THE NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY Philosophy

Chapter 1
- seeks ulEmate knowledge
Therefore, Philosophy takes full awareness in the
“The brighter you are, the more you have to learn.” findings of science because Science seeks to
-Don Herold determine facts and facts are its end products.

Nominal Definition of Philosophy Value of philosophy

• Philosophy comes from the Greek word • The value of philosophy is in fact to be
philo, meaning friend and Sophia, meaning sought largely in its very uncertainty.
wisdom. It means “the love of wisdom,” or Philosophy is to be studied, but not for the
“a friend of wisdom.” sake of finding definite answers to its
Real Definition quesEons, since no definite answer can, as a
• Philosophy is the science of all that exist in rule, be known to be true. Rather, it is
their ulEmate cause through the aid of the studied for the sake of the quesEon
human intellect alone. themselves, because these quesEons
enlarge our concepEon of what is possible
and thus enrich our intellectual imaginaEon.
Elements in the definition of philosophy
1. IT IS SCIENCE, a systemaEc body of
TYPES OF PHILOSOPHY
knowledge which is not only based on
opinions, hypothesis and theories, but ideal Philosophy
knowledge. - is basically divided into two major types:
2. OF BEINGS, Everything that exists, or may PURE Philosophy and applied Philosophy
exist, of everything knowable. It is the
highest synthesis of all sciences dealing with Pure Philosophy
man, nature and God. It is also considered as 1. Metaphysics
the mother of all sciences because of its § The philosophical study of
very vast scope and subject maOer. essence & existence of
3. IN THEIR ULTIMATE CAUSE, because is asks beings.
and answers not only facts and proximate 2. Cosmology
causes but also the deepest causes of things. § The philosophical study of
4. THROUGH THE AID OF THE HUMAN material world in connecEon
INTELLECT ALONE, because philosophy uses to the order of universe.
natural reason and not Divine RevelaEon of 3. Anthropology
the recourse to the Bible; it is the product of § The philosophical study of
one’s own thinking and not of imaginaEon or man with regard to the union
fantasy. of the body & soul.
4. RaEonal Psychology
The relationship of philosophy to science. § The philosophical study of
immaterial soul as the life
• Philosophy and Science are alike. They are principle of every living
both interested in knowledge. Both of them beings.
are fields on inquiry and invesEgaEon. Both 5. Theodicy
seek to ask quesEons and determine § The philosophical study of
answers to these quesEons. God.
Science
- seeks knowledge of facts.
 6. Epistemology
§ The philosophical study of
human knowledge with
regard to the certainty of
truth.
7. Ethics
§ the philosophical study of
morality.
8. Logic
§ The science and art of correct
thinking.

Applied Philosophy
1. Philosophy of Man
o the inquiry into man as a person
2. Social Philosophy
o the study of the relaEonships
between man and society.
3. Philosophy of Religion
o the study of man’s relaEonship with
God.
4. Axiology
o the study of man’s values.
5. AestheEcs
o the study of beauty and perfecEon.
6. Oriental Philosophy
o the study of oriental ways of life and
mind.
7. Philosophy of EducaEon
o the philosophical approach to
teaching and learning processes.
 The Basic of Logic different things. True Knowledge deals with the
knowledge which conforms to reality
Chapter 2
Examples:
1. All men are mortal
“The problem with humans are they seldom think, Socrates is a man
remember that humas are not only plan thinking but Socrates is mortal
thinking correctly and logically”
(Correct and True)
2. All animals are raAonal
Nominal Definition Dogs are animal
Dogs are raAon
Logic comes from the Greek word logos, which means (Correct and False)
thought, word, speech or science. 3. Girls are kind
Anna Rose is kind
Anna Rose is a girl
Real Definition
(Incorrect and True)
Logic is order and consistency. It is the science of those 4. Girls are sweet
principles, laws and methods which the mind of man Julius is sweet
must follow in its thinking for the secure and Julius is a girl
accurate attainment of truth. (Incorrect and False)
In short, “Logic is the science and art of
correct thinking’ The formal object of logic
- Logic deals with reasoning. The soundness or
Thinking reasoning is the one that is important. The first
Logic deals with the acts of mind – the mental process concern of logic is validity. It leads man in the
search for truth from the known towards the
thinking. Most of the Ame, it is associated with some
unknown and from the easiest towards the most
mental processes like memorizing, recall and the
difficult. An argument is sound when it is
like. Others may say that imagining and daydreaming are
both valid and truth.
thinking, but these are the kind of thinking that we
consider in logic.
Examples:
According to Corazon Cruz (1995), there are two - All plants need water
criteria for a mental process to be considered thinking; All flowers are plants
1. When the objective is truth Therefore, all flowers need water
2. When the truth we have becomes the Consider the argument which follows;
nucleus of further knowledge - All lawyers are honest
Some defenders of our rights are lawyers
Thinking is the process of drawing out conclusions Therefore, some defenders of our rights are
honest.
from previously known data
This inference is not sound but valid
- We call it reasoning and inference

