Department of Aeronautical and Aerospace Engineering

GE3752 Total Quality Management

UNIT-III TQM PRINCIPLES

Syllabus for Unit 3: TQM TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES I: - The seven traditional tools of
quality - New management tools - Six sigma: Concepts, Methodology, applications to
manufacturing, service sector including IT - Bench marking - Reason to bench mark, Bench
marking process - FMEA - Stages, Types

CO3 To explain the quality tools & Management tools

CO4 To implement Benchmarking, Six Sigma & Quality Function Deployment

1. SEVEN TOOLS FOR QUALITY

1. Cause-and-effect diagram (also called Ishikawa or fishbone diagrams): Identifies many

possible causes for an effect or problem and sorts ideas into useful categories.

2. Check sheet: A structured, prepared form for collecting and analyzing data; a generic
tool that can be adapted for a wide variety of purposes.

3. Control chart: Graph used to study how a process changes over time. Comparing current
data to historical control limits leads to conclusions about whether the process variation is
consistent (in control) or is unpredictable (out of control, affected by special causes of
variation).

4. Histogram: The most commonly used graph for showing frequency distributions, or how
often each different value in a set of data occurs.

5. Pareto chart: A bar graph that shows which factors are more significant.

6. Scatter diagram: Graphs pairs of numerical data, one variable on each axis, to look for a
relationship.

7. Stratification: A technique that separates data gathered from a variety of sources so that
patterns can be seen (some lists replace stratification with flowchart or run chart).

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 CAUSE AND EFFECT DIAGRAM

STEPS IN CONSTRUCTING A CAUSE & EFFECT DIAGRAM:

a. Define the problem or effect to be analyzed.

b. Form the team to perform the analysis. Often the team will uncover potential
causes through brainstorming.

c. Draw the effect box and the center line.

d. Specify the major potential cause categories and join them as boxes connected to
the center line.
e. Identify the possible causes and classify them into the categories in step d. Create
new categories, if necessary.

f. Rank orders the causes to identify those that seem most likely to impact the problem.
g. Take corrective action

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 CHECK SHEETS

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 2. The New seven tools

 Affinity Diagram [KJ method]

 Interrelationship diagram.
 Tree diagram.
 Prioritization matrix.
 Matrix diagram or quality table.
 Process decision program chart.
 Activity network diagram.
Affinity Diagram [KJ method]
Affinity diagrams are a special kind of brainstorming tool that organize large amount of
disorganized data and information into groupings based on natural relationships.

It was created in the 1960s by the Japanese anthropologist Jiro Kawakita. It is also known as KJ
diagram, after Jiro Kawakita. An affinity diagram is used when:

1. You are confronted with many facts or ideas in apparent chaos.

2. Issues seem too large and complex to grasp.

Interrelationship diagram

Interrelationship diagrams (IDs) displays all the interrelated cause-and-effect relationships and
factors involved in a complex problem and describes desired outcomes. The process of creating

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an interrelationship diagram helps a group analyze the natural links between different aspects of
a complex situation.

Tree diagram

This tool is used to break down broad categories into finer and finer levels of detail. It can map
levels of details of tasks that are required to accomplish a goal or solution or task. Developing
a tree diagram directs concentration from generalities to specifics.

Prioritization matrix

This tool is used to prioritize items and describe them in terms of weighted criteria. It uses a
combination of tree and matrix diagramming techniques to do a pair-wise evaluation of items
and to narrow down options to the most desired or most effective. Popular applications for the
prioritization matrix include return on investment (ROI) or cost–benefit analysis (investment vs.
return), time management matrix (urgency vs. importance), etc.

Matrix diagram or quality table

This tool shows the relationship between two or more sets of elements. At each intersection, a
relationship is either absent or present. It then gives information about the relationship, such as
its strength, the roles played by various individuals or measurements. The matrix diagram
enables you to analyze relatively complex situations by exposing interactions and dependencies
between things. Six differently shaped matrices are possible: L, T, Y, X, C, R and roof-shaped,
depending on how many groups must be compared.

Process decision program chart

A useful way of planning is to break down tasks into a hierarchy, using a tree diagram.
The process decision program chart (PDPC) extends the tree diagram a couple of levels to
identify risks and countermeasures for the bottom level tasks. Different shaped boxes are used to
highlight risks and identify possible countermeasures (often shown as "clouds" to indicate their
uncertain nature). The PDPC is similar to the failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA) in that
both identify risks, consequences of failure, and contingency actions; the FMEA also rates
relative risk levels for each potential failure point.

