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 W
Raspberry Pi
NE

The Complete Manual

The essential handbook for all Raspberry Pi users

90
pages of
projects
 Welcome to
Raspberry Pi
The Complete Manual
The Raspberry Pi is one of the most exciting things
to happen to computers since Steve Jobs revealed
the iPad. As an educational tool, this credit card-sized
PC has reignited interest in bare-metal computing
in schools. As a platform for open-source software,
it has also inspired millions of people to try Linux
– many for the first time. Most exciting of all is the
potential to incorporate the device into practical
projects, as demonstrated by the tutorials in this
newly revised edition of the Complete Manual to
Raspberry Pi. So get creating!
Raspberry Pi The Complete Manual
Imagine Publishing Ltd
Richmond House
33 Richmond Hill
Bournemouth
Dorset BH2 6EZ
☎ +44 (0) 1202 586200
Website: www.imagine-publishing.co.uk
Twitter: @Books_Imagine
Facebook: www.facebook.com/ImagineBookazines

Publishing Director
Aaron Asadi

Head of Design
Ross Andrews

Production Editor
Fiona Hudson

Senior Art Editor

Greg Whitaker

Designer
Perry Wardell-Wicks

Photographer
James Sheppard

Printed by
William Gibbons, 26 Planetary Road, Willenhall, West Midlands, WV13 3XT

Distributed in the UK, Eire & the Rest of the World by

Marketforce, 5 Churchill Place, Canary Wharf, London, E14 5HU
Tel 0203 787 9060 www.marketforce.co.uk

Distributed in Australia by
Network Services (a division of Bauer Media Group), Level 21 Civic Tower, 66-68 Goulburn Street,
Sydney, New South Wales 2000, Australia, Tel +61 2 8667 5288

Disclaimer
The publisher cannot accept responsibility for any unsolicited material lost or damaged in the
post. All text and layout is the copyright of Imagine Publishing Ltd. Nothing in this bookazine may
be reproduced in whole or part without the written permission of the publisher. All copyrights are
recognised and used specifically for the purpose of criticism and review. Although the bookazine has
endeavoured to ensure all information is correct at time of print, prices and availability may change.
This bookazine is fully independent and not affiliated in any way with the companies mentioned herein.

Raspberry Pi is a trademark of the Raspberry Pi foundation

Raspberry Pi The Complete Manual Fifth Edition © 2015 Imagine Publishing Ltd

ISBN 9781785461651

Part of the

bookazine series
Contents
What you can find inside the bookazine

Getting started The projects

36 Supercharge your Pi
Improve performance

40 Control with gestures

Add touch to any project

44 Back up your Pi
Never lose a file again!

46 Beginner’s guide to nano

Edit text from the CLI

48 Remote desktop access

Use Raspbian anywhere!
8 Raspberry Pi models 26 Get online
Meet models 2, A+ and B+ Access a world of apps 50 Access files with SSH
Get access from home
12 The starter kit 28 Install & use packages
What you need for your Pi How to use apt-get 52 Monitor your network
Analyse your local network
14 Set up your Pi 30 Use graphical
Configure your new PC installations 54 Tether to Android
Install & remove graphically
Access the internet any-
16 Install a distro where using a hotspot
Get your new OS running 32 GPIO explained
Get to grips with GPIO pins
56 Share files with Samba
18 Command line basics Share across your network
Learn essential new skills 34 Top four add-on boards
Four of the best peripherals
58 Turn your Pi into an
22 The Raspbian desktop office suite
Find your way around Master LibreOffice
24 Master the Config tool 60 Program with Scratch
How to tweak your settings Drag and drop coding

Find out how you 64 Create a Snake clone

with Scratch
can make a Raspberry Make your first game
Pi-powered car starting 68 Get interactive
on page 110 with Scratch
Use the GPIO port
6
 Code
& create
with
90 Make music
Code a number one hit!

70 Use the Camera board

Take pictures and video
92 Voice synthesizer
Teach your Pi to talk
your Pi!
72 Control an LED 94 Build your first
Get creative with light web server
Learn new web skills
76 Add a reset switch
Restart your Pi 96 Code a Twitter bot
Teach your Pi to tweet
78 Add Battery Pack
Take your Pi mobile 98 Use an accelerometer
Make your own controller
80 Draw circuits with paint
Assemble circuits using 100 Time-lapse camera 108 Build a security
Bare Conductive paint trigger camera
Make a timelapse video Keep an eye on your Pi
82 Send SMS
Text for free from your Pi 102 Build a portable 110 Build and control a Pi-
Internet radio powered car
84 Make a Ras Pi HTPC Stream music online The ultimate in RC
Use Pi2 for a powerful HTPC
104 Build an always-on 118 Build a Minecraft console
86 Print wirelessly torrent box Make a fully-functional
Keep those wires hidden Download apps easily Pi-powered console

88 Make your own retro 106 Wi-Fi signal repeater 126 Build a power
games console Find your own way to move glove
Play games on your Pi boost your Wi-Fi signal d Create wearable tech
7
 Getting started Raspberry Pi 2

