Edited by: Assist. Prof. Dr.

Ahmed Mudhafar Hashim

Department of Materials Engineering – College of Engineering – University of Al-Qadisiyah

Mechanics of composite materials - Lecture 2

Geometric and Physical Definitions

Type of Material
Depending on the number of its constituents or phases, a material is called
single-phase (or monolithic), two-phase (or biphase), three-phase, and
multiphase. The different phases of a structural composite have distinct physical
and mechanical properties and characteristic dimensions much larger than
molecular or grain dimensions.

Homogeneity
A homogeneous comes from homo (the same) and genus (kind). A material is
called homogeneous if its properties are the same at every point or are independent
of location. The concept of homogeneity is associated with a scale or characteristic
volume and the definition of the properties involved. Depending on the scale or
volume observed, the material can be more homogeneous or less homogeneous. If
the variability from point to point on a macroscopic scale is low, the material is
referred to as quasi-homogeneous.

Heterogeneity or lnhomogeneity
A material is heterogeneous or inhomogeneous if its properties vary from point
to point, or depend on location. As in the case above, the concept of heterogeneity
is associated with a scale or characteristic volume. As this scale decreases, the
same material can be regarded as homogeneous, quasi-homogeneous, or
heterogeneous.

1| Lecture 2 Google classroom code: vp66vlw

 Edited by: Assist. Prof. Dr. Ahmed Mudhafar Hashim
Department of Materials Engineering – College of Engineering – University of Al-Qadisiyah

We can classify all the materials we know into three groups as isotropic,
orthotropic, and anisotropic materials.

Isotropy
Many material properties, such as stiffness, strength, thermal expansion, thermal
conductivity, and permeability are associated with a direction or axis (vectorial or
tensorial quantities). A material is isotropic when its properties are the same in all
directions or are independent of the orientation of reference axes.

Anisotropy/Orthotropy
A material is anisotropic when its properties at a point vary with direction or
depend on the orientation of reference axes. If the properties of the material along
any direction are the same as those along a symmetric direction with respect to a
plane, then that plane is defined as a plane of material symmetry. A material may
have zero, one, two, three, or an infinite number of planes of material symmetry
through a point. A material without any planes of symmetry is called general
anisotropic (or aeolotropic). At the other extreme, an isotropic material has an
infinite number of planes of symmetry.
Of special relevance to composite
materials are orthotropic materials, that is,
materials having at least three mutually
perpendicular planes of symmetry. The
intersections of these planes define three
mutually perpendicular axes, called
principal axes of material symmetry or
simply principal material axes.

2| Lecture 2 Google classroom code: vp66vlw

 Edited by: Assist. Prof. Dr. Ahmed Mudhafar Hashim
Department of Materials Engineering – College of Engineering – University of Al-Qadisiyah

As in the case of homogeneity/heterogeneity discussed before, the concept of

isotropy/anisotropy is also associated with a scale or characteristic volume. For
example, the composite material in Figure 1 is considered homogeneous and
anisotropic on a macroscopic scale, because it has a similar composition at
different locations (A and B) but properties varying with orientation. On a
microscopic scale, the material is heterogeneous having different properties within
characteristic volumes a and b. Within these characteristic volumes the material
can be isotropic or anisotropic.

Figure 1. Macroscopic (A, B) and microscopic (a, b) scales of observation in a

unidirectional composite layer.

Material Response Under Load

Some of the intrinsic characteristics of the materials discussed before are
revealed in their response to simple mechanical loading, for example, uniaxial
normal stress and pure shear stress as illustrated in Figure 2.

3| Lecture 2 Google classroom code: vp66vlw

 Edited by: Assist. Prof. Dr. Ahmed Mudhafar Hashim
Department of Materials Engineering – College of Engineering – University of Al-Qadisiyah

An isotropic material under uniaxial tensile loading undergoes an axial

deformation (strain), εx, in the loading direction, a transverse deformation (strain),
εy, and no shear deformation:
𝜎𝑥
𝜀𝑥 =
𝐸
𝑣𝜎𝑥
𝜀𝑦 = −
𝐸
𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 0
𝜀𝑥 , 𝜀𝑦 , 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙, 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠, 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦
where
𝜎 = 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐸 = 𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′ 𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠
𝑣 = 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛′𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
Under pure shear loading, τxy the material undergoes a pure shear deformation, that
is, a square element deforms into a diamond-shaped one with equal and unchanged
side lengths. The shear strain (change of angle), γxy, and the normal strains, εx, and
εy, are
𝜏𝑥𝑦 2𝜏𝑥𝑦 (1 + 𝑣)
𝛿𝑥𝑦 = =
𝐺 𝐸
𝜀𝑥 = 𝜀𝑦 = 0
where
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐺 = 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠
As indicated in equations the shear modulus is not an independent constant, but
is related to Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio.
An orthotropic material loaded in uniaxial tension along one of its principal
material axes (1) undergoes deformations similar to those of an isotropic material
and given by