Correct thinking is the process of thinking or Valid Argument

reasoning that follows the right procedure. - It is one whose premises, if they are assumed
However, the reasoning may not always be true. Logic to be true, entail this conclusion. Since not
does not invesAgate the truth as the certainty of the data all lawyers are honest, the proposiAon is not
but rather focuses on the correct operaAon of thinking. true. A proposiAon is true when it describes an
Correct thinking and True knowledge are two actual state of affairs. Therefore, even though
 the inference is valid, it is not sound, because it B. Material Logic – is concerned with the subject
is not both valid and true. mader, content or truth. It looks at whether
there is conformity with reality.
Logic is generally interested only in the Example: Peter is a man
correctness of validity of reasoning. It is not - From this example we can ask: is Peter really a
concerned with the truth or falsity of the premises or the man as he exists in reality? If so, then our
conclusion. Consider the following arguments: statement True
- All men are raAonal being - Reasoning is materially true if there is
Arman is a man conformity with reality; it becomes materially
Therefore, Armand is a raAonal being false when there is no conformity with reality.
- All animals are raAonal
Dogs are raAonal
Therefore, dogs are animals. Based on the process of thinking
A. Deductive Logic is one in which the premises
flow logically into the conclusion. That is
Importance of Logic why it is also called formal deductive logic. It
By: Benito Reyes is from universal to particular.
1. It develops the habit of clear thinking Example: All Filipino are industrious (General)
2. It is guide in the process of drawing conclusion Peter is a Filipino (Particular)
3. It emphasizes the importance of definiAon Therefore, Peter is industrious (Particular)
4. It helps us interpret facts adequately B. Inductive Logic is one in which the argument
5. It culAvates the habit of looking for the
flows from specific to general or
assumpAons presupposed in reasoning
6. It trains us in the technique of determining particular to universal. InducAve reasoning
implicaAons implies a sense of probability. It is closely
7. It helps us detect fallacies, avoid self-decepAons related to the scienAfic method of inquiry which
and combats fallacious argument proves from the particular to the universal.
8. It helps us persuade and convince others Example: Chalk falls, book falls, pen falls &
9. It sAmulates scienAfic thinking and love of truth eraser falls
10. It familiarizes us with terminology and problems Therefore, bodily object falls.
in Philosophy