Raspberry Pi 2
A super-charged Raspberry Pi that finally does everything you’d want it to, for
the exact same price as the original
While the Raspberry Pi has enjoyed years of core, 900 MHz beast that helps to make the Pi 2
success, there’s always been a couple of things a much more functional board. Whereas before
a lot of users wanted. A slightly more powerful you’d have had problems surfing the internet
CPU that could handle day-to-day computing, or writing a document, now the Pi 2 breezes
more USB ports and maybe wireless to make through these tasks with ease and plenty of
connecting to the network easier. processor power to spare.
The Raspberry Pi 2 solves most of these Otherwise it’s still the same board as the
problems. As it uses the same board design as the Raspberry Pi B+. As well as the aforementioned
Model B+, it has four USB ports, up from the two four USB 2.0 ports, there’s the Ethernet port for
that were on the original Raspberry Pi Model B. wired internet, a good-quality 3.5mm headphone
More importantly, it has a much more powerful jack for sound, a HDMI port for digital video and
processor and more RAM, making it six times audio and a 40-pin GPIO port. This expanded
faster than the original Pi. Unfortunately, there GPIO port is fantastic for making your physical
is no Wi-Fi, but with the option to get a cheap projects even more involved and complicated to
dongle for the Pi 2 this is much less of a problem. do far cooler things.
The new BCM2936 chip is the heart of the For those worried about compatibility, all your
Raspberry Pi 2, a modified version of the BCM2835 old files and projects and such work just fine
chip from the old Raspberry Pi. Instead of having on the Raspberry Pi 2, and all you need to do is
a single core, 700 MHz processor it’s now a quad- transfer them over like any normal files.
8
 Raspberry Pi 2 Getting started

HDMI port GPIO port USB ports

The Raspberry Pi’s special ability The 40 pins in the GPIO port give The four USB ports give you much
is to decode 1080p video on the you a range of power and function more flexibility with the Raspberry
fly with very little problem, and slots to control a project or read Pi 2, allowing you to easily add a
the same tech still exists in the more data from your surroundings. keyboard, mouse, wireless dongle
Pi 2. The HDMI port is basically This makes the Raspberry Pi 2 and external storage without
the same, allowing for high the perfect core for an Internet of needing to constantly switch out
definition video and audio Things or Maker project or get a powered-hub

MicroSD
Underneath the board is where the Ethernet port
boot medium lives – the microSD Headphone jack The Pi 2 retains the wired
card. Much smaller than the SD Need to listen to your Raspberry network and internet connection
card of the original, it still holds the Pi privately? Connect it to a pair of that was on the Model B of the
full operating system and allows portable speakers? The 3.5mm jack is original Raspberry Pi. It still tops
the Pi 2 to be much smaller still on the Pi 2, and is one of the higher- out at 100 MB, but that’s plenty
quality ones that was added to the B+ fast enough for the Raspberry Pi

“The Raspberry Pi 2 still won’t be able to

power a USB hub, so if you need to
expand the compliment you’ll need to get
a powered-hub”
9
 Getting started Raspberry Pi (Model A+)

Raspberry Pi Model A+
Good things come in small packages: find out why the Raspberry Pi A+ is ideal
for mobile projects.

While the Raspberry Pi Model B+ is a step up from is a clue as to how it can be used. The lack of
the Model B with its four USB ports, the Model an Ethernet port meanwhile, isn’t a weakness,
A+ is smaller than its predecessor, weighing just rather an illustration of the fact that this Raspberry
23g (down from 45g) and wielding one USB port. Pi is designed not for media centres and print
It’s also limited to just 256MB of RAM on the SoC, servers, but for projects where weight is a factor.
compared to the 512MB enjoyed on the B+. Perhaps you’ll mount it on an Arduino-powered
But don’t think that all of this means that the robot, where its lower power requirement can be
A+ is inferior. Its 65mm length and lower weight satisfied with a battery.

MicroSD Storage Connectable 256 MB RAM

No more worries about the SD and flexible Squeezed on board!
card being snapped off or lost. The Both new Raspberry Pi models have It seems amazing, but on top
Raspberry Pi A+ features a push- had the GPIO header increased of all of this, there is a System-
push slot for a microSD card from 26 pins to 40, increasing the on-Chip 700 Mhz processor
device’s flexibility with 256 MB of RAM mounted
in the centre of this versatile
little computer

It’s smaller! It’s lighter too!

The original Raspberry Pi Model Repositioned power socket Unbelievably, the Raspberry
A was a credit card sized 86mm With the micro USB power socket now Pi Model A+ is just 23 g (0.81
in length. The A+ measures in at beside the HDMI socket, it’s easier to oz), a reduction in weight of
just 65mm long! arrange and manage cables almost 50 per cent!

10
 Raspberry Pi (Model B) Getting started

Raspberry Pi Model B+
The latest version of the original Raspberry Pi has some essential updates while
still remaining largely the same. Is it worth the upgrade?
With the Model B+, an enhanced version of the of the board. The extra pins are merely added on
Model B revision two, some of the hardware has to the end of the original layout, meaning your
been relocated into a more logical and tidier old projects will still work just fine. You can now
layout. The new layout lends itself to a much do a lot more with them, though.
tidier work station or project innards. Everything The core of the B+ is fundamentally the same
is much more flush to the board without the USB as the revision two of the Model B – it still has the
ports or video connector sticking way out, and same Broadcom ARM v6 system-on-a-chip along
with all the ports along two sides rather than with the 512MB of RAM found in the revision two.
all four, the cabling can be a lot more tidy and On the one hand, this is excellent. People
the placement can be more flexible, and less getting into Raspberry Pi don’t need to learn the
awkward for specific setups. hard way that all the online tutorials have stopped
The inclusion of two more USB ports is a being relevant. Those who decide to upgrade
godsend to a lot of Raspberry Pi users who want don’t need to learn anything specifically new and
to use a mouse, a keyboard, a Wi-Fi dongle and they can create a copy of their SD card that will
perhaps some external storage at the same time work straight away in the B+.
without needing a powered USB hub. Either way, the Model B+ is replacing the Model
As well as two more USB ports there are 14 B as the flagship Raspberry Pi. For those still
more pins added to the GPIO port, which still hanging onto the revision one Raspberry Pi, it’s a
remains in roughly the same position on the side great time to upgrade and get ahead of the curve.
11
 Getting started The starter kit