4| Lecture 2 Google classroom code: vp66vlw

 Edited by: Assist. Prof. Dr. Ahmed Mudhafar Hashim
Department of Materials Engineering – College of Engineering – University of Al-Qadisiyah

𝜎1
𝜀1 =
𝐸1
𝑣12𝜎1
𝜀2 = −
𝐸1
𝛾12 = 0
where
𝜀1, 𝜀2 , 𝛾12 = 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙, 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠, 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦
𝜎1 = 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑣12 = 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛’𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 1 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 2 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Under pure shear loading, τ12, along the principal material axes, the material
undergoes pure shear deformation, that is, a square element deforms into a
diamond-shaped one with unchanged side lengths. The strains are
𝜏12
𝛾12 =
𝐺12
𝜀1 = 𝜀2 = 0
Here, the shear modulus G12, is an independent material constant and is not
directly related to the Young’s moduli or Poisson’s ratios.
In both cases discussed before, normal loading does not produce shear strain and
pure shear loading does not produce normal strains. Thus, normal loading and
shear deformation (as well as pure shear loading and normal strains) are
independent or uncoupled.
A general anisotropic material under uniaxial tension, or an orthotropic material
under uniaxial tension along a direction other than a principal material axis,
undergoes axial, transverse, and shear deformations given by
𝜎𝑥
𝜀𝑥 =
𝐸𝑥

5| Lecture 2 Google classroom code: vp66vlw

 Edited by: Assist. Prof. Dr. Ahmed Mudhafar Hashim
Department of Materials Engineering – College of Engineering – University of Al-Qadisiyah

𝑣𝑥𝑦 𝜎𝑥
𝜀𝑦 = −
𝐸𝑥
𝜎𝑥
𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 𝜂𝑥𝑠
𝐸𝑥
where
𝜀𝑥 , 𝜀𝑦 , 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙, 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠, 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦
𝜎𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐸𝑥 = 𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔’𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑣𝑥𝑦 = 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛’𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝜂𝑥𝑠 = 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑠

𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛; 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑡
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛. )
This mode of response characterized by ηxs is called the shear coupling effect.

Under pure shear loading, τxy, along the same axes, the material undergoes both
shear and normal deformations, that is, a square element deforms into a
parallelogram with unequal sides. The shear and normal strains are given by
𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝛾𝑥𝑦 =
𝐺𝑥𝑦
𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝜀𝑥 = 𝜂𝑠𝑥
𝐺𝑥𝑦
𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝜀𝑦 = 𝜂𝑠𝑦
𝐺𝑥𝑦
𝐺𝑥𝑦 = 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑒𝑠
𝜂𝑠𝑥 , 𝜂𝑠𝑦 = 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠

6| Lecture 2 Google classroom code: vp66vlw

 Edited by: Assist. Prof. Dr. Ahmed Mudhafar Hashim
Department of Materials Engineering – College of Engineering – University of Al-Qadisiyah

Figure 2. Response of various types of materials under uniaxial normal

and pure shear loadings.

7| Lecture 2 Google classroom code: vp66vlw

 Edited by: Assist. Prof. Dr. Ahmed Mudhafar Hashim
Department of Materials Engineering – College of Engineering – University of Al-Qadisiyah

Mechanics Terminology
A composite material consists of two or more constituents; thus, the analysis and
design of such materials is different from that for conventional materials such as
metals. The approach to analyze the mechanical behavior of composite structures
is as follows (Figure 3):

Figure 3. Schematic of analysis of laminated composites.

8| Lecture 2 Google classroom code: vp66vlw

 Edited by: Assist. Prof. Dr. Ahmed Mudhafar Hashim
Department of Materials Engineering – College of Engineering – University of Al-Qadisiyah

1. Find the average properties of a composite ply from the individual properties
of the constituents. Properties include stiffness, strength, thermal, and
moisture expansion coefficients. Note that average properties are derived by
considering the ply to be homogeneous. At this level, one can optimize for
the stiffness and strength requirements of a lamina. This is called the
micromechanics of a lamina.
2. Develop the stress–strain relationships for a unidirectional/bidirectional
lamina. Loads may be applied along the principal directions of symmetry of
the lamina or off-axis. Also, one develops relationships for stiffness, thermal
and moisture expansion coefficients, and strengths of angle plies. Failure
theories of a lamina are based on stresses in the lamina and strength
properties of a lamina. This is called the macromechanics of a lamina.
Are composite materials isotropic and/or homogeneous?
Most composite materials are neither isotropic nor homogeneous. For example,
consider epoxy reinforced with long glass fibers. If one chooses a location on the
glass fiber, the properties are different from a location on the epoxy matrix. This
makes the composite material nonhomogeneous (not homogeneous). Also, the
stiffness in the direction parallel to the fibers is higher than in the direction
perpendicular to the fibers and thus the properties are not independent of the
direction. This makes the composite material anisotropic (not isotropic).
What is a lamina?
A lamina (also called a ply or layer) is a single flat layer of unidirectional fibers
or woven fibers arranged in a matrix.
What is a laminate?
A laminate is a stack of plies of composites. Each layer can be laid at various
orientations and can be made up of different material systems.

