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Chapter 4 (1)

The document provides an overview of theodolites, including their uses, geometry, classifications, and terms related to their operation. It also discusses temporary adjustments, measurement techniques for horizontal and vertical angles, sources of error, and the principles of electronic distance measurement (EDM) and total stations. Additionally, it highlights the advantages and disadvantages of total stations in surveying applications.

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6 views

Chapter 4 (1)

The document provides an overview of theodolites, including their uses, geometry, classifications, and terms related to their operation. It also discusses temporary adjustments, measurement techniques for horizontal and vertical angles, sources of error, and the principles of electronic distance measurement (EDM) and total stations. Additionally, it highlights the advantages and disadvantages of total stations in surveying applications.

Uploaded by

bibek8547
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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ER.

PRABIN KUMAR SHRESTHA POKHARA ENGINEERING COLLEGE


Theodolite :
An instrument which is used to measure horizontal and
vertical angle accurately.

Use of theodolite:
The following are the use of theodolite:
•Measurement of horizontal angle.
•Measurement of vertical angle.
•Measurement of magnetic bearing line.
•Measurement of deflection angle.
•Prolongation of straight line.
•Measuring the horizontal distance between two points.
Geometry of theodolite:

•The vertical axis horizontal axis and


line of sight must meet in a point is
known as instrumental centre.

•The vertical axis must be


perpendicular to the horizontal axis.

•The line of collimation must be


perpendicular to the horizontal axis.

•When the vertical axis is truly


vertical the plate bubble should
occupied the central position. FIG: AXES OF THEODOLITE
Classification of theodolite:
Theodolite are primarily classified as:
•Transit: Theodolite whose telescope can be revolved through a complete
revolution about its horizontal in a vertical plane.
•Non-Transit: Theodolite whose telescope can’t be revolved through a
complete revolution about it’s horizontal axis and vertical plane.

Also classified as:


•Vernier theodolite: In this verniers
are provided for reading horizontal
and vertical graduated circles.

•Glass arc theodolite: In this type of


theodolite, micrometers are provided
for reading horizontal and vertical graduated circles.
Terms used in Theodolite Survey:
Face left:
When the vertical circle of theodolite is on left of the observer, the
position is called face left and the observation made is called face left
observation.
Face right:
When the vertical circle of theodolite is on right of the observer
position is called face right and observation made is called face right
observation.
By taking the mean of both face readings, the collimation error is
eliminated.
Telescope Normal:
The telescope is said to be normal or direct when its vertical circle is to
the left of the observer and the bubble is up.
Telescope Inverted:
The telescope is said to be inverted when its vertical circle is to the right
of the observer and the bubble is down.
# MAIN
COMPONENTS
OF
THEODOLITE
Temporary Adjustment of a Theodolite : (Ref. class note)
• Longitudinal axis of the plate level
is kept approximately parallel to
line joining any two levelling
screws.
• Bring the bubble to the center by
turning both foot-screws
simultaneously in opposite
direction either inward or
outwards.
• Turn theodolite 90° so that plate
level become perpendicular to
previous position.
• With the help of third foot screw,
bring the bubble to the center.
Repeat the same process until the
bubble is central.

Note: Movement of left thumb


indicates the direction of movement
of the bubbel
Measurement of
Horizontal Angle:

i) Direct Method

Fig: Horizontal Angle


by direct or ordinary
method
ii)
Fig: Horizontal Angle
by repetition method
iii)
Fig: Horizontal Angle
by reiteration method
Measurement of Vertical Angle:
A vertical angle is the angle between the inclined line of sight
and the horizontal plane through the trunnion axis of the
instrument. Before measurement, instrument is required to be
leveled with reference to the altitude level.
Procedure:
•The temporary adjustment of the instrument is to be done on
the station.
•Then, leveling of theodolite is to be done using altitude level.
Loosen the vertical circle clamp, and direct the telescope
towards the object whose vertical angle is required to be
measured. Clamp the vertical circle and bisect the point by
turning the vertical tangent screw.
•Read and record the vertical circular readings with vernier C
and D.
•Change the face of the instrument and read the vertical
angle again.
•The required vertical angle is the average of the two values.
Source of Error in Theodolite Survey:

a. Instrumental Error:
The error which is occurs due to faulty instrument (theodolite) is
known as instrumental error which may occur due to:
•Error due to imperfect adjustment of plate level.
•Error due to line of collimination not being perpendicular to
horizontal axis.
•Error due to horizontal axis not being perpendicular to vertical axis.
•Error due to imperfect adjustment of the vertical circle vernier.
•Error due to non-parallelism of the axis of telescope level and line of
collimation.
•Error due to eccentricity of vernier.
•Error due to imperfect graduation.
b.Personal Errors:
The errors occurred due to surveyor itself, which may be categorized
as followings:
•Error in manipulation.
Inaccurate centering
inaccurate leveling
Inaccurate use of tangential screws
•Error due to sighting and reading.
Inaccurate of bisection of point of observe.
Error due to parallax
Mistake in taking the reading and wrong booking of the reading.