Acts of the mind: The mental operations

Types of Logic
- Our mind is always acAve. It never rest. We know
1. Based on the form and content that it is one of the most complex realiAes in
2. Based on the process of thinking existence. But to help us understand its nature,
it is beder to deal with it through the three
Based on the form & content essential operations of the intellect: simple
apprehensions, judgment and reasoning.
A. Formal Logic- is concerned with the aspect
of form, it’s structure, correctness,
sequence and the following of the rules. It
Apprehension
looks at whether there is conformity with the - It is the process through which the mind
given standards or with the exisAng rules of grasps the objective reality as it is outside
Logic.
the mind. When something is grasped, an idea
Example: Peter is a student or concept is formed which is then expressed
- From this we can ask: What is the subject? The through the use of terms.
verb? The predicate? Our concern is how it is
Example of terms: Man, Mortal, Peter
structured or built to create a sound reasoning
Judgment Informative Language
- It is the process through which the mind can - This is the most common function of language
assert or deny something. This second wherein we inform about things we know
process can be achieved only ager having ideas and ask about things we do not know yet.
because it is the ideas that are put together in Example:
order to come up with judgment. The
- When a person asks for your name (he
expressions of judgment are called
wants to be informed) and you tell him: “I
propositions.
am Peter”, then what you used is informative
Example of propositions:
discourse.
Every man is mortal.
- When we say: “Balanga is the capital of
Peter is a man.
Pampanga & Mt. Samat is in Baguio”, we are
giving informaAon, but these two pieces of
Reasoning false information.
- It is the process through which the mind
arrives at the conclusion from previously Expressive Language
possessed judgments. It draws out new
- This kind of discourse is best illustrated in
propositions from premises. We all call this
poetry where emotion and attitude are
inference. This is express through syllogism. express beauAfully.
Example of syllogism: Examples:
All men are human - “On, no!”
All human are mortal - “Right”
Therefore, all men are mortal - “Look out”
- “Wow!’
“Music may be the language of soul, but the stuff with - “Amen”
This language does not affirm nor deny. Hence,
which we live out our daily life is words” - Corazon Cruz
we cannot say whether this is true or false.

The basic operation of language According to Copi (1976) “….Expressive discourse is

used to express the speaker’s emotions or evoke
certain feelings on the part of the author, or
What is Language sometimes it may do both”.
- According to Irving Copi (1978) list three
basic function of language. These are Directive Language
informative, expressive and directive which
- This funcAon of language is most easily seen in
based on the three integral part of man:
command or requests. It is the which lets go
head, heart, & hands (guts)
or prevent an action to be done.
1. Head > Cognitive
Examples:
2. Heart > Affective
- Kindly arrange all the requirements before
3. Hands > Active/Actions
leaving.
- Do not mess with me now
= One can say that this is true or false. Weather the
command or request is obeyed or not is irrelevant to its
truth.
= Value, which is nonexistent in the first place
 Multiplicity of the uses of Language
- It is more ogen the case rather than an
excepAon that any ordinary discourse would
contain all three uses of language.
Example:
- Newspaper - may be biased if it is created for
propaganda or protecAon of business interests.
- Noli Me Tangere by Rizal - is and expression
of the grievances of the Filipinos to the Spanish
misrule; nevertheless, it moAvates and instructs
Filipinos to yearn for freedom and
independence.