The starter kit

There’s more to your Pi than first meets the eye.
Here are some vital peripherals to get you started
In order to get the very best experience from your Raspberry Pi,
you’re going to have to get hold of a few extras on top of the
actual Raspberry Pi board itself. For example, you’re going to need a
keyboard and mouse with which to enter commands and navigate.
While it’s possible to do projects without a keyboard and mouse
attached, you’ll need them for the initial setup. An SD card is also an
important purchase – it’s where the operating system lives.
Perhaps you’ll need a Wi-Fi adapter, or maybe just a length
of network cable. Then there’s the basic electronics side of the
Raspberry Pi, what would you need to start some of the beginner
electronics and control experiments? Clearly, there’s more to the
Raspberry Pi than some might think.
By ‘peripherals’, we mean other hardware that can be attached
and utilised by the Raspberry Pi. They could be something as simple
Did you know… as a decent HDMI or they could be the latest, greatest bespoke
Most online retailers sell
gadgets that enhance your project capabilities.
packages complete with all the There is an entire world of possibilities available for the Raspberry
accessories you might need –
even pre-installed SD cards.
Pi; from robot arms to remote-controlled helicopters… The only
limits are the hardware available and your imagination!

Keyboard and mouse SD card

Let’s start with the most basic of components, the keyboard Early Raspberry Pi computers required an SD card, whereas
and mouse. Generally speaking, virtually any USB keyboard later models such as the Raspberry Pi 2 use microSD cards for
and three-button scroll mouse will work with the Raspberry storage. This is where your chosen operating system (such
Pi, and although for some projects you won’t even need a as Raspbian) is installed, and these can be bought in various
keyboard and mouse, you’ll need them for initial setup. sizes, pre-installed with the OS, or blank.

12
 The starter kit Getting started

Power cable Case

The Raspberry Pi uses a standard micro USB connector for Securing your Raspberry Pi in a case will protect it and
its power input, running at 5V. In most cases a micro USB prevent the delicate GPIO pins from accidental damage. A
to USB cable will suffice, of which one end can be plugged case can also make your Raspberry Pi a more attractive or
into your desktop computer’s USB port. An Android phone striking unit, perhaps as a media centre. Ensure you choose
charger should also work perfectly (5.25V 1500mA). the right case for your Raspberry Pi model.

Video output Powered USB hub

There are two video output ports, a HDMI port and an RCA This is a custom designed add-on board that attaches to one
Socket. HDMI is the primary video-output connector for of the Raspberry Pi’s on-board sockets via a flexible cable. It’s
most users, but the RCA video-out port can also be used to extremely small, but remarkably powerful, having a native
connect TVs, monitors or to a SCART cable. Remote access resolution of five megapixels and supporting 1080p video.
to your Raspberry Pi is also possible via SSH or VNC. It’s essentially a smartphone camera for the Pi!

Raspberry Pi camera board USB Wi-Fi adaptor

This is a custom designed add-on board that attaches to Using a USB Wi-Fi adaptor will bring flexibility to where you
one of the Raspberry Pi’s on-board sockets via a flexible position your Raspberry Pi. Without a restrictive Ethernet
cable. It’s extremely small, but remarkably powerful, having cable, it could be used for more advanced projects where
a native resolution of five megapixels and supporting 1080p running a wired internet connection isn’t a valid option. Just
video. It’s essentially a smartphone camera for the Pi! make sure you buy a Raspberry Pi-friendly Wi-Fi adaptor.

13
 Getting started Set up your Raspberry Pi

Set up your
Raspberry Pi
Learn what goes where in your brand new
Raspberry Pi with our easy-to-follow guide
While it looks daunting, setting up the Raspberry Pi
for day-to-day use is actually very simple. Like a TV
or a normal computer, only certain cables will fit into
the specific slots, and the main job really is making
sure you’ve got plugged in what you need at any one
time. The Raspberry Pi itself doesn’t label much of the
board. However, most good cases will do that for you
anyway – if you decide to invest in one.

Power adapter Monitor

The Raspberry Pi is capable of
The Raspberry Pi is powered using displaying a 1920 x 1080 output –
a microUSB cable, much like a otherwise known as 1080p. Some
lot of modern Android phones. modern monitors allow you to
It can be powered off a laptop or plug HDMI straight into them,
computer. But to make the most just like TVs do. However you may
out of it, a proper mains adapter – need an adapter in some cases
like this one – is ideal

USB hub
There are only a limited number
of USB ports on a Raspberry Pi
(just one, if you have Model A). Case and accessories
To get around this you will need A case is not necessary to use the
a USB hub. It’s important to get Pi correctly, but a decent one can
a powered one, as the Pi cannot keep it well protected from dust,
supply enough juice on its own and make it easier to move while in
operation. You will need an SD card,
however, of at least 4GB

Keyboard and mouse

Like any computer, you’ll need a keyboard and
mouse for any standard PC-style operations you
do with the Raspberry Pi. The more basic the
keyboard, the better; same with the mouse, as
some special ones need additional software