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Activity network diagram

This tool is used to plan the appropriate sequence or schedule for a set of tasks and related
subtasks. It is used when subtasks must occur in parallel. The diagram helps in determining
the critical path (longest sequence of tasks). The purpose is to help people sequentially define,
organize, and manage a complex set of activities.

3. STATISTICAL FUNDAMENTALS

Statistics is defined as the science that deals with the collection, tabulation,
analysis, interpretation and presentation of quantitative data.

Data collected for quality control purposes are obtained by direct observation and
are classified as

1. Variables (Measurable quality characteristics like length measured in metres)

2. Attributes (Quality characteristic which are classified as either conforming (or)

non- conforming to specifications, such as “go & no-go” gauge.

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY AND DISPERSION

There are two important analytical methods of describing a collection of data as

1. Measures of central tendency.

2. Measures of dispersion.
A measure of central tendency of a distribution is a numerical value that describes
how the data tend to build up in the centre. There are three measures in quality as

1. Average
2. Median
3. Mode

Average is the sum of observations divided by the number of observations.

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 Median is the value which divides a series of ordered observations so that the
number of items above it is equal to the number of items below it.

Mode is the value which occurs with the greatest frequency in a set of numbers.
Mode can again classified as No mode, Uni mode, Bi mode and Multi mode

Measure of dispersion describes how the data are spread out on each side of the
central value.

The two measures of dispersion are

1. Range
2. Standard Deviation

Range is the difference between the largest and smallest values of observations in a
series of numbers.

X h = highest observation in a series X l = lowest observation in a series

Standard Deviation measures the spreading tendency of the data. Larger the
standard deviation, greater the variability of data.

Where S = sample standard deviation X i = observed value

n = number of observations

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 POPULATION AND SAMPLE
In order to construct a frequency distribution of the outer diameter of shafts, a small
portion (or) sample is selected to represent all the shafts. The population is the whole
collection of shafts.

The population may be an hour‟ s production, a week‟ s production, 10000 pieces

and so on.

It is not possible to measure all of the population. Hence, we go for sampling.

Sampling becomes necessary

1. When it is impossible to measure the entire population.

2. When it is more expensive to observe all the data.

3. When the required inspection destroys the product.

4. When a test of the entire population may be too dangerous as in the case of new
medical drug.
X is for sample average
or sample mean. μ is for
population mean.

S is for sample standard deviation.

σ is for population standard deviation
NORMAL CURVE
Normal curve is common type of population. The normal curve is symmetrical, uni modal, bell
– shaped distribution with the mean, median and mode all having the same value.

4. CONTROL CHARTS FOR VARIABLES AND ATTRIBUTES

Variation is a law of nature because no two natural items in any category are the
same. Variations are due to the following reasons.

1. Chance causes or Natural causes.

2. Assignable causes.

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 Chance causes of variation are inevitable. Chance causes affect almost every
production process and are inherent in the process. They are purely random,
unidentifiable sources of variations.

Hence, when only chance causes are present in a process, the process is said to be in
Statistical Control.

Assignable causes result in unnatural variations. the sources of variations may be due to
equipment, materials, environment, operator etc

The Control chart is used to look at variations, seek assignable causes and chance
causes. The control chart is a line chart with control limits.

All control charts have three basic components.

1. A centre line, usually the mathematical average of all the samples plotted.

2. Upper and Lower Control Limits that define the constraints of common cause variations.

3. Performance data plotted over time.

A typical control chart is a graphic display of a quality characteristic that has been
measured or computed from a sample versus sample number or time. If the process
is in control, nearly all of the sample points will fall between Upper Control Limit
(UCL) and Lower Control Limit (LCL).

CONTROL CHART FOR VARIABLES

1. Mean chart – X chart & Range Chart – R Chart

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 CONTROL CHART FOR ATTRIBUTES
1. p chart

2. np chart

3. c chart

4. u chart

Attribute Charts are a set of control charts specifically designed for Attributes data (i.e.
counts data). Attribute charts monitor the process location and variation over time in a single
chart.
The family of Attribute Charts include the:
np-Chart: for monitoring the number of times a condition occurs, relative to a
constant sample size, when each sample can either have this condition, or not have
this condition
p-Chart: for monitoring the percent of samples having the condition, relative to
either a fixed or varying sample size, when each sample can either have this
condition, or not have this condition
c-Chart: for monitoring the number of times a condition occurs, relative to a constant
sample size, when each sample can have more than one instance of the condition.

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 u-Chart: for monitoring the percent of samples having the condition, relative to
either a fixed or varying sample size, when each sample can have more than one
instance of the condition.