“Think like a wise man but communicate in the

language of the people,” William Butler Yeats
 CONCEPTS AND TERMS Analysis
Chapter 3 - It is a mental act by which the mind gives
direct aOenEon to the essenEals or the
basic similariEes of an idea.
What is a concept?
- Example: Man is living organism who is
- is a representaEon of an object by the reac>ve and ra>onal.
intellect through which man comprehend a
Syntesis
thing.
• It is a mental image of an object or an idea - It is an act by which the mind puts together
about something (Alviar, 1995). two or more ideas to form a single idea.
- Example: Blue Water
Attention
TYPES OF CONCEPTS
- It is the mental act by which the mind fixes - It is too easy for us to classify the different
its consideraEon upon one parEcular object kinds of concepts if we will carefully note the
ader having sensed it. point of view from each type, such as
- Example: A driver stops his car when he sees intenEon, the subject or form, the
that the red light is on. substance, the accident, and the existence
Abstraction or possession.
1. Based on intenEon
- It is a mental act by which the mind studies
2. Based on subject and form
the physical characterisEcs or the
3. Based on substance and accident
individualizing notes of the parEcular object
4. Based on existence and possession
with regard to its color, size, style, material,
then goes on to think of the purpose of the
object. 1. Based on intention
- Example: When one goes to the mall to buy - An intenEon is an act of the mind as a
a pair of shoes or a dress, the process of representaEve of a thing.
abstrac>on is used. A. First intenEon concept – This is a concept
Reflex mental activity (Reflection) by which we understand what a thing is
according to what it is in reality, regardless
-It is a mental act of becoming aware of
of what we think about it.
itself, of its act or of its state so as to look at
- Example:
these things objecEvely. Likewise, it is a
o Man is a social being
mental act of comparing the likeness and
o Man is a raEonal being
differences between objects belonging to
o Man is an embodied spirit
different essences or classes.
o Man is a biological being
- Example: Leg of a woman and leg of the
B. Second intenEon concept – This is a
table
concept by which we understand not only
Comparison what a thing is in reality but also how it is in
- It is a mental act by which the mind noEces our mind. Ader grasping what a thing is
the likeness and differences in the objects according to its own proper being, we also
having the same essence or belonging to the advert to the special mode of existence that
same class. the thing has as it exists in the mind. Thus,
- Example: Pedro and Puppie we say, “Man exist as a universal concept
only as a result of being thought of. Man is
not a universal concept as he exists in the
real order, but only as he exists in the
mind”.
 - In classifying the subject term as a first or Concrete concept
second intenEon concept, it is best to ask:
“Does the predicate belong to the subject as - It is a concept that expresses a form and a
it exist or can exist in the real order, or only subject.
exist in the mind?” Example:
- body, spirit, woman
- Example: Triangle is a shape. Abstract concept
Ques>on: Does the predicate “shape”
belong to the subject “triangle” as it exist in - It is a concept which expresses form only
the real order or only exists in the mind? Example:
Answer: It does in the real order, therefore, - Kindness, holiness, beauty, simplicity
it is in the first intension.
- In classifying the subject term as a first or 3. Based on substance and accident
second intenEon concept, it is best to ask:
- Substance is that which exist in itself without
“Does the predicate belong to the subject as
requiring another being as a subject of its
it exist or can exist in the real order, or only
inherence.
exist in the mind?”
- Accident is that which cannot exist in itself
Example: Atman is a dog.
but only as a perfecEon or modificaEon of
Ques>on: Does the predicate “dog” belong
the subject.
to the subject “atman” as it exist in the real
order or only exists in the mind?
Answer: It does NOT in the real order for Absolute concept
ATMAN is a SOUL. Therefore, it is in the - It signifies the meaning of a complete
second intension. substance endowed with its independent
reality. An absolute concept is also called an
2. Based on subject and form abstract concept when it signifies
something to the mind which shows the
- Form is that which makes an object exist as
quality of an abstract noun.
it is. It is the perfecEon or the aOribute of
Example:
the subject. It is also called essence. On the
- For independent realiEes, For abstract
other hand, a subject is that which has or
concept
which is looked upon as having a perfecEon
- moon -------------------lukewarm, calmness
or aOribute embodied in itself.
- sun----------------------courage, brave
Example:
- Form - Animality is the perfecEon that
makes an animal a real animal. Connotative concept
- Beauty makes a thing beauEful. - It signifies the object as an accident exisEng
- Length express what it is that makes long in the substance. It represent the form
object long. without the subject.
Examples:
- Form is that which makes an object exist as - All modifiers like the ones below are called
it is. It is the perfecEon or the aOribute of connotaEve concepts:
the subject. It is also called essence. On the - Wise, preOy, young, long, good, and the like.
other hand, a subject is that which has or
which is looked upon as having a perfecEon - Nouns which are considered to be
or aOribute embodied in itself. incomplete substance or accidental
Example: modifica>ons are also classified as
- Subject - Table has quiddity, i.e., table’ness connota>ve concepts.
- White having white’ness Examples:
 - Drivers, teachers, love, carpenter, student, The subject term of the predicate
Peter
term may also be classified as:
i. Simple – when it is only a single word as
4. Based on existence and possesion in the term “Pampanga.”
A. POSITIVE CONCEPT – It is signifies the ii. Complex – when it is group of words
existence or possession of something. standing for one idea as in the term
EXAMPLE: “almost all outstanding employees.”
- Peace, beauEful, happy, love