14
 Set up your Raspberry Pi Getting started

USB
All the peripherals you want to connect
via USB – USB hubs, keyboard, mouse,
Analogue output USB storage etc – is plugged in here.
For setups that don’t use HDMI,
Ensure you have external power to the
the yellow video out port
USB Hub if you have to use one though
is available. To use this with
sound, you’ll need to use the
small black port next to it, with
headphones, or an auxiliary
cable to pipe out the audio

SD card
The SD card goes in underneath the
Raspberry Pi board. This will hold your
operating system that runs the Raspberry Pi.
The Pi OS needs to be set up from another
computer before using it though

Digital output
The HDMI port is the main video (and
audio) output of the Raspberry Pi,
allowing you to display videos on the
desktop at a resolution of up to 1080p.
TVs that support it will also pick up the
audio automatically through it

Networking
The Raspberry Pi does not come with
wireless internet, and while you can add a
USB adapter, it’s usually easier to plug in an
Ethernet cable. This will plug into the back
of your router on the other end and give you
internet and access to your home network

Cabling
Make sure you have the right selection
of cables, such as an Ethernet cable for
networking and internet, and an HDMI or
Video cable for video out. The HDMI can
handle audio, but the video out will require
an additional auxiliary cable

15
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
admission would be given till the procession had passed, i. e. the
pope and cardinals had entered the chapel. After a little time, the
doors were thrown open and we entered the hall, but a circuit of
soldiers placed about the door prohibited our immediate entrance
into the Sistine Chapel. One by one we slipt through, the intention
apparently not being to prevent us entirely from entering, but
merely, by retarding our motions, to avoid bustle and confusion. It
was however some time before I could work myself up into a good
position, and that moment the pope, and all the cardinals were
seated. The latter held in their hands the palm branches, and at the
feet of each an attendant was seated who held an olive branch. A
priest at the altar was saying mass, but the pope seemed quite the
object of attention, and almost of adoration. We might almost at
times fancy the music repeating, “We worship thee O Lord, the
Pope,” so well did the action correspond with such an expression.
The ceremonies were not much varied; they consisted principally in
alternately getting up and sitting down, while at each change of
position the attendants arranged the robes of their superiors. Two of
these waited on the pope, and disposed the folds of his garments
very carefully every time he moved. Sometimes the cardinals
advanced from their seats, and passing through the row of
attendants, knelt down to the pope and the altar, laying their palm
branches on the ground. During part of the service, the pope wore a
mitre, which was put on, and taken off, with great ceremony. On one
occasion he rose from his seat, and walked to a cushion placed in
front of the high altar, upon a sort of stool. On this he knelt down,
and his attendants took off the mitre. The music suddenly ceased,
and there was a dead silence, all the cardinals and attendants being
at the same time on their knees. The effect of this silent prayer is
very impressive. It was a pity the spectators could not kneel too, but
it was impossible for want of room. The two attendants of his
holiness meanwhile spread his robes carefully over the elbows of the
cushion, and disposed his train symmetrically, turning out on each
side a quantity of the white satin lining; a sort of parade very
injurious to the solemnity of the scene, as it drew down the
attention from every sublime sentiment, to a trifling, and even
contemptible object. The service in general did not appear very
impressive, and there was hardly any music except a monotonous
recitative.
On Monday and Tuesday nothing was done. On Wednesday
afternoon there was again service in the Sistine chapel. It began
about five o’clock, by candle light, for even at noon day candles are
used; amongst these was a row of fifteen lights, intended to
represent the twelve apostles, and the three Mary’s, and these were
extinguished or expired at irregular intervals, to show that they did
not all abandon our Saviour at once. After fourteen of these were
out, the remaining one, which we were told was to represent the
Virgin Mary, was taken down, and all the other lights in the room
extinguished, leaving only the faint remains of day (it was then near
seven o’clock) and in this state we heard a fine piece of music, the
effect of which was perhaps enhanced by the gloom.
On Thursday morning I was at the Vatican about nine o’clock, but
was refused admittance because I wore trowsers; I therefore
returned to change my dress, among a great number of my
countrymen, who were in the same predicament; but I returned
before mass had begun in the Sistine chapel. I did not however
attempt to enter, as it would only have been a repetition of what I
had seen before. The Paoline chapel was very splendidly illuminated,
and after a short time the consecrated wafer was carried in
procession, and laid in what is called a sepulchre in that chapel,
where a painted body is exposed, intended to represent that of
Christ.
As this room is much smaller than the Sistine chapel, I thought I
should have no chance of obtaining admittance, and repaired to the
hall where the feet of the thirteen pilgrims were to be washed by the
pope. It is a large room, and on the left hand side of it, was a seat a
little elevated, on which these men were seated, each dressed in a
cloak of white cloth, lined with silk of the same colour, and trowsers
also of white cloth. On the right were three or four ranges of seats
for the ladies; in the middle stood the gentlemen, of whom a large
number were already collected. A part at the upper end, was railed
off for his holiness and the cardinals, with a station for foreign