c. Natural Errors:
The error which includes due to higher temperature , strong wind, fog
and unequal settlement of tripod.
ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT:
Different methods are adopted for measuring the distance between
any two given points. Three methods used are:
• Direct distance measurement (Chain Survey)
This method is unsuitable in difficult terrain.
•Optical distance measurement (Tacheometric Survey)
The problem was overcome after the development of optical
distance measurement. The range is limited 15 to 150m.
•Electromagnetic distance measurement
Electronic distance measuring instrument is
a surveying instrument for measuring distance
electronically between two points. The principle
behind the EDM is electromagnetic waves. These
depends on the generation, propagation, reflection,
and reception of electromagnetic waves. During the
war in 1939-1945, the use of Radar leads to the
invention of EDM.
PRINCIPLES OF EDM:
The EDM uses the electromagnetic waves, the type of waves
generated depends on various factors such as frequency,
wavelength, and period. These are represented in the form of
periodic sinusoidal waves.
The velocity of the electromagnetic waves depends on the
medium. While the properties may vary according to the source.
f=c/λ=1/T
Where
c is the speed of light in a vacuum.
T is the time period
f is the frequency
λ is the wavelength Fig: Periodic Sinusoidal Waves
The distance between two points is calculated based on the propagation
of electromagnetic waves.
Consider two points A and B, and we have to calculate the distance
between them. The point A acts as a transmitter and receiver. Now an
Electromagnetic wave is propagated from A to B and after reflection
wave is received by EDM at point B. Thus the double transit time is
calculated.
Now the distance is measured by the phase difference between the
transmitted and received signals.
The distance covered by the wave is
2D = nλ + ∆λ
Where;
D is the distance, λ= wavelength
n= whole number of wavelengths travelled
by the wave
∆= fraction of wavelength travelled by the
wave Fig: Measurement of Transit Time
This is solved automatically by the EDM device and the result is
displayed.
ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT
•When compared to other measuring methods EDM has
many advantages. Since it is an electronic device manual
work power is less. Horizontal and vertical angles,
Horizontal and vertical distance are automatically measured
and recorded in EDM.
High accuracy.
•Field work can be done fastly
•Reduces errors.
•Less manual work
•Obstacles to chaining can be over comes
•Less calculation needed and more precise
•Convenient and reliable methods.
Total station: It is a surveying equipment combination
of electromagnetic distance measuring instrument and electronic
theodolite. It is also integrated with microprocessor, electronic data
collector and storage system. The instrument can be used to measure
horizontal and vertical angles as well as sloping distance of object to
the instrument.

Fig: Components of Total Station


Principle of Total station:
The total station consists of a built-in emitter, capable of emitting
microwaves and infrared signals. The wavelength of these emitted
waves helps in calculating the distance between the points.
Distance = velocity * time
Here the distance is calculated by multiplying the time taken to cover
a certain distance by the velocity. However, Triangulation and
trigonometry methods are adopted for computing the angles and
determining the coordinates.
Advantages of Total station Disadvantages of Total station
•High precision and accuracy. •The cost of the instrument is high.
•Requires limited manpower •Need high skilled surveyor with
•Perform quick field work AutoCAD knowledge and
•Reduction in manual errors. professional training.
•Correction for temperature, pressure etc •Checking errors during the
and digitally rectified. operation is impossible.
•Storage and interpretation of data is easy •Low battery life.
•Time consumed is less.
Applications of total stations:

•To measure horizontal and vertical angles.


•To obtain the horizontal distance, inclined distance and vertical
distance between these points.
•To get the three-dimensional co-ordinates i.e.[x,y,z] of a point in
space.
•To find the length of a missing the line.
•To find the elevation of the remote object.
•To locate the points at a predetermined distance along gridlines.
•A total station is an electronic/optical instrument used in modern
surveying and building construction that uses electronic transit
theodolite in conjunction with electronic distance meter (EDM). It
is also integrated with the microprocessor, electronic data
collector, and storage system.

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