B. NEGATIVE CONCEPT – It signifies the 3. AS A SIGN OF A CONCEPT

nonexistence or non-possession of
1. Significant Term
something.
Example: o It is a significant term when it
- War, nonbeauEful, unhappy, loveless stands for the essence of something.
In this case, subjects, predicates, and
nouns are all significant terms.
CONCEPTS AND TERMS 2. Nonsignificant Term
Chapter 3 – B o It is nonsignificant term when it
does not stand for the essence of
something. In this case,
What is a term? demonstraEve pronouns, adjecEves,
- A term is an external sign of a concept and and proper nouns are nonsignificant
the ulEmate structural elements of a terms.
proposiEon. It is a convenEonal tool of
expressing an idea. A term is oral if it is 4. AS TO THE RELATION OF TERM WITH
uOered; it is wriOen if it is draded. ANOTHER TERM
A. Compatible terms
TYPES OF TERM
1. ACCORDING TO THE KINDS OF CONCEPTS o these are term that can co-exist or
✔ First IntenEon and Second IntenEon simultaneously exist in a subject.
Terms Examples:
✔ Abstract and Concrete Terms father-son; my mother- my best
✔ Absolute and ConnotaEve Terms friend; farmer-veterinarian
✔ PosiEve and NegaEve Terms B. Incompatibility
2. AS AN ULTIMATE ELEMENT OF A
PROPOSITION - Contradictory Terms
A. SUBJECT – It is that which is being o These terms are those wherein one
spoken in a proposiEon. affirms what the other denies. One
Example: Pampanga is next to Bulacan. denies the connotaEon of the other.
Examples:
B. PREDICATE – It is that which speaks Life – lifeless;
about the subject. thing-nothing
Example: Almost all outstanding employees
are coming from the College of nursing. - Contrary Terms
o These terms are those that represent
the two extremes among objects of a
series belonging to the same class.
 Example: - Analogous terms
hot-cold happy-miserable
black-white (temperature) o These are terms have partly the
(emo>on) (Color) same and partly different meanings
in at least two occurrences.
- Private Terms Examples:
o These terms are those wherein one Peter stands with one foot at the
confirms a perfecEon and other foot of the mountain.
denies a perfecEon in a subject o In this example, the term “foot” in
which naturally ought to possess it. the first and second uses are
Examples: analogous terms because the “foot”
health – weakness of Peter is partly the same with the
wealth – poverty “foot” of the mountain inasmuch as
- Relative Terms they serve as the base on which they
stand. They are also partly different
o These terms are those wherein one in as far as anatomy is concerned.
cannot be understood without the
other. The connotaEon of one
Analogue/Analogates
implies the connotaEon of the other. - It is important to make clear at this point
Examples: that the inferior (the term to which the
mother – child teacher – pupil analogous terms applies) is called analogue
husband – wife or analogate. It is classified into the
following:
5. AS TO DEFINITENESS OF MEANING 1. Primary analogue/ analogates
- Univocal term o If the terms apply to them primarily
o These are terms with different and absolutely, these are knows as
spelling & sound but the same primary analogue/analogates.
meaning or exactly the same Examples:
meaning in at least two occurrences. The bright light has blinded the man.
Examples: o The primary meaning of the word
Every monkey eats bananas. Banana “light” is sEmulus to sight; hence, it
is a tropical fruit. is a primary analogue.
In the two examples, the term It is important to make clear at this point that the
“banana” is used with exactly the inferior (the term to which the analogous terms
same meaning. applies) is called analogue or analogate. It is
classified into the following:
- Equivocal terms
o These are terms that have 2. Secondary analogue/ analogates
completely different meanings in at
least two occurrences or same o If the terms apply to them secondary
spelling & sound but different and relaEvely, these are knows as
meaning. secondary analogue/analogates.
Examples: Examples:
Pen are used for wri>ng. The pigs are You are the light of my heart.
in the pens. Here, “light” means the splendor of
love that makes a person happy.
Intrinsic analogy
- It is also important to disEnguish an intrinsic
analogy from and extrinsic analogy and an
analogy of proporEonality from an analogy
of aOribuEon.
- Analogous term intrinsic if the concepts
they signify is realized in all its analogous.
Example:
An “animal” is an irra>onal, living, material
substance. It is found in all its analogous
such as dogs, cats, horses, and others. We
call such creatures “animals” because they
are animals intrinsically and as they are.
Extrinsic analogy
- It is also important to disEnguish an intrinsic
analogy from and extrinsic analogy and an
analogy of proporEonality from an analogy
of aOribuEon.
- Analogous term extrinsic if the concepts
they signify are realized only in their primary
analogous. The secondary analogues are
related only in some other ways to the
primary ones. Most common instances are
metaphorical expressions.
Example:
We pass “bridal’s veil” along the scenic
Kennon road.
It is not really a bride’s veil, but a waterfall; it
is also called so because somehow its
appearance reminds people of one.
 Concepts and terms extension decreases: and as the
extension increases, the comprehension
Chapter 3 - c decreases.