ambassadors; and there were four boxes, into the first of which the
old king of Spain shortly entered. The queen of Etruria took
possession of another, accompanied by her son, who has the
reputation of being a very amiable and accomplished gentleman; the
third received the duke del Genovese, and the duchess of Chablais;
in the fourth was the prince of Prussia. All these people had been at
the Sistine chapel in boxes prepared for them in like manner, but I
forgot to mention the circumstance. After the entrance of the pope a
short service was chanted. Two cardinals then replaced the mitre on
the pope’s head, and took off his robes; two attendants held up his
petticoats in front, that he might be able to walk down from his
throne, and two cardinals held up his train behind. The upper
garments which he had just laid aside were crimson, embroidered
with gold, the under ones, which he still wore, were white. Thus
accompanied, he descended to the place where the pilgrims were
sitting, each of whom bared his right foot, on which in succession,
the pope poured a little water, and taking the foot in his hand wiped
it with a napkin. What would you think in London, if the Prince
regent and lord Castlereagh were to get up a political comedy, and
act themselves the principal characters, and each sing his song?
Here religion forms the politics of the place, and the subject is quite
a religious comedy, or as Hannah More might call it, a sacred drama.
But custom sanctions these usages, and that is now venerable,
which if it were to originate in the present day, would be merely
ridiculous. I was here one of a party of four Englishmen, all about as
tall as myself, but we were overtopped by the whole head by
another of our countrymen in the room. I missed the supper, which
perhaps you will think no loss; and after passing some time in St.
Peter’s, and the galleries of the Vatican, places which never lose
their interest, I retreated to my usual trattoria, but returned in the
evening to hear the Misereri, at St. Peter’s. It was sung beautifully,
but the voices seemed hardly strong enough to fill even the side
chapel where it is performed. It may help to give you some idea of
the size of St. Peter’s, to tell you that several services are sometimes
performed at the same time without in the least interfering with
each other, and that on entering, and even walking along the nave,
you hear nothing of the music of the side chapel, though probably in
some parts there are twenty voices at their utmost stretch. I did not
mention, that at the conclusion of the music in the Sistine chapel, a
great noise and tumult was heard; the same took place on the
present occasion, and was intended, as I was told, to represent the
confusion that followed the condemnation of our Saviour. This
evening the church was lighted by a single large illuminated cross.
The cross itself, though about twenty-six feet high, and covered with
three hundred and fourteen lamps, looked rather smaller than I
expected, but the unity of light was admirable, and produces an
effect truly sublime. Various processions took place round the tomb
of St. Peter, and many relics were shown, at which most of the
people knelt, but by no means all. On Friday there is no exhibition.
Every well-dressed person is in black: the soldiers walk about with
their arms reversed: the bells are all silent, they are not even
permitted to strike the hour: every body, and every thing is
supposed to be in mourning. On Saturday there were ceremonies at
St. John Lateran. The holy water and oil were just consecrated when
I arrived, and after staying a little while in the church, and finding
that nothing very interesting was in hand, I repaired to the
baptistery of Constantine. Here two Jews were to be baptized; there
are always some converts reserved to make a show on this occasion,
and the people of Rome tell you that they change back again on
Monday, but I will not vouch for the truth of this piece of scandal. I
was close against the balustrade which enclosed the ancient vessel,
or rather bath, but the present vase, and the Jews themselves, and
all the attendants, stand within this. The bishop soon arrived, and
chanted a service, to consecrate the water, and to do him justice, he
has a good voice, and sings very well. In one part of the ceremony
he had to dip his hand in the water, and previously to this, another
clergyman took off his ring, and kissed it, and when the bishop had
finished, and the hand was wiped, the same clergyman replaced the
ring, kissing the hand at the same time. Two vessels of oil were then
brought in; some of that, I believe, which had just been prepared in
the church. They were poured out on the water, and the bishop put
in his hand, and passed it backwards and forwards, to mix, as I was
told, the oil and water together. Do you think the consecration could
have rendered this possible? On this occasion the ring was again
taken off, and kissed as before, and some beautiful cakes of
coloured soap were brought in to take the oil from the bishop’s
hand. Meanwhile, the first poor Jew was brought forward to be
exhibited and baptized; and the bishop chanting the service, took up
the water in a silver ladle, and poured it upon his head, patting the
head at the same time with the ladle, to enable the water to
penetrate the thick coat of hair by which it was defended. Two
attendants immediately wiped it with a napkin, and a dish was
brought which contained a very small vessel of oil, and some wool.
The bishop dipped his thumb in the oil, and made with it, the sign of
the cross on the forehead of the new convert, which the attendants
wiped with the wool. A lighted taper was then given him to hold,
and he returned to his post, while a similar operation was performed
on the other Jew. During these ceremonies an enormous wax candle
was employed, about eight feet high, and six inches thick, beautifully
painted, and five rings of metal attached to it by means of as many
little points which project from the circumference; they are disposed