9| Lecture 2 Google classroom code: vp66vlw

 Edited by: Assist. Prof. Dr. Ahmed Mudhafar Hashim
Department of Materials Engineering – College of Engineering – University of Al-Qadisiyah

What is a hybrid laminate?

Hybrid composites contain more than one fiber or one matrix system in a
laminate. The main four types of hybrid laminates follow:
 Interply hybrid laminates contain plies made of two or more different
composite systems. Examples include car bumpers made of glass/ epoxy
layers to provide torsional rigidity and graphite/epoxy to give stiffness. The
combinations also lower the cost of the bumper.
 Intraply hybrid composites consist of two or more different fibers used in
the same ply. Examples include golf clubs that use graphite and aramid
fibers. Graphite fibers provide the torsional rigidity and the aramid fibers
provide tensile strength and toughness.
 An interply–intraply hybrid consists of plies that have two or more different
fibers in the same ply and distinct composite systems in more than one ply.
 Resin hybrid laminates combine two or more resins instead of combining
two or more fibers in a laminate. Generally, one resin is flexible and the
other one is rigid. Tests have proven that these resin hybrid laminates can
increase shear and work of fracture properties by more than 50% over those
of all-flexible or all-rigid resins.

Why are Fiber Reinforcement of a Thin Diameter?

The main reasons for using fibers of thin diameter are the following:
 Actual strength of materials is several magnitudes lower than the theoretical
strength. This difference is due to the inherent flaws in the material.
Removing these flaws can increase the strength of the material. As the fibers
become smaller in diameter, the chances of an inherent flaw in the material
are reduced. A steel plate may have strength of 689 MPa, while a wire made
from this steel plate can have strength of 600 4100 MPa. Figure 4 shows

10| Lecture 2 Google classroom code: vp66vlw

 Edited by: Assist. Prof. Dr. Ahmed Mudhafar Hashim
Department of Materials Engineering – College of Engineering – University of Al-Qadisiyah

how the strength of a carbon fiber increases with the decrease in its
diameter.
 For higher ductility and toughness, and better transfer of loads from the
matrix to fiber, composites require larger surface area of the fiber–matrix
interface. For the same volume fraction of fibers in a composite, the area of
the fiber–matrix interface is inversely proportional to the diameter of the
fiber and is proved as follows.
Assume a lamina consisting of N fibers of diameter D. The fiber– matrix
interface area in this lamina is
𝑨𝑰 = 𝑵𝝅𝑫𝑳 … (𝟏)

If one replaces the fibers of diameter, D, by fibers of diameter, d, then the

number of fibers, n, to keep the fiber volume the same would be
𝑫 𝟐
𝒏 = 𝑵 ( ) … (𝟐)
𝒅

Then, the fiber–matrix interface area in the resulting lamina would be

𝑨𝑰𝑰 = 𝒏𝝅𝒅𝑳
𝑵𝝅𝑫𝟐 𝑳
=
𝒅
𝟒(𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒊𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒔)
= … (𝟑)
𝒅
This implies that, for a fixed fiber volume in a given volume of composite,
the area of the fiber–matrix interface is inversely proportional to the
diameter of the fiber.
 Fibers able to bend without breaking are required in manufacturing of
composite materials, especially for woven fabric composites. Ability to bend
increases with a decrease in the fiber diameter and is measured as flexibility.

11| Lecture 2 Google classroom code: vp66vlw

 Edited by: Assist. Prof. Dr. Ahmed Mudhafar Hashim
Department of Materials Engineering – College of Engineering – University of Al-Qadisiyah

Flexibility is defined as the inverse of bending stiffness and is proportional

to the inverse of the product of the elastic modulus of the fiber and the fourth
power of its diameter; it can be proved as follows.

Figure 4. Fiber strength as a function of fiber diameter for carbon fibers.

Bending stiffness is the resistance to bending moments. According to the

Strength of Materials course, if a beam is subjected to a pure bending
moment, M,
𝒅𝟐 𝒗 𝑴
= … (𝟒)
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝑬𝑰
where
v = deflection of the centroidal line (in. or m)
E = Young’s modulus of the beam (psi or Pa)
I = second moment of area (in.4 or m4)
x = coordinate along the length of beam (in. or m)

12| Lecture 2 Google classroom code: vp66vlw

 Edited by: Assist. Prof. Dr. Ahmed Mudhafar Hashim
Department of Materials Engineering – College of Engineering – University of Al-Qadisiyah

 The bending stiffness, then, is EI and the flexibility is simply the inverse of
EI. Because the second moment of area of a cylindrical beam of diameter d
is
𝝅𝒅𝟒
𝑰= … (𝟓)
𝟔𝟒

Then
𝟏
𝑭𝒍𝒆𝒙𝒊𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 ∞ … (𝟔)
𝑬𝒅𝟒

For a particular material, unlike strength, the Young’s modulus does not
change appreciably as a function of its diameter. Therefore, the flexibility
for a particular material is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the
diameter.