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 PROCESS CAPABILITY INDEX (CP, CPK)

These calculators compute the process capability index which shows the process
potential of meeting the specifications. Enter the process parameters and
specifications in one of the following tables, depending on whether you have a
double-sided or single-sided specification

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 5. SIX SIGMA

Six Sigma actually has its roots in a 19th Century mathematical theory, but found
its way into today’s mainstream business world through the efforts of an engineer
at Motorola in the 1980s. Now heralded as one of the foremost methodological
practices for improving customer satisfaction and improving business processes,
Six Sigma has been refined and perfected over the years into what we see today.

Six Sigma ranks among the foremost methodologies for making business
processes more effective and efficient. In addition to establishing a culture
dedicated to continuous process improvement, Six Sigma offers tools and
techniques that reduce variance, eliminate defects and help identify the root
causes of errors, allowing organizations to create better products and services for
consumers.

While most people associate Six Sigma with manufacturing, the methodology is
applicable to every type of process in any industry. In all settings, organizations
use Six Sigma to set up a management system that systematically identifies errors
and provides methods for eliminating them.

People develop expertise in Six Sigma by earning belts at each level of

accomplishment. These include White Belts, Yellow Belts, Green Belts, Black Belts
and Master Black Belts.
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 How Six Sigma Began

In the 19th century, German mathematician and physicist Carl Fredrich Gauss
developed the bell curve. By creating the concept of what a normal distribution
looks like, the bell curve became an early tool for finding errors and defects in a
process.

In the 1920s, American physicist, engineer and statistician Walter Shewhart

expanded on this idea and demonstrated that “sigma imply where a process needs
improvement,” according to “The Complete Business Process Handbook: Body of
Knowledge From Process Modeling to BPM Vol. 1” by Mark von Rosing,
August-Wilhelm Scheer and Henrik von Scheel.

In the 1980s, Motorola brought Six Sigma into the mainstream by using the
methodology to create more consistent quality in the company’s products,
according to “Six Sigma” by Mikel Harry and Richard Schroeder.

Motorola engineer Bill Smith eventually became one of the pioneers of modern Six
Sigma, creating many of the methodologies still associated with Six Sigma in the
late 1980s. The system is influenced by, but different than, other management
improvement strategies of the time, including Total Quality Management and Zero
Defects.

Does it work? Motorola reported in 2006 that the company had saved $17 billion
using Six Sigma.

What Six Sigma Means

Experts credit Shewhart with first developing the idea that any part of process
that deviates three sigma from the mean requires improvement. One sigma is
one standard deviation.

The Six Sigma methodology calls for bringing operations to a “six sigma” level,
which essentially means 3.4 defects for every one million opportunities. The
goal is to use continuous process improvement and refine processes until they
produce stable and predictable results.

Six Sigma is a data-driven methodology that provides tools and techniques to

define and evaluate each step of a process. It provides methods to improve

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 efficiencies in a business structure, improve the quality of the process and
increase the bottom-line profit.

The Importance of People in Six Sigma

A key component of successful Six Sigma implementation is buy-in and support

from executives. The methodology does not work as well when the entire
organization has not bought in.

Another critical factor is the training of personnel at all levels of the organization.
White Belts and Yellow Belts typically receive an introduction to process
improvement theories and Six Sigma terminology. Green Belts typically work
for Black Belts on projects, helping with data collection and analysis. Black Belts
lead projects while Master Black Belts look for ways to apply Six Sigma across an
organization.

Methodologies of Six Sigma

There are two major methodologies used within Six Sigma, both of which are
composed of five sections, according to the 2005 book “JURAN Institute Six
Sigma Breakthrough and Beyond” by Joseph A. De Feo and William Barnard.

DMAIC: The DMAIC method is used primarily for improving existing business
processes. The letters stand for:

Define the problem and the project goals

Measure in detail the various aspects of the current process

Analyze data to, among other things, find the root defects in a process

Improve the process

Control how the process is done in the future

DMADV: The DMADV method is typically used to create new processes and new
products or services. The letters stand for:

Define the project goals

Measure critical components of the process and the product capabilities

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 Analyze the data and develop various designs for the process, eventually picking the
best one

Design and test details of the process

Verify the design by running simulations and a pilot program, and then handing over
the process to the client

UNIT- III (Questions)

Part A

1. Give the objectives of the attribute charts?

2. Give the objectives of the attribute charts?

3. Define Six Sigma Problem Solving Method?
4. What are the new seven management tools?
5. Give the seven tools of quality?
6. Give the usage of C&E diagrams?
7. Define Six Sigma?
8. What are the various histogram shapes?
9. Differentiate Population & Sample?
10. Give the sources of variation?
11. Define Run chart?
12. Define Control chart?
13. What are the various patterns of scatter diagrams?

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