in this manner: the central one being gilt, the others silvered.
They are said to represent the five wounds of our Saviour, the upper
one being the effect of the crown of thorns; but surely, in that case,
we ought to reckon six wounds. The bishop was dressed in white
satin shoes and trowsers; above these was a black petticoat,
reaching to the ankles; over these shorter petticoats of white lace,
and sometimes a purple robe; sometimes one of silver tissue,
embroidered with gold, and occasionally two or three other articles
of dress, which were worn but a short time. He had two mitres, one
of gold tissue, and the other of silver tissue embroidered with gold.
The converts were dressed in robes of flowered white satin, and
each, after the baptism, had a white ribbon bound round his head.
On returning to the church, a large number of the attendants threw
themselves on their faces on the marble pavement. After this, the
bells were suddenly heard; the soldiers replaced their musquets, and
the mourning was over. It appears then, that according to the
church of Rome, our Saviour was crucified and laid in the sepulchre
on Thursday, and rose again about noon on Saturday. Does this
seem to you to agree with the account given by the evangelists? I
afterwards witnessed the form of giving holy orders to various
degrees of the priesthood; but I did not find them at all interesting,
and shall therefore pass them over.
The last day of these ceremonies is the Easter Sunday. I set off a
little after nine, and when I arrived at St. Peter’s found a great
multitude already assembled. The large central folding doors were
thrown open, and the middle part of the nave was protected by two
files of soldiers to keep the space clear for the procession. These
spread wider apart, and made a large circuit round the high altar.
They admitted us to pass without much difficulty, to a space which
was railed off round the choir, where the pope was to perform. The
canopy soon appeared at the doors of the church, preceded by a
long procession of servants of the church, and by the cardinals clad
in scarlet and furs. After a little while the pope himself came within
view, sitting under the canopy in a raised chair, borne on the
shoulders of his attendants, with a white mitre upon his head, and
accompanied on each side by a large fan of the feathers of the white
peacock. He was slowly carried up the nave, and the chair was set
down in the middle of the space behind the high altar. Here the pope
got out, and advanced to a cushion near the altar, and prayed in
silence, while the attendants, as in the Sistine chapel, spread out his
robes. He then retreated to a throne placed on one side of the choir,
and after some ceremonies, and singing and chanting, the cardinals
about him changed his dress, and attended him to perform mass at
the high altar: he afterwards retreated to another throne, placed
directly in front of the altar, or to those who entered the church, it
would seem rather behind it; but the front of the altar is really
towards the extremity of the building, and not towards the principal
door, as it would be in our churches, and the pope pays his
devotions with his face towards the entrance of the church. Catholic
altars, at least at Rome, face all ways, and the notion that a church
must have its front towards the west, and its altar towards the east,
is a northern, or perhaps a Protestant superstition. He sat there for
some time while the service was going on, and then again went up
to the altar, and knelt down. Every body knelt, and there was a dead
silence. These solemn pauses produce the finest effect of any one
circumstance in the Roman Catholic service, but the whole is very
magnificent, and the majesty of the building, the splendour of the
processions, the richness of the dresses, and the great display of
gold and pomp, produced as strong an impression as can probably
be produced by any thing of the sort. Nevertheless, without all the
previous pomp, and grandeur, and bustle, the solemnity which I
admire in these pauses would not be so striking. The pope retired
again to his upper throne, but I went out and mixed with the crowd
in front to see the benediction; not to hear it, for that is hardly
possible. His holiness is elevated on his chair, in a balcony in front of
the church, but he hardly comes forward enough to be well seen,
and in fact, the great object is the people. The immense place in
front of the cathedral is entirely filled by the crowd, except a square
space, preserved by the soldiers, which serves rather to show off
both them, and the multitude about them, than to occasion any
appearance of a deficiency of number. All attention was directed to
one point, a great number were upon their knees, and all in the
attitude of devotion, or deep interest and expectation. Two pieces of
paper were thrown down, (I am sorry I must admit any thing so
ridiculous into my picture) containing, as I was told, indulgences
signed by the Holy Father himself, for those who could catch them:
after this he repeated the blessing and disappeared. Other services
succeeded in the church, but I did not stay long to witness them.
Perhaps you may incline to make it a question, whether the
account of these ceremonies, or my long architectural details, be the
most tiresome: you may, however, find some relief in the change of
subject, and in that hope I shall give you a little sketch of the
immense palace of the Vatican, or at least of the Cortile of San
Damaso, and of the part containing the museum. The Cortile is
surrounded only on three sides by the buildings of the palace. The
fourth is inclosed by a plain wall. The lower story is in great measure
solid. Then there are two ranges of open arches, and over these one
of columns, which are very wide apart. This upper story is not, I
apprehend, part of the original design, and it would be better away;
and part of the upper range of arches is filled up in order to protect
the frescos of Raphael. This is injurious to the architecture, yet still
we must allow considerable merit to the general composition and
proportions. On one side of this court are the Sala regia, and the
two chapels, and from this side you also enter the Sala Borgia,
which, with a series of adjoining rooms, contains the paintings
returned from Paris.[49] From the angle we enter the first long gallery