Logical qualities of ideas To show the truth of the rule a classic illustraEon is
adapted from biOle, (2010)
Ideas possess two important logical qualities: Comprehension (idea)
comprehension & extension. extension (classes)
1. Comprehension 1. Substance
- it is an ideas that involves understanding 2. Material substance
of its meaning, significaEon, and 3. Living material substance
thought-content. It is the sum-total of all 4. SenEent living material substance
the aOributes or thought-elements 5. RaEonal senEent living material substance
which consEtute an idea (biOle, 2010). Extension (classes)
Comprehension is also known as 1. spirit chemical plants brutes men
implicaEon or connotaEon of the idea. It 2. chemical plants brutes men
is manifested by definiEon. 3. plants brutes men
2. Extension 4. brutes men
- the idea that expresses the applicaEon 5. men
of the thought-content to the individuals
or groups in which it is found. It is
Properties of terms
defined as the sum-total of all the
individuals and group to which an idea 1. According to comprehension (exactness of
can be applied. Extension is also know as the meaning of the term to individuals or
applicaEon or denotaEon. It is classes)
manifested by division. 2. According to extension (applicaEon of the
meaning of the term to individuals or
classes)
Connotation
- addiEonal figuraEve meaning. 1. According to comprehension
Example: red rose is a symbol of love & a. Univocal term
desire. - different in spelling & sound but the
Denotation same meaning.
b. Equivocal term
- dicEonary definiEon
- same spelling & sound but different
example: red rose is a red flower bore by
meaning.
a thorny shrub.
c. Analogous term
- partly the same & partly the same in
Relation of comprehension & extension of meaning.

ideas 2. According to extension

- The general truth of the rule: the a. Singular term
comprehension of an idea always - it refers to a single individual, or object
remains the same, while the extension of or group of persons or objects which it
the idea may change conEnually. There is designates definitely. The following
another relaEon between the indicates singularity.
comprehension and extension of an idea o Proper nouns
which contains a general truth : as a. jd carreon, ferdinand marcos
comprehension increases, the jr., tarlac, luzon, philippines,
 pope john paul ii, la saleOe anything, anyone, whatever,
seminary. whichever, whenever,
o SuperlaEves wherever, etc.
a. the best logic teacher, the o Universal negaEve modifiers
brightest cldh ei student, the a. no, none, no one, nothing,
poorest filipino, the most spectacular, nobody, & never.
acEve pbb contestant.
o DemonstraEve pronouns Supposition
a. this, that, these, and those.
o DemonstraEve adjecEves What does supposition mean?
a. this dvd, these radios, that - It is property of a term acquired form its
smartphone, those use in the proposiEon. That is why it is
computers funcEonal (the way it is ,meant in the
o Personal pronouns sentence)
a. i, he, you, she as long as they
definitely stand for one Kinds of supposition
specific person.
o Specific modifiers 1. Formal supposiEon
a. the white mazda car parked 2. Material supposiEon
in front of the cldh ei admin
building Formal supposition
o Number modifiers
a. 18 cases of red wine, 45,000 - This kind of supposiEon uses a word for
boOles of coke. its real meaning.
- Example:
o pandaka pigmea is the smallest
b. ParJcular term
fish
o it refers to and indeterminate
o A triangle has three sides.
number of individuals of a class of
persons or things. Its extension is
restricted to some unspecified Material supposition
individual(s) or object(s). - This kind of supposiEon uses a word for
o Nouns which have indefinite itself alone for its spoken or wriOen sign,
adjecEves as modifiers – some, not for its real meaning.
many, several, few, most, certain. - Example:
o Indefinite arEcles ‘a’ & ‘an’ used in o love has four leOers.
parEcular context are parEcular o Bpsc stands for Bataan
terms. Polytechnic State College.
o Modifier such as majority, almost all,
generally all, nearly all. Kinds of definition