Micromechanics Analysis of Composites

Continuous Fiber Reinforced Composites
The properties of continuous fiber reinforced composites is obtained from the
law of mixtures. An idealized micromechanical view of a unidirectional fiber
reinforced composite material is shown in Figure 5. In these materials, the fibers
have a very small diameter and a very high length-to-diameter ratio. This geometry
yields excellent stiffness and strength characteristics in the fiber, since the crystals
tend to align along the fiber axis and there are fewer internal and surface defects
than in the bulk material.

13| Lecture 2 Google classroom code: vp66vlw

 Edited by: Assist. Prof. Dr. Ahmed Mudhafar Hashim
Department of Materials Engineering – College of Engineering – University of Al-Qadisiyah

Figure 5. Idealized representation of a unidirectional fiber-reinforced material.

The Law of Mixtures (Longitudinal loading ‫)الحمل المسلط باتجاه األلياف‬

Isostrain State
Volume Fractions
Figure 6 shows continuous fiber composites (Longitudinal loading). Consider a
composite consisting of fiber and matrix. Take the following symbol notations:
vc,f,m = volume of composite, fiber, and matrix, respectively.
ρc,f,m = density of composite, fiber, and matrix, respectively.
Now define the fiber volume fraction Vf and the matrix volume fraction Vm as
𝒗𝒇
𝑽𝒇 = … (𝟕)
𝒗𝒄
and

14| Lecture 2 Google classroom code: vp66vlw

 Edited by: Assist. Prof. Dr. Ahmed Mudhafar Hashim
Department of Materials Engineering – College of Engineering – University of Al-Qadisiyah

𝒗𝒎
𝑽𝒎 = … (𝟖)
𝒗𝒄

Note that the sum of volume fractions is

𝑽𝒇 + 𝑽𝒎 = 𝟏

Figure 6. Fiber reinforced composites (Longitudinal loading).

Mass Fractions
Consider a composite consisting of fiber and matrix and take the following
symbol notation: wc,f,m = mass of composite, fiber, and matrix, respectively. The
mass fraction (weight fraction) of the fibers (Wf) and the matrix (Wm) are defined as
𝒘𝒇
𝑾𝒎 = … (𝟗)
𝒘𝒄
and

𝒘𝒎
𝑾𝒎 = … (𝟏𝟎)
𝒘𝒄

15| Lecture 2 Google classroom code: vp66vlw

 Edited by: Assist. Prof. Dr. Ahmed Mudhafar Hashim
Department of Materials Engineering – College of Engineering – University of Al-Qadisiyah

Note that the sum of mass fractions is

𝑾𝒇 + 𝑾𝒎 = 𝟏

From the definition of the density of a single material,

𝑤𝑐 = 𝑟𝑐 𝑣𝑐 … (11)
𝑤𝑓 = 𝑟𝑓 𝑣𝑓 … (12)
and
𝑤𝑚 = 𝑟𝑚 𝑣𝑚 … (13)

Substituting Equations (11, 12, and 13) in Equations (9 and 10), the mass
fractions and volume fractions are related as
𝝆𝒇
𝑾𝒇 = 𝑽 … (𝟏𝟒)
𝝆𝒄 𝒇
and
𝝆𝒎
𝑾𝒎 = 𝑽 … (𝟏𝟓)
𝝆𝒄 𝒎

in terms of the fiber and matrix volume fractions. In terms of individual constituent
properties, the mass fractions and volume fractions are related by
𝝆𝒇
𝑾𝒇 = 𝝆𝒇 𝑽𝒇 … (𝟏𝟔)
𝑽𝒇 + 𝑽𝒎
𝝆𝒎

and
𝝆𝒇
𝑾𝒎 = 𝝆𝒇 𝑽𝒎 … (𝟏𝟕)
(𝟏 − 𝑽𝒎 ) + 𝑽𝒎
𝝆𝒎

One should always state the basis of calculating the fiber content of a composite.
It is given in terms of mass or volume. Based on Equations (14 and 15), it is

16| Lecture 2 Google classroom code: vp66vlw

 Edited by: Assist. Prof. Dr. Ahmed Mudhafar Hashim
Department of Materials Engineering – College of Engineering – University of Al-Qadisiyah

evident that volume and mass fractions are not equal and that the mismatch
between the mass and volume fractions increases as the ratio between the density
of fiber and matrix differs from one.

Density
The mass wc of a composite is made up of the masses of the matrix wm and the
fibers wf, i.e.:
𝑤𝑐 = 𝑤𝑓 + 𝑤𝑚 … (18)

Since mass is volume υ times density ρ, then equation (18) can be written as:
𝑣𝑐 𝜌𝑐 = 𝑣𝑚 𝜌𝑚 + 𝑣𝑚 𝜌𝑚 … (19)
and so:
ρc = (υm/υc) ρm + (υf/υc) ρf
(υm/υc) is the volume fraction Vm that is matrix, and (υ f/υc) is the volume fraction
Vf that is fiber. Thus:
𝝆𝒄 = 𝝆𝒎 𝑽𝒎 + 𝝆𝒇 𝑽𝒇 … (𝟐𝟎)

Note that since υm = υc – υf we must have Vm = 1 – Vf. Equation (14) can be

termed a law of mixtures.
Similarly:
𝑲𝒄 = 𝑲𝒎 𝑽𝒎 + 𝑲𝒇 𝑽𝒇 … (𝟐𝟏)

Where K is the thermal conductivity.

and
𝝈𝒄 = 𝝈𝒎 𝑽𝒎 + 𝝈𝒇 𝑽𝒇 … (𝟐𝟐)
Where σ is the stress of the composite.