of the museum. The two other sides of the court contain the
apartments of his holiness.
After this general view of the disposition of the different parts, we
will return to the foot of the grand staircase. An awkward and
irregular interval, wider at the beginning than at the further end,
existed between the palace and the church. Bernini conceived the
idea of erecting here a magnificent staircase, adorned with columns,
where the diminution at the further end, by increasing the apparent
length, rather enhances the magnificence. It was a noble thought,
but while I admire, I should hardly venture to imitate the
arrangement. After this we pass into the Sala regia, which gives
access to the two chapels, the Sistina and the Paolina.
The architecture of the Sistine Chapel pleased me better on
repeated visits than the first time I saw it: it is a lofty oblong hall,
with windows only in the upper part, and a fine coved ceiling.
The general line of springing of this cove is cut by the windows,
but this is not a defect, as the arches of the windows spring in the
same line. The architect was Sangallo. The Paolina is said to be the
production of the same artist, but it is trumpery. Both these halls are
so much more celebrated for the paintings they contain, than for
their architecture, that I cannot refrain from mentioning them. I do
not doubt the wonderful talents of Michael Angelo, or the sincerity of
the praises which have been heaped upon him, but I confess I have
not learned to like him in any of his three attributes. He seems to
me always to have sacrificed taste to knowledge. I can admire his
works, but I cannot be pleased with them. In the celebrated Last
Judgment there is not a beautiful figure, a graceful attitude, or a
pleasing expression. Strong expression there is; great knowledge of
anatomy I am willing to believe, though it seems a defect in
judgment to mark every thing too strongly; and it is a remarkable
circumstance that this should be the characteristic of the ancient
Etruscan artists as well as of the modern school of Tuscany; great
variety both of attitude and feature. His greatest admirers do not
claim for him any great excellence in colouring; and in the present
instance, the smoke of lamps and candles has probably made it
more dingy than it otherwise would have been. This painting
occupies the end of the room. The ceiling is in several parts also by
Michael Angelo Buonarroti. The Almighty is here introduced, as he so
frequently is in Italy; but instead of giving us the highest possible
idea of power and energy, the object seems to have been to
represent a dignified, but feeble old man, whose limbs and garments
are supported by his servants. This idea of majesty is that of
savages, and half-civilized people, who find it in having nothing to
do, carried to such an excess as to render its object unable to do
anything. Michael Angelo endeavoured to gain support from the
notions of the vulgar, in a case where his genius, and that of every
mortal, must necessarily fail. Some of these smaller paintings, I can
more readily admire; and I acknowledge, that several of the figures,
seated on the pedestals which divide the paintings, are very
beautiful, but they have nothing to do with the stories of the Old
Testament represented in the panels, and it is considerable labour to
look at either the one or the other. What is it that is so much
admired in this artist? This is a point on which connoisseurs are by
no means agreed. One values him for his anatomical knowledge, and
his power in giving character and expression. Another lays the chief
stress on a sort of recondite meaning, to be found in his
productions, which seems to be viewing them as ingenious riddles.
The greater number of course are contented to wonder, they know
not why. Some contend for a grandeur of composition in the lines
and disposition of the figures. This I confess I do not comprehend;
yet, while I acknowledge the beauty of certain forms and
proportions in architecture, I cannot consistently deny that similar
merits may exist in painting, though I am unfortunately unable to
appreciate them.
The side walls are decorated with Scripture histories by some of
the earlier Italian painters. The best and latest are those of
Perugino. Two of the paintings of the Capella Paolina are by Michael
Angelo, but they are more smoked, worse lighted, and consequently
more invisible than those of the Sistina.
The first time I visited the Vatican it was in company with Mr.
Scott, and after passing the Sala regia, we hurried impatiently along
the loggie of Raphael, to what were pointed out to us as the
celebrated Camere. On our arrival we were refused admittance. The
door at the other end of the suite was open, but that into the loggie
permitted strangers only to depart. This arrangement obliged us to
make the tour of the museum, a circuit of above half a mile; and
whatever you may think of it, half a mile of the finest productions of
sculpture cannot be walked through very quickly. Was it possible to
pass the Apollo without stopping to look at it? Or the Laocoon
without notice? Even the inscriptions delayed us; nor could we help
paying some attention to the tomb of Scipio. We peeped into each
open doorway, just to see what we had to expect for another and
more leisure survey; and this walk occupied us about an hour and a
half, though intending to go with the greatest rapidity from one door
of the rooms containing the frescos to the other.
Before the paintings, we stop at the Arazzi of Raphael; the
subjects of these are,
 1. The Stoning of St. Stephen.
2. St. Peter curing the cripple, in the porch called Beautiful.
3. Conversion of St. Paul.
4. Religion, Justice, and Charity.
5. Slaughter of the Innocents, No. 1.
6. Elymas the sorcerer.
7. Christ in the garden. Noli me tangere.
8. The committal of the keys to St. Peter.
9. Slaughter of the Innocents, No. 2.
10. Ananias.
11. The Miraculous draught of fishes.
12. St. Paul preaching at Athens.
13. The Sacrifice at Lystra.
14. The Ascension.
15. The Resurrection.
16. The Supper at Emmaus.
17. The Presentation in the Temple.
18. Massacre of the Innocents, No. 3.
19. Adoration of the Magi, No. 3.
20. Adoration of the Shepherds.
21. The coming of the Holy Ghost.
(One has been destroyed.)
22. The Descent into Limbo.