c. Universal term Nominal definition

o stand for each or for all individuals to - (defini>on nominis, meaning a definiEon
which it may be applied. It refers to a of name) merely indicates that a thing is
class not only as a whole but also for signified by a term without declaring the
member of that class. nature of that thing.
o Universal affirmaEve modifiers Kinds of nominal definitions
a. all, each, every, any, a. Etymological definiEon
everything, everyone, b. DefiniEon by descripEon
 c. DefiniEon by synonyms Copi (1975) singles out five types of definiEon.
d. DefiniEon by example These are:

A. Etymological definiEon 1. SEpulaEve

• This kind of definiEon defines a word by a. those given brand new items
giving the meaning of the word or words introduced for the first Eme.
from which it is derived. For example, 2. Lexical
“philosophy” is derived from greek word a. those that try to list
philos and sophia which mean “love” & ambiguity or to increase
“wisdom.” RespecEvely. Consequently, the one’s vocabulary of a term,
etymological definiEon of philosophy is “love which has already been used.
of wisdom.” 3. Precising
B. DefiniEon by descripEon a. those which aOempt to give a
• This kind of definiEon defines a word by clear cut decision on vague
describing the thing signifies by a term, not and ambiguous terms starEng
for the purpose of revealing its nature or from the established usage of
essence, but merely to indicate what a thing the terms.
it is that is being spoken of, “chalk,” for 4. TheoreEcal
instance, can be defined by this sort of a. those that aOempt to state
definiEon as “the material of which is made theoreEcal explanaEons of
the liOle sEck that a teacher uses to write on objects or happenings.
the blackboard.” 5. Persuasive
C. DefiniEon by synonym a. those intended to influence
• This kind of definiEon defines a word by artude.
giving words with similar meanings and are
beOer known the word being defined.

Real definition
- (defini>on rei, “definiEon of a thing”) not
only indicates that a thing is signified by
a term but also declares the nature of
that thing. It manifests the intelligible
structure of the thing explicitly by the
term that is to be idenEfied.
- A real definiEon is always a complex
term, consisEng of at least two parts: the
genus and the specific difference.
• Genus
• the note that the thing has in
common with similar kinds of
things.
• Specific difference
• the note that differenEates the
thing being defined from the others