17| Lecture 2 Google classroom code: vp66vlw

 Edited by: Assist. Prof. Dr. Ahmed Mudhafar Hashim
Department of Materials Engineering – College of Engineering – University of Al-Qadisiyah

The rule of mixtures is used to predict ‫ تتنبأ‬the modulus of elasticity when fibers
are continuous and unidirectional ‫اتجاه القوة المسلطة باتجاه األلياف‬. Parallel to the fibers,
the modulus of elasticity may be written:
𝑬𝒄 = 𝑬𝒎 𝑽𝒎 + 𝑬𝒇 𝑽𝒇 … (𝟐𝟑)
and
Vm = 1 - Vf
Then
𝑬𝒄 = 𝑬𝒎 (𝟏 − 𝑽𝒎 ) + 𝑬𝒇 𝑽𝒇 … (𝟐𝟒)

It can also be shown, for longitudinal loading, that the ratio of the load carried
by the fibers to that carried by the matrix is:
𝑭𝒇 𝑬𝒇 𝑽 𝒇
= … (𝟐𝟓)
𝑭𝒎 𝑬𝒎 𝑽𝒎

Example 1. Derive the rule of mixtures Ec = Em (1 - Vm) + Ef Vf for the modulus

of elasticity of a fiber reinforced composites when a stress σ is applied along the
axis of the fibers.

Solution:

The total force acting on the composite is the sum of the force carried by each
constituent:

Fc = Fm + Ff

Since F = σ A

σc = σm Am + σf Af (/ Ac) → σc = σm (Am/Ac) + σf (Af/Ac)

If the fibers have a uniform cross – section, the area fraction equals the volume
fraction, because fiber and matrix length are all equal:

18| Lecture 2 Google classroom code: vp66vlw

 Edited by: Assist. Prof. Dr. Ahmed Mudhafar Hashim
Department of Materials Engineering – College of Engineering – University of Al-Qadisiyah

σc = σm Vm + σf Vf

From Hookes law, σ = ε E. Therefore:

εc Ec = εm Em Vm + εf Ef Vf

If the fibers are rigidly bonded to the matrix, both the fibers and the matrix must
stretch equal amounts (isostrain state):

εc = εm = εf → Ec = Em Vm + Ef Vf Ans.

Example 2. A thermoplastic matrix contain 40% weight of glass fiber if density of

matrix and fiber are respectively are 1.1 g/cm3 and 2.5 g/cm3. Calculate the density
of the composite system.

19| Lecture 2 Google classroom code: vp66vlw

 Edited by: Assist. Prof. Dr. Ahmed Mudhafar Hashim
Department of Materials Engineering – College of Engineering – University of Al-Qadisiyah

20| Lecture 2 Google classroom code: vp66vlw

 Edited by: Assist. Prof. Dr. Ahmed Mudhafar Hashim
Department of Materials Engineering – College of Engineering – University of Al-Qadisiyah

Example 3. A continuous and aligned glass fiber reinforced composite consists of

40 vol.% of glass fibers having a modulus of elasticity of 69 GPa and 60 vol.% of
a polyester resin that, when hardened, display a modulus of 3.4 GPa.

a. Compute the modulus of elasticity of this composite in the longitudinal

direction.
b. It the cross – sectional are 250 mm2 and a stress of 50 MPa is applied in this
direction, computes the magnitude of the load carried by each of the fiber and
matrix phases.
c. Determine the strain that is sustained by each phase when the stress in part b
is applied.

Solution:

21| Lecture 2 Google classroom code: vp66vlw

 Edited by: Assist. Prof. Dr. Ahmed Mudhafar Hashim
Department of Materials Engineering – College of Engineering – University of Al-Qadisiyah

22| Lecture 2 Google classroom code: vp66vlw

 Edited by: Assist. Prof. Dr. Ahmed Mudhafar Hashim
Department of Materials Engineering – College of Engineering – University of Al-Qadisiyah

23| Lecture 2 Google classroom code: vp66vlw

 Edited by: Assist. Prof. Dr. Ahmed Mudhafar Hashim
Department of Materials Engineering – College of Engineering – University of Al-Qadisiyah

Example 4. Glass fiber in polyamide provide reinforcement. If the polyamide

contains 30 % vol. glass fiber, what fraction of the applied force is carried by the
glass fiber. Assume Eglass = 10.5 × 106 psi and Epolyamide = 0.4 × 106 psi.

