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ORGANIC MACROMOLECULES
Proteins, Carbohydrates and Polymers.
Amino Acids
An amino acid is a molecule containing an amine group(-NH 2) and a carboxylic acid group(-
COOH). The building blocks of all proteins are α -amino acids, the α (alpha) indicates that the
amino group is located on the carbon atom immediately adjacent to the carboxylic acid group.
Generally, there is always one carbon atom between the amino group and the carboxylic acid
group.
The general formula for an -amino acid is represented by

General characteristics
1. Contains two functional groups; an amino group (-NH 2) which is basic and a carboxyl group (-
COOH) which is acidic in its molecule.
2. They are mostly solids. 3. Possess high melting points.
4. They are soluble in water but not in organic solvent.
5. They are the basic structural units of protein.
6. All amino acids are optically active except Gylcine (H2NCH2COOH)
7. In neutral solution, amino acids form dipolar ions called Zwitterion.
Characteristics Of Zwitterion
 Zwitterion is a molecule that contains both cationic group and an anionic group.
 Isoelectric Point is the intermediate pH of a zwitterion.
 Electrophoresis is a method of separating a mixture of amino acids or proteins using an
electric field.

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Basicity and Acidity of Amino acids

Amino acids have low basicity and acidity as a result of reaction between the acidic and basic
groups.

Examples of amino acids includes; glycine, alanine, cysteine, phenylalanine. (refer to 20 amino acids)

Chemical Reactions
Due to the dipolar form of amino acids being in equilibrium with the un-ionised form, it
undergoes reaction peculiar to amines and carboxylic acids.
1. The amino group can be acylated or react with nitrous acid.

2. The carboxylic acid group can be esterified.

3. They act as buffers stabilizing pH of solutions.

On adding excess acid; NH2-CH2-COOH + H+  +NH3-CH2-COOH

On adding excess alkali; NH2-CH2-COOH + OH-  NH2-CH2-COO- +H2O

4. They undergo reactions of side chains attached to them.

5. Peptide bonds formation. Peptide bonds are formed when two or more amino acids undergo
condensation reaction to form amides.

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If two amino acids reacted, a dipeptide is formed.

If three amino acids join together, a tripeptide is formed.

NB!! The prefixes di- and tri- refers to the number of amino acid in the peptide and not the
number of peptide bonds.

Note!!! There are 20 naturally occurring amino acids, 10 of these are synthesized and present in
the human body and responsible for living, the other 10 has to been taken in form of diets and
food into the body.

The 20 amino acids found in the human body. The acids are presented in the zwitterionic form in which they exist in water at
near-neutral pH values. [Source: Chemistry, The Central Science 12th Edition: Organic Molecules].

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PROTEINS
Proteins are large biomolecules (polypeptide molecules) consisting of hundreds of amino acids
linked together by amide or peptide bonds. Proteins have large molecular weights ranging from
about 6000 to over 50 million amu.
Proteins are found in all living systems as structural components and as biologically important
substances such as hormones, enzymes and pigments. Examples of proteins includes; insulin,
haemoglobin, ribonuclease and collagen.
Classification of Proteins;
i. As a class of food: a) First class proteins are mainly found in animals and they contain
essential amino acids. Examples of food containing first class protein are fish, eggs, lean meat,
milk, cheese.
b) Second class proteins are proteins found in vegetables and plants. Foods such as peas and
beans are examples of food containing secondary proteins.
ii. 3-Dimensional shape; a) Fibrous protein consists of polypeptide chains arranged side by side,
they are very tough and insoluble in water. E.g collagen and keratin, they are used in materials
such as tendons, horns and muscles.
b) Globular proteins contain amino acids in a coiled compact nearly spherical shape. They are
generally soluble in water and are mobile within cells. E.g biological enzymes and hormones.
Properties and Reactions of Proteins
1. Denaturation: This is the process of formation of precipitate or coagulant by protein solution
when subjected to heating. The denatured protein has undergone an irreversible change in its
molecular shape.
Some factors that aid the denaturing of proteins are;
i- Temperatures above 40℃ .
ii- Some organic solvents and chemical reagents.
iii- Variation in pH.
2. Hydrolysis: This is the boiling of amino acids with solutions of HCl or NaOH. Hydrolysis can
also occur by using suitable enzymes.
Test for Proteins Amino acids
Millon’s Test: Addition of drops of Millon’s reagent to an egg-white solution in a test-tube, the
formation of a white precipitate which turns brick-red on heating confirms the presence of
protein.
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Biuret Test: The addition of about 1 cm 3 of dilute caustic soda solution into a test-tube
containing some dilute egg-white solution. Then add 1% CuSO 4 drop by drop. The test solution
is shaken thoroughly after each drop. The formation of a violet coloration gives a positive test
for proteins.
Ninhydrin Reagent: To a little amount of the substance, add Ninhydrin reagent (indane-1, 2, 3-
trione hydrate) and warm. The appearance of a blue/yellow colouration confirms an amino
acid.
Protein Structure
1. Primary structure: This is the sequence in which the amino acids molecules are joined to one
another by a covalent bond along a protein chain. It gives protein its unique identity. A change
in even one amino acid can alter the biochemical characteristics of a protein.
2. Secondary structure: This is the self-assembling which refers to how segments of the protein
chain are oriented in a regular pattern. One of the most important and common secondary
structure arrangements is the α -helix. The α -helix shows, the helix is held in position by
hydrogen bonds between amide H atoms and carbonyl O atoms.
The other common secondary structure of proteins is the beta β -sheet. Beta sheets are made
of two or more strands of peptides that hydrogen-bond from an amide H in one strand to a
carbonyl O in the other strand.

