛
objects with no attention given to the order of arrangement. The number of combinations is
𝑛! 𝑛𝑃𝑟
𝑛𝐶𝑟 = =
𝑟! (𝑛 − 𝑟)! 𝑟!
In arranging a set 𝑆 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 }, 3 letters at a time there are 3! or 6 ways such as abc,
acb, cab, bac, cba, bca. The subject abc is counted as different from arrangement acb.
In combining a set 𝑆 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 }, 3 letters at a time, there is only 1 way which is abc. In
combination, the subject abc is the same as acb and is counted as 1.
In permutation, order counts but in combination, order does not count.

The table shows the permutations and combinations of the letters a, b, c, d and e, 3 at a
time. The table shows the difference of a combination from permutation.
Example 3.14 Ten points are taken on the circumference of a circle.
a. How many chords can be drawn by joining them in all possible ways?
b. How many of these lines pass through one particular point?
c. With these 10 points as vertices, how many triangles can be drawn?
d. How many hexagons?
Solution:
a. Two points determine a line. We must take the 10 points, 2 at a time.
𝑛! 10!
𝑛𝐶𝑟 = = = 𝟒𝟓 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔
𝑟! (𝑛 − 𝑟)! 2! (10 − 2)!
b. Draw the circle and identify the points.

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From point A, draw all lines connecting it with the other points. It can be noted that
from a particular point, 9 lines are drawn.
c. To form a triangle, we need 3 points. So, take the 10 points, 3 at a time.
𝑛! 10!
𝑛𝐶𝑟 = = = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆𝒔
𝑟! (𝑛 − 𝑟)! 3! (10 − 3)!
d. Six points determine a hexagon. So, take the 10 points, 6 at a time.
𝑛! 10!
𝑛𝐶𝑟 = = = 𝟐𝟏𝟎 𝒉𝒆𝒙𝒂𝒈𝒐𝒏𝒔
𝑟! (𝑛 − 𝑟)! 6! (10 − 6)!

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Engineering Data Analysis CH3. Counting Techniques

LEARNING ACTIVITY 3
Counting Techniques
Name: Date:
Year and Section: Score:
A. Answer the following briefly and in your own words.
1. Define what is a sample space.
2. Define events.
3. Enumerate the different relationships of events and define them.
4. Differentiate permutation from combination.
5. Give atleast two real life application of permutation and combination.
B. Solve for the following problems. Show your complete solution.
1. List the sample space that can be obtained from the following;
a. the set of integers between 1 and 50 divisible by 5
b. throwing a pair of dice
c. tossing three coins at a time
2. If 𝑆 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} and 𝐴 = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8}, 𝐵 = {1,3, 5, 7,9}, 𝐶 =
{2, 3, 4, 5} and 𝐷 = {1, 6, 7}, list the elements of the following events;
a. 𝐴 ∪ 𝐶
b. 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵
c. 𝐶′
d. (𝑆 ∩ 𝐶)′
e. 𝐴 ∩ 𝐶 ∩ 𝐷′
3. In how many ways can a true or false test consisting of 9 questions be answered?
4. How many distinct permutations can be made from the letters of the word
COLUMNS?
5. in how many ways can 4 boys and 5 girls sit in a row if the boys and girls must
alternate?
6. Four married couples bought 8 seats in the same row for a concert. In how many
different ways can they be seated
a. without restrictions?
b. if each couple is to sit together?
7. In how many ways can a committee of 5 be chosen from 8 people?
8. A class is composed of 13 boys and 7 girls. The teacher would like to form a
committee of 5 consisting of 3 boys and 2 girls. How many ways can the teacher
choose?

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