Solution:

24| Lecture 2 Google classroom code: vp66vlw

 Edited by: Assist. Prof. Dr. Ahmed Mudhafar Hashim
Department of Materials Engineering – College of Engineering – University of Al-Qadisiyah

25| Lecture 2 Google classroom code: vp66vlw

 Edited by: Assist. Prof. Dr. Ahmed Mudhafar Hashim
Department of Materials Engineering – College of Engineering – University of Al-Qadisiyah

The Law of Mixtures (Transverse loading ‫الحمل المسلط عمودي على اتجاه‬
‫ )األلياف‬Isostress State

A continuous and oriented fibers composite may be loaded in the transverse

direction that is the load is applied at a 90 ° angle to the direction of fibers
alignment as shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7. Fiber reinforced composites (Longitudinal loading).

For this situation the stress to which the composite as well as both phases are
exposed in the same, or:

𝝈𝒄 = 𝝈𝒎 = 𝝈𝒇 … (𝟐𝟔)

This is termed "an isostress state". Also, the strain of the entire composite is:

𝜺𝒄 = 𝜺𝒎 𝑽𝒎 + 𝜺𝒇 𝑽𝒇 … (𝟐𝟕)

but, since ε = σ / E

𝜎𝑐 𝜎𝑚 𝜎𝑓
= 𝑉𝑚 + 𝑉𝑓 … (28)
𝐸𝑐 𝐸𝑚 𝐸𝑓

26| Lecture 2 Google classroom code: vp66vlw

 Edited by: Assist. Prof. Dr. Ahmed Mudhafar Hashim
Department of Materials Engineering – College of Engineering – University of Al-Qadisiyah

where Ec is the modulus of elasticity in the transverse direction. Now, dividing

through by σ yields:

𝟏 𝑽𝒎 𝑽𝒇
= + … (𝟐)
𝑬𝒄 𝑬𝒎 𝑬𝒇

which reduces to:

𝐸𝑚 𝐸𝑓
𝐸𝑐 =
𝐸𝑓 𝑉𝑚 + 𝐸𝑚 𝑉𝑓

𝑬𝒎 𝑬𝒇
𝑬𝒄 = … (𝟑𝟎)
𝑬𝒇 (𝟏 − 𝑽𝒇 ) + 𝑬𝒎 𝑽𝒇

Example 5. Compute the elastic modulus of the composite material described in

example 1, but assume that the stress is applied perpendicular to the direction of
fiber alignment.

Solution:

27| Lecture 2 Google classroom code: vp66vlw

 Edited by: Assist. Prof. Dr. Ahmed Mudhafar Hashim
Department of Materials Engineering – College of Engineering – University of Al-Qadisiyah

Major Poisson’s Ratio

The major Poisson’s ratio is defined as the negative of the ratio of the normal
strain in the transverse direction to the normal strain in the longitudinal direction,
when a normal load is applied in the longitudinal direction. Assume a composite is
loaded in the direction parallel to the fibers, as shown in Figure 8. The fibers and
matrix are again represented by rectangular blocks.

The deformations in the transverse direction of the composite (δ cT) is the sum of
the transverse deformations of the fiber (δfT) and the matrix (δmT) as:

𝛿𝑐𝑇 = 𝛿𝑚
𝑇
+ 𝛿𝑓𝑇 … (31)

Using the definition of normal strain:

𝛿𝑐𝑇
𝜀𝑐𝑇 =
𝑡𝑐
𝑇
𝑇
𝛿𝑚
𝜀𝑚 =
𝑡𝑚

𝛿𝑓𝑇
𝜀𝑓𝑇 =
𝑡𝑓

Where εc,f,m = transverse strains in composite, matrix, and fiber respectively.

Substituting in Equation (31):

𝜀𝑐𝑇 𝑡𝑐 = 𝜀𝑚
𝑇
𝑡𝑚 + 𝜀𝑓𝑇 𝑡𝑓 … (32)

𝜀𝑥𝑇
𝑣=− 𝐿
𝜀𝑧

𝜀𝑐𝑇
𝑣𝑐 = − 𝐿
𝜀𝑐

28| Lecture 2 Google classroom code: vp66vlw

 Edited by: Assist. Prof. Dr. Ahmed Mudhafar Hashim
Department of Materials Engineering – College of Engineering – University of Al-Qadisiyah

𝑇
𝜀𝑚
𝑣𝑚 = − 𝐿
𝜀𝑚

and

𝜀𝑓𝑇
𝑣𝑓 = −
𝜀𝑓𝐿

Where υc,f,m = Poisson’s ratio of composite, fiber, and matrix, respectively, and
εc,m,fL = longitudinal strains of composite, fiber and matrix, respectively.

