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Module 3

Signal Generators, Comparators & Converters

SCHMITT TRIGGER

In electronics, a Schmitt trigger is a comparator circuit that incorporates positive

When the input is higher than a certain chosen threshold, the output is high; when the input
is below another (lower) chosen threshold, the output is low; when the input is between the
two, the output retains its value. The trigger is so named because the output retains its value
until the input changes sufficiently to trigger a change. This dual threshold action is called
hysteresis, and implies that the Schmitt trigger has some memory.

The benefit of a Schmitt trigger over a circuit with only a single input threshold is greater
stability (noise immunity). With only one input threshold, a noisy input signal near that
threshold could cause the output to switch rapidly back and forth from noise alone. A
noisy Schmitt Trigger input signal near one threshold can cause only one switch in output
value, after which it would have to move beyond the other threshold in order to cause
another switch.

INVENTION

The Schmitt trigger was invented by US scientist Otto H. Schmitt in 1934 while he was
still a graduate student,[1] later described in his doctoral dissertation (1937) as a
"thermionic trigger".[2] It was a direct result of Schmitt's study of the neural impulse
propagation in squid nerves.

SYMBOL

The symbol for Schmitt triggers in circuit diagrams is a triangle with a hysteresis symbol.
The symbol depicts a typical hysteresis curve.
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Standard Schmitt trigger

COMPARATOR IMPLEMENTATION

Today Schmitt triggers are typically built around comparators, connected to have positive
feedback instead of the usual negative feedback. For this circuit the switching occurs near
ground, with the amount of hysteresis controlled by the resistances of R1 and R2:

The comparator gives out the highest voltage it can, +VS, when the non-inverting (+)
input is at a higher voltage than the inverting (-) input, and then switches to the lowest
output voltage it can, −VS, when the positive input drops below the negative input. For
very negative inputs, the output will be low, and for very positive inputs, the output will
be high, and so this is an implementation of a "non-inverting" Schmitt trigger.

For instance, if the Schmitt trigger is currently in the high state, the output will be at the
positive power supply rail (+VS). V+ is then a voltage divider between Vin and +VS. The
comparator will switch when V+=0 (ground). Current conservation shows that this
requires

and so Vin must drop below to get the output to switch. Once the comparator

output has switched to −VS, the threshold becomes to switch back to high.
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So this circuit creates a switching band centered around zero, with trigger levels
. The input voltage must rise above the top of the band, and then below the bottom of the
band, for the output to switch on and then back off. If R1 is zero or R2 is infinity (i.e., an
open circuit), the band collapses to zero width, and it behaves as a standard comparator.
The output characteristic is shown in the picture on the right. The value of the threshold T

is given by and the maximum value of the output M is the power supply rail.

A possible structure of a more realistic configuration is the following:

The output characteristic has exactly the same shape of the previous basic configuration
and the threshold values are the same as well. On the other hand, in the previous case the
output voltage was depending on the power supply, while now it is defined by the Zener
diodes: this way the output can be modified and it is much more stable. The resistor R3 is
there to limit the current through the diodes, while R4 is there to minimize the input
voltage offset caused by the op-amp's input bias currents (see Limitations of real op-
amps).

The comparator-based implementation of a relaxation oscillator is shown below.

Here, a comparator-based Schmitt trigger is used in its inverting configuration. That is,
the input and ground are swapped from the Schmitt trigger shown above, and so very
negative signals correspond to a positive output and very positive signals correspond to a
negative output. Additionally, slow negative feedback is added with an RC network. The
result, which is shown on the right, is that the output automatically oscillates from VSS to
VDD as the capacitor charges from one Schmitt trigger threshold to the other.
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Op-Amp & LICs 18EE46

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER MULTIVIBRATOR OSCILLATOR CIRCUIT

- circuit and design details for a simple multivibrator oscillator using a single op
amp or oeprational amplifier.

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OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER MULTIVIBRATOR OSCILLATOR CIRCUIT

- circuit and design details for a simple multivibrator oscillator using a single op
amp or oeprational amplifier.

Multivibrator oscillators are used in many circuits and they are simple to construct. It is
possible to construct them using a couple of transistors, but it is also possible to construct
a very simple multivibrator oscillator circuit using an operational amplifier. The circuit
can be used in a variety of applications where a simple square wave oscillator circuit is
required.

The use of an operational amplifier integrated circuit is ideal from many viewpoints.
Although circuits can be made using just two transistors, operational amplifiers are also
very cheap these days, and there is often little to choose in terms of cost.

The operational amplifier multivibrator circuit comprises two sections. The feedback to
the capacitor is provided by the resistor R1, whereas hysterisis is provided by the two
resistors R2 and R3.
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Operational amplifier multivibrator oscillator

The time period for the oscillation is provided by the formula:

T = 2 C R1 loge (1 + 2 R2 / R3)

Although many multivibrator circuits may be provided using simple logic gates, this
circuit has the advantage that it can be used to provide an oscillator that will
generate a much higher output than that which could come from a logic circuit
running from a 5 volt supply. In addition to this the multivibrator oscillator circuit
is very simple, requiring just one operational amplifier ( op amp ), three resistors,
and a single capacitor.

Op-Amp Monostable Multivibrator

Figure 1. Op-Amp Monostable Multivibrator Circuit Diagram

This is a monostable multivibrator circuit that employs a single op amp. The main
component of this circuit is the 741, a general-purpose operational amplifier. A
monostable multivibrator is a timing circuit that changes state once triggered, but
returns to its original state after a certain time delay. It got its name from the fact
that only one of its output states is stable. It is also known as a 'one-shot'.
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A negative trigger pulse at the input forces the output of the op amp to logic 'high'.
This charges up C2 which keeps the non-inverting input of the op amp temporarily
higher than the inverting input, maintaining the output high for a certain period of
time. Eventually C2 discharges to ground and the op amp output swings back to
logic 'low'. The duration of the pulse is defined by R2 and C2. The 'one-shot' has
several applications, which include dividing the frequency of the input signal and
converting an irregular input pulse to a uniform output pulse.