Types of definition according to Copi

 According to Quantity.
- The quanEty refers to the extension of the
subject term, that is whether the nature or
JUDGMENT & PROPOSITION essence about which the proposiEon says is
Chapter 4 taken in its whole extension or only part of
it. If the subject is parEcular, the proposiEon
is parEcular.
What is Judgment? 1. Universal proposiEon
- is defined as an act of the mind pronouncing o one whose subject is universal and it
the agreement or disagreement of ideas is applied distribuEvely to each and
among themselves (BiOle, 2010). all of the class
- Judgment is verbally expressed through the Examples :
proposiEon. All sins are forgiven.
No one is righteous.
2. ParEcular proposiEon
What is Proposition?
o one whose subject is parEcular and it
- is a declaraEve sentence which expresses a applied to an indefinite number of
relaEon of affirmaEon or denial between individuals.
terms (Baldemeca, et al., 1984). Examples:
Some educaEonal preschool toys are
Divisions of Proposition costly.
There are two basic proposiEon: Several dicEonaries are not
a. Categorical proposiEon complete.
b. HypotheEcal proposiEon Majority of movies in DVD’s are
pirated.
Categorical Proposition Many baOeries are not rechargeable.
- is one which gives a direct asserEon of
agreement or disagreement between the According to Quality
subject term and predicate term (Timbreza,
1999). A proposiEon is categorical when the - The quality of a proposiEon establishes the
predicate term is either affirmed or denied kind of relaEon asserted between the
of the subject term outright, without predicate and the subject of a proposiEon. If
restricEon (Alviar et al., 1995) there is agreement between the subject and
Examples: the predicate a proposiEon is considered
All successful business man are assets of affirmaEve. If there is disagreement
their town. between the subject and the predicate, a
No CLDHEI professors are dolEsh. proposiEon is considered negaEve.
- A categorical proposiEon consists of three 1. AffirmaEve proposiEon
component parts: SUBJECT (S), COPULA (C), o is a proposiEon whose affirmaEve
PREDICATE (P). copula joins the subject with the
predicate.
Example:
KINDS OF CATEGORICAL Every kare-kare is served with
alamang.
PROPOSITION Each iced buko is delicious.
- Categorical proposiEons have the following Sky diving is a perilous sports.
properEes : QUANTITY & QUALITY St. Thomas is an angelic doctor.
2. NegaEve proposiEon
 o is one whose separates the subject antecedent: the 2nd clause is the “then”
with the predicate. clause and is called the consequent (Cruz,
Examples: 1995).
No wet ones hand and facial wipes - LOGICAIN FORM:
are for internal use. if (antecedent). . .
Some guinataan are not cooked with Then (consequent) . . . .
corn. Examples:
Few Tom and Jerry slippers are not If the weather is fine, then we shall go
boxed. shopping at MOA.
Suman sa ibus is not sour. -Since Paul is late, he cannot take
the test.
Basic Standard form of Categorical -Unless a man be born again, he
cannot enter into the kingdom of
proposition God.
- Categorical proposiEons have two
properEes: quality and quanEty. Disjunctive Proposition
Combining the quan>ty and quality, four - Is a hypotheEcal proposiEon which contains
standard forms of categorical proposi>ons an “either-or” statement, indicaEng that the
are produced: implied judgment cannot be true together
A – UNIVERSAL AFFIRMATIVE nor false together, but one must be true and
(All CLDHEI teachers are working.) the other is false (BiOle, 2010). There are
E – UNIVERSAL NEGATIVE two types of disjuncEon proposiEon:
(No CLDHEI teachers are working.) PERFECT & IMPERFECT.
I – PARTICULAR AFFIRMATIVE
(Some CLDHEI teachers are working.)
Disjunction Proposition (perfect)
O – PARTICULAR NEGATIVE Examples:
(Some CLDHEI teachers are not working.) Either a square is a four-sided or it is non-
four sided figure.
Hypothetical proposition My jacket is either new or old.
The puma is either alive or dead
- Is a compound proposiEon which contains a - A disjuncEon is perfect if the statement
proposed or tentaEve explanaEon. A implied can neither be true nor false
hypotheEcal proposiEon expresses a together at the same Eme.
relaEon of dependence, opposiEon or
similarity between two clauses.
Disjunction Proposition (imperfect)
There are 3 kinds of hypothetical Examples:
Jeff is either driving a car or singing a song
propositions: Jonah is either walking a dog or talking to it.
1. CondiEonal proposiEon Rens drinks either milk or soda.
2. DisjuncEon proposiEon - A disjuncEon is imperfect when and where
3. ConjuncEon proposiEon the statements can be true together but
never false together, that is, at least of the
Conditional Proposition disjuncts is true.
- The C.P is a compound proposiEon in which
one clause assert something as true Conjunctive Proposition
provided that the other clause is true. The
1st clause is the “if” clause and is termed the
- Is a hypotheEcal proposiEon which
expresses a judgment that two alternaEve
assumpEons are not or cannot be true
simultaneously (BiOle, 2010).
- LOGICIAN FORM:
. . .cannot be
. . .and
. . .at the same Eme
Example:
Dr. Ellaine cannot be in the hospital and in
the market at the same Eme.
A CLDH EI student cannot be at SAO and at
GE department at the same Eme.
It is obvious that a person cannot be white-
skinned and black at the same Eme.