−𝑣𝑐 𝜀𝑐𝐿 𝑡𝑐 = −𝑣𝑚 𝜀𝑚

𝐿
𝑡𝑚 − 𝑣𝑓 𝜀𝑓𝐿 𝑡𝑓 … (33)

Isostrain state

𝜀𝑐𝐿 = 𝜀𝑚
𝐿
= 𝜀𝑓𝐿

−𝑣𝑐 𝑡𝑐 = −𝑣𝑚 𝑡𝑚 − 𝑣𝑓 𝑡𝑓 … (34) ÷ 𝑡𝑐

𝑡𝑚 𝑡𝑓
𝑣𝑐 = 𝑣𝑚 + 𝑣𝑓
𝑡𝑐 𝑡𝑐

𝒕𝒎
𝑽𝒎 = … (𝟑𝟓)
𝒕𝒄

and

𝒕𝒇
𝑽𝒇 = … (𝟑𝟔)
𝒕𝒄

𝒗𝑳𝒄 = 𝒗𝑳𝒎 𝑽𝒎 + 𝒗𝑳𝒇 𝑽𝒇 … (𝟑𝟕) Major Poisson’s ratio

29| Lecture 2 Google classroom code: vp66vlw

 Edited by: Assist. Prof. Dr. Ahmed Mudhafar Hashim
Department of Materials Engineering – College of Engineering – University of Al-Qadisiyah

Figure 8. A longitudinal stress applied to a representative volume element to

calculate Poisson’s ratio of unidirectional lamina.

Example 6. Find the major and minor Poisson’s ratio of a glass/epoxy lamina with
a 70% fiber volume fraction. The Poisson’s ratio and elastic modulus of the matrix
is 0.3 and 3.4 GPa, and the Poisson’s ratio and elastic modulus of the fiber is 0.2
and 85 GPa.

Solution:

Name of composite: glass/epoxy composite

Data:

Vf = 70%

Ef = 85 GPa

30| Lecture 2 Google classroom code: vp66vlw

 Edited by: Assist. Prof. Dr. Ahmed Mudhafar Hashim
Department of Materials Engineering – College of Engineering – University of Al-Qadisiyah

vf = 0.2

Vm = 30%

Em = 3.4 GPa

vf = 0.3

𝑣𝑐𝐿 = 𝑣𝑚
𝐿
𝑉𝑚 + 𝑣𝑓𝐿 𝑉𝑓

𝑣𝑐𝐿 = (0.3)(0.3) + (0.2)(0.7)

𝑣𝑐𝐿 = 0.23

Minor Poisson’s Ratio

𝑬𝑻
𝒗𝑻𝒄 = 𝒗𝑳𝒄 [ 𝒄𝑳 ] …(38)
𝑬𝑪

𝐸𝑓 𝐸𝑚
𝐸𝑐𝑇 =
𝐸𝑚 𝑉𝑓 + 𝐸𝑓 𝑉𝑚

(85𝐺𝑃𝑎)(3.4 𝐺𝑃𝑎)
𝐸𝑐𝑇 =
(3.4 𝐺𝑃𝑎)(0.7) + (85 𝐺𝑃𝑎)(0.3)

𝐸𝑐𝑇 = 10.37 𝐺𝑃𝑎

𝐸𝑐𝐿 = 𝐸𝑚 𝑉𝑚 + 𝐸𝑓 𝑉𝑓

𝐸𝑐𝐿 = (3.4 𝐺𝑃𝑎)(0.3) + (85 𝐺𝑃𝑎)(0.7)

𝐸𝑐𝐿 = 60.52 𝐺𝑃𝑎

10.37 𝐺𝑃𝑎
𝑣𝑐𝑇 = (0.23) [ ]
60.52 𝐺𝑃𝑎

𝑣𝑐𝑇 = 0.039 Ans.

31| Lecture 2 Google classroom code: vp66vlw

 Edited by: Assist. Prof. Dr. Ahmed Mudhafar Hashim
Department of Materials Engineering – College of Engineering – University of Al-Qadisiyah

Shear Modulus of continuous fiber composites

Apply a pure shear stress τc to a lamina as shown in Figure 9. The fibers and
matrix are represented by rectangular blocks as shown. The resulting shear
deformations of the composite δc the fiber δf, and the matrix δm are related by:

𝛿𝑐 = 𝛿𝑚 + 𝛿𝑓 … (39)

From the definition of shear strains:

𝛿 = 𝛾𝑡

Sub. in equation (39)

𝛾𝑐 𝑡𝑐 = 𝛾𝑚 𝑡𝑚 + 𝛾𝑓 𝑡𝑓 … (40)

where γc,f,m = shearing strains in the composite, fiber, and matrix, respectively

tc,f,m = thickness of the composite, fiber, and matrix, respectively.

From Hooke’s law for the fiber, the matrix, and the composite:

𝜏𝑐
𝛾𝑐 =
𝐺𝑐
𝜏𝑚
𝛾𝑚 =
𝐺𝑚
𝜏𝑓
𝛾𝑓 =
𝐺𝑓

where Gc,f,m = shear modulus of composite, fiber, and matrix, respectively.

32| Lecture 2 Google classroom code: vp66vlw

 Edited by: Assist. Prof. Dr. Ahmed Mudhafar Hashim
Department of Materials Engineering – College of Engineering – University of Al-Qadisiyah

Figure 9. An in-plane shear stress applied to a representative volume element for

finding in-plane shear modulus of a unidirectional lamina.