Of seven of these, viz. of the 2nd, 6th, 8th, 10th, 11th, 12th, and
13th, you know that we have the cartoons in England, and one
cartoon is worth all the tapestry.
We pass from these rooms, four in number, to those called the
Camere of Raphael, ornamented with some of his most admired
productions. It excites some surprise, to find that so much labour
and genius have been lavished on three gloomy, irregular rooms,
unconnected with any principal apartment, each lighted indeed by a
single window, but that window below, instead of, as ought to be the
case, above the principal part of the paintings. The paintings
themselves indeed are most admirable; not so much at first view, as
when you attend to them leisurely, and consider the action and
intention of the several figures; and the more you study, the more
you admire and enjoy. These are not things to stare at, and to leave,
satisfied with a passing tribute of admiration. We enter into them,
we seem almost in society with the saints and sages represented,
and we return to them again and again with delight, as to a fine
poem. It is melancholy to see how much they have suffered, not
from neglect, but from time, and the decay of the material. The rage
for fresco-painting, or rather for admiring it, and regret that it is
disused, seems to start up from time to time even in our northern
climates. It is therefore necessary to repeat again and again, that
even in Italy, fresco-painting rapidly decays, and that in a climate
such as ours, the value of its finest productions, if painted on the
walls of a room, could hardly, by any care, be made to last a
century. Pieces cut out and hung in frames might last longer.
The fourth room is larger than the others. It was painted after the
death of Raphael, by his scholars, and from his designs. It is
remarkable however, that he finished two or three figures in oil,
which shine among the rest by the superiority of the material as well
as of the drawing; the remainder being executed in fresco.
On leaving these chambers, we pass through the famous loggie,
where Raphael exhibited the versatility of his mind by the most
beautiful coloured ornaments on the architecture, interspersed with
little paintings. The designs were his; the execution was that of his
scholars. Their situation was at first an open gallery, but as they
were considerably injured by exposure to the weather, it has been
enclosed. These productions have suffered, as may be supposed,
more than those in the chambers. Just enough remains to give some
vague notion of the grace and elegance of the ornament, and to
make us regret that we have no more. It is much more practicable
no doubt to restore these than the historical painting, but something
will be lost in delicacy of curve, and in the harmony of colouring,
even in a case apparently so little difficult.
In the rooms immediately below those of Raphael, are now placed
those first-rate productions of painting, which, having been
transported to Paris, are in consequence of the late peace restored
to Rome. Instead of giving you any description, or even an account
of what they are, (though the Transfiguration is among them) and
adding an Oh! and an Ah! and a note of admiration to each, I will
tell how I proceed in examining pictures; a method, which if not
perfectly scientific, has at least the effect of enhancing both their
interest and the amusement derived from them, and by leading the
attention to the several particulars, one by one, must, I think,
improve the judgment. You know I set out in architecture, with a
determination not to be satisfied with seeing and admiring what is
beautiful, but to endeavour in each object to trace why it pleases,
what are its defects, and how they might be avoided, and a still
higher degree of excellence attained. To analyse paintings something
in the same way, I consider that a picture may please—
First, by its design; that is, when the story is clearly told; when we
readily see what the actors are about, and knowing the story, are
enabled to allot to each figure its rank and personality. Raphael has
this talent in a high degree, though by introducing two stories, or
two different points of time, he sometimes confuses the subject.
There are two stories in his Transfiguration, each of which forms a
perfect design by itself, but they are not so satisfactory when we
consider them unitedly. It is said that Raphael’s figures show not
only their actual, but their past positions, the garments, where the
figure is in motion, retaining something of their previous set.
Secondly, by its composition. When the figures and their
accessories are so formed, and so disposed, as to form an agreeable
whole.
Thirdly, by its drawing, i. e., the correct imitation of nature.
Fourthly by its beau ideal. This is different from drawing, because
it depends upon the choice of subject. One artist may draw
common-place forms, and such as he usually sees, with perfect
exactness; a second may know how to select the most beautiful; a
third, by a careful examination of what constitutes the excellence of
each part, and the harmony and perfect correspondence of one part
with another, may improve even on the most beautiful existing
figures. Nature is as much the guide to this last, as to the two
others; but a finer taste and more perfect knowledge, that
indefinable something which we call genius, enables him to see and
to correct the defects which exist even in the finest forms. Every
part is perfectly natural, and the whole is so too, because it is what
Nature always seems to intend to produce in her most perfect
works, but at which she never completely arrives. The mere drawing
of these three may be equally good, but the third alone possesses
the beau ideal. The Belvidere Apollo is an excellent illustration of the
beau ideal. Of a thousand men whom you meet in the streets
without remarking them as deformed, you will not perhaps find one
so defective in some points as the Apollo. Defects which are not
noticed in the statue, because it has no motion; any change of
position would expose them: this is defective drawing. Of a thousand
times a thousand you will not find one who even approximates to it
in beauty. The finest drawing may exist without beau ideal, but
every defect in drawing is also a defect in the beau ideal. The artist
has fallen short as nature falls short, but he errs more grossly.
Fifthly, Expression; both of passion and character; not in the
heads only, but in the whole form, and in the attitudes.
Sixthly, Clair-oscur. When the parts are well relieved by the shades
and shadows, and appear free from the canvass.
Seventhly, Colour. Colouring and composition mutually enhance
the other’s value.
This arrangement, though very convenient for the purposes I have
mentioned, is perhaps, a little too mechanical. The highest pleasure
in viewing pictures arises from the expression of mind; an
expression not confined to any one of these, but influencing each,
and all of them. The painter, like the poet, must bear you on his
wings at his own will, and you must resign yourself to him, in order
to feel and enjoy the utmost pleasure which his productions
communicate; but after you have once experienced this sort of
pleasure, it may be both prolonged and enhanced by a careful
examination of the elements which produce it.
 After all these preliminaries, we will now enter the museum; for
though I would not, even if I were better able, undertake the task of
description, I shall not myself be contented without endeavouring to
communicate some impression of my own feelings on viewing it
repeatedly. Like Rome itself, after all we have heard of the immense
quantity of objects of curiosity, and as much as we are prepared to
admire some of the most beautiful of them, we are still lost in
astonishment when we are really on the spot, and walk through the
extended galleries, or from one magnificent saloon to another, and
find all filled with wonders.
We first enter into a gallery above a thousand feet long, divided
into two parts by small contraction. The first of these is occupied by
inscriptions; and fragments of architecture and ornament. Among
the latter objects, some, which have been brought from Ostia, are of
first-rate excellence, and from a certain similarity of style between
them and those found in the Forum of Trajan, are perhaps of the
design of Apollodorus, and consequently of the time of Trajan. This
is rendered more probable by our knowledge, that considerable
edifices were erected at Ostia under that emperor. Here also are
some curious little fountains, like children’s playthings, if they were
not of marble; such as were used to refresh the private apartments