(Cambridge, AS & A level)

3. Tertiary structure: This is the shape of a protein in its folded form and it is determined by all
the bends, kinks, and sections of rodlike α -helical, β -sheet, or flexible coil components.
The process by which the protein adopts its biologically active shape is called folding.
Proteins are not active biologically unless they are in a particular shape in solution.
4. Quaternary structure: This is the arrangement of two or more of the tertiary subunits
aggregate into a larger functional macromolecule.
For example, haemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying protein of red blood cells, consists of four (4)
tertiary subunits. Each subunit contains a component called a haeme with an iron atom that
binds oxygen.

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The four levels of structures of proteins. [Adapted from Chemistry, The Central Science 12th Edition: Organic Molecules]

CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are an important class of naturally occurring substances found in both plant and
animal matter. Carbohydrates are not really hydrates of carbon; rather, they are polyhydroxy
aldehydes and ketones. For example, glucose, the most abundant carbohydrate, has the
molecular formula C6H12O6, or C6(H2O)6.
Carbohydrates are classified into simple sugars and complex sugars.

Classification of Carbohydrates (Alabi-Abass, M. O).

Simple sugars
These simple sugars are called hexoses when they contain 6 carbon atoms. They have the
general formula C6H12O6, but with different spatial arrangements. They are further divided into

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monosaccharide and disaccharides. Examples are; glucose, fructose, galactose. They can be
presented in both open chain and cyclic (closed chain) forms.
Monosaccharide: They are crystalline substances, they are soluble in water and have sweet
taste. Examples includes; glucose and fructose. Glucose contain both aldehyde and alcohol
functional group and they are called aldoses. Fructose contain a ketone functional group and
they are often called ketoses.

Open chain structure of glucose and fructose (Cambridge A-level)

Test for Glucose: When a few drops of Fehling’s solution is added to 5 cm 3 of glucose solution
and boiled, a brick-red precipitate is obtained.
Disaccharides: These are obtained by the condensation of two monosaccharides with the
elimination of one molecule of water. They possess the general molecular formula C12H22O11.
Examples includes; sucrose, lactose and maltose.
Sucrose (cane sugar) = glucose and fructose
Lactose (milk sugar) = glucose and galactose
Maltose (milk sugar) = glucose and glucose
Sucrose is known as cane sugar.It is the common sugar we consume. It is found naturally in
many plants and fruits such as pineapple, carrots, sorghum and sap of sugar maple tree.

Test for Sucrose: Add 5 cm3 of freshly prepared Seliwanoff’s reagent to 1 cm3 of sucrose
solution and warm in a water bath. The mixture turns red after 10 minutes.
Polysaccharides: Polysaccharides are made up of many monosaccharide units joined together
by condensation with the elimination of water molecule. The most important polysaccharides

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are starch, glycogen, and cellulose, all three of which are formed from repeating glucose units.
They have the general molecular formula (C6H10O5)n.

Starch is a polysaccharide substance with a relative molecular mass ranging between 15, 000 to
300,000. It is composed of thousands of repeating units of glucose. The term refers to a group
of polysaccharides found in plants such as; corn, potatoes, wheat, and rice all contain
substantial amounts of starch. Enzymes in the digestive system catalyze the hydrolysis of starch
to glucose. Some starch molecules are unbranched chains, whereas others are branched.
Glycogen is a starch-like substance synthesized in the animal body. Glycogen molecules vary in
molecular weight from about 5000 to more than 5 million amu. Glycogen acts as a kind of
energy bank in the body. It is concentrated in the muscles and liver. In muscles it serves as an
immediate source of energy; in the liver it serves as a storage place for glucose and helps to
maintain a constant glucose level in the blood.
Cellulose forms the major structural unit of plants. Wood is about 50% cellulose; cotton fibers
are almost entirely cellulose. Cellulose consists of an unbranched chain of glucose units, with
molecular weights averaging more than 500,000 amu.
Test for Starch: When a few drops of iodine solution is added to some boiled starch. A dark-
blue coloration which disappears on heating and reappears on cooling is seen.
Reducing and Non-Reducing Sugars.
Reducing sugars are carbohydrates which gives a positive test to Fehling’s Reagent to give a red
precipitate of copper (I) oxide due to the availability of a replaceable hydrogen atom. E.g
glucose, fructose, maltose
Non-Reducing sugars are those that gives negative test when reacted with Fehling’s Reagent
due to the lack of replaceable hydrogen atom. E.g sucrose, starch, cellulose.
Commercial Cellulose and Uses.
1. Viscose Rayon and Cellophane.
2. Cellulose Acetate: These are also known as acetate, rayon, tricel and arnel in the textile
industry.
3. Cellulose nitrate of high concentration is used as an explosive but those of lower
concentration is used in photographic film and other flexible plastics.

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POLYMERS
Polymers are macromolecules of high molecular mass obtained from smaller molecules known
as monomers. Polymers consists of repeating units of the monomer.
It can be represented as; -[repeating unit of monomer]-n
n is a large whole number.
Polymers may be classed as natural and artificial.
i. Natural polymers are all large naturally organic compounds such as; carbohydrates (starch &
cellulose), proteins, rubber and resins.
ii. Artificial polymers are also referred to as synthetic polymers and are generally known as
plastics. Plastics are synthetic materials that can be softened by heat and then moulded into
desired shape.
Artificial or Synthetic polymers can be of 2 types:
a) Thermoplastics and b) Thermosets

Thermoplastics Thermosets
 They are plastics that can be softened  These are plastics that are often rigid
by heat and remoulded repeatedly. and cannot be melted by heat and
 Examples are; polythene, remoulded once they are formed.
polypropene, polystyrene, nylon,  Examples are; bakelite, urea-
terylene, Perspex. methanal.

Polymerization: This is the process of combining two or more monomer to form a compound of
higher molecular mass called polymer.
Polymerization can be of two kinds:
1) Addition polymerization and 2) Condensation polymerization
1. Addition polymerization: This is a process whereby two or more monomers of the same
compound link together to form a polymer without the elimination of any small molecules.
Most of the monomers used here are derived from the cracking process of petroleum products.
Examples includes; poly(ethene), poly(chloroethene)/ poly(vinylchloride), poly(styrene),
poly(propenonitrile) and Perspex.
Most addition polymers are made from ethene and its derivative.

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2. Condensation polymerization: This is the process of linking two or more monomers to form a
polymer with the elimination of a small molecule.
If the two condensing monomers are different, the polymer formed is called copolymer.
If the condensing monomer are the same molecule, the resulting polymer is called
homopolymer.
Condensation polymers can be obtained by two different ways;
a) Type I: Formation of condensation polymer by monomers that contain two different
functional groups (dimer), they condense to form either an ester or amide group.

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b) Type II: Formation of condensation polymers by two different types of monomers such as
two carboxylic acid groups and two alcohol group (a diol).

(i)

(ii)
Note!!!
The squares and spherical shapes used in the monomer formula represents certain number of a
–CH2 chain.
The two types of polymer only differs in the direction of successive functional groups along the
chain.
In the first type, the direction of ester or amide linkage is the same.
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In the second type, the direction of the ester or amide linkages alternates.

Name of monomers Uses

Polyesters
Ethan-1,2-diol Textile fibers
Benzene-1,4-dicarboxylic acid Magnetic tape
Photographic film
Lactic acid
Polyamides
Hexan-1,2-diamine Textile fibers, threads, ropes,
Hexan-1,6-dicarboxylic acid electrical insulation
Hexan-1,2-diamine Sports equipment,
Decanedioic acid Bristles for brushes.
Caprolactam Clothenings , fishing line

Differences between Addition and Condensation Polymers

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Polymers Addition Condensation

1. Type of Monomer If monomer contain C=C (even if side If monomer contain 2 different
chain contain ester/acid/amide functional groups at the end of a
groups). chain of carbon atoms (alcohol
or amine, carboxylic acid or acyl
chloride).

2. Polymerization or
If the chain contains only carbon
Polymer If the chain contain hetero atoms
atoms (even if side chain contain
(carbon with oxygen or
ester/acid/amide groups).
nitrogen).

RUBBER
Rubber is produced by the rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis). It is obtained when the bark of the
tree is cut, it oozes a white sticky liquid called latex (latex is an emulsion of rubber in water).
The latex obtained from the tree is not very useful due to its low melting point, low tensile
strength, softness and stickiness.
It only become useful when it undergoes a chemical process known as vulcanization.
Vulcanization is the process which involves heating of natural rubber with sulphur. This
produces rubber with higher melting point, greater tensile strength, durability and wider
elasticity.

Figure of a rubber tree being tapped of its latex (Cambridge AS and A Level)

Rubber is of two types; natural and synthetic rubber.

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Natural rubber is obtained by the addition polymerization of 2-methyl buta-1,3-diene

(isoprene).

Synthetic rubber is obtained by the copolymerization of styrene (phenylethene) and buta-1,3-

diene, it is called SBR (styrene-butadiene rubber). It is then vulcanized in 3% by mass of sulphur.
A co-polymer is formed when two or more different alkenes are polymerized together.

Uses of SBR
i. Used in making vehicle tyres. ii. In making heavy duty foot wears.
ABS is also a co-polymer obtained from styrene, buta-1,3- diene and acrylonitrile (ABS-
acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene). It is a tough and rigid plastic.

Uses of ABS
1. It is used in making suitcases, telephones and objects that needs to be strong.
2. Used in making pipes and many moulded articles.

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