From Equation (40):

𝜏𝑐 𝜏𝑚 𝜏𝑓
𝑡𝑐 = 𝑡𝑚 + 𝑡𝑓
𝐺𝑐 𝐺𝑚 𝐺𝑓

The shear stresses in the fiber, matrix, and composite are assumed to be equal
(τc = τf = τm) isoshear state, giving:

𝜏𝑐 = 𝜏𝑚 = 𝜏𝑓

1 1 1
𝑡𝑐 = 𝑡𝑚 + 𝑡𝑓 ÷ 𝑡𝑐
𝐺𝑐 𝐺𝑚 𝐺𝑓

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝑽𝒎 + 𝑽 … (𝟒𝟏)
𝑮𝒄 𝑮𝒎 𝑮𝒇 𝒇

Because the thickness fractions are equal to the volume fractions:

𝟏 𝑽𝒎 𝑽𝒇
= + … (𝟒𝟐)
𝑮𝒄 𝑮𝒎 𝑮𝒇

33| Lecture 2 Google classroom code: vp66vlw

 Edited by: Assist. Prof. Dr. Ahmed Mudhafar Hashim
Department of Materials Engineering – College of Engineering – University of Al-Qadisiyah

Example 7. Find the shear modulus of a glass/epoxy lamina with a 70% fiber
volume fraction. the Poisson’s ratio and tensile modulus of the matrix are 0.3 and
3.4 GPa respectively, and the Poisson’s ratio and tensile modulus of the fiber are
0.2 and 85 GPa respectively.

Solution:

Name of composite: glass/epoxy composite

Data:

Vf = 70%

Ef = 85 GPa

vf = 0.2

Vm = 30%

Em = 3.4 GPa

vf = 0.3

1 1 1
= 𝑉𝑚 + 𝑉𝑓
𝐺𝑐 𝐺𝑚 𝐺𝑓

𝐸
𝐺=
2(1 + 𝑣)

𝐸𝑚
𝐺𝑚 =
2(1 + 𝑣𝑚 )

3.4 𝐺𝑃𝑎
𝐺𝑚 =
2(1 + 0.3)

𝐺𝑚 = 1.308 𝐺𝑃𝑎

34| Lecture 2 Google classroom code: vp66vlw

 Edited by: Assist. Prof. Dr. Ahmed Mudhafar Hashim
Department of Materials Engineering – College of Engineering – University of Al-Qadisiyah

𝐸𝑓
𝐺𝑓 =
2(1 + 𝑣𝑓 )

85 𝐺𝑃𝑎
𝐺𝑓 =
2(1 + 0.2)

𝐺𝑓 = 35.42 𝐺𝑃𝑎

1 1 1
= (0.3) + (0.7)
𝐺𝑐 1.308 𝐺𝑃𝑎 35.42 𝐺𝑃𝑎

𝐺𝑐 = 4.014 𝐺𝑃𝑎 Ans.

Homework of Lecture #2
1. What is the meaning of plane of material symmetry?
2. what is mean principal axes of material symmetry?
3. What is the difference between isotropic orthotropic and anisotropic
materials?
4. Show that equations (21, 25 and 30)
5. Find the fiber volume fraction and density of a composite with 45 weight
percentage of fiber. Assume density of fiber as 2.4 g/cm3 and that of matrix
as 1.1 g/cm3.
6. Calculate the longitudinal modulus and tensile strength of a unidirectional
composite containing 55 percent by volume of sisal fibers in epoxy matrix.
The modulus and strength of fiber is 30 GPa and 600 MPa respectively and
the same for matrix is 3.5 GPa and 100 MPa respectively. Find the fraction
of load taken by fibers in the composite.

35| Lecture 2 Google classroom code: vp66vlw

 Edited by: Assist. Prof. Dr. Ahmed Mudhafar Hashim
Department of Materials Engineering – College of Engineering – University of Al-Qadisiyah

7. For a continuous fiber–reinforced composite, the moduli of elasticity in the

longitudinal and transverse directions are 19.7 GPa and 3.66 GPa
respectively. If the volume fraction of fibers is 0.25, determine the moduli
of elasticity of fiber and matrix phases.
8. A continuous and aligned fiber-reinforced composite is to be produced
consisting of 30 vol% aramid fibers and 70 vol% of a polycarbonate matrix;
and has a cross-sectional area of 320 mm2 and is subjected to a longitudinal
load of 44,500 N. Mechanical characteristics of these two materials are as
follows:

Modulus of elasticity Tensile Strength

Materials ( GPa ) ( MPa )
Aramid fiber 131 3600
Nylon 2.4 65

Also, the stress on the polycarbonate matrix when the aramid fibers fail is 45
MPa.

For this composite, compute

(a) The longitudinal tensile strength.

(b) The longitudinal modulus of elasticity.

(c) The fiber–matrix load ratio.

(d) The actual loads carried by both fiber and matrix phases.

(e) The magnitude of the stress on each of the fiber and matrix phases.

(f) What strain is experienced by the composite?

36| Lecture 2 Google classroom code: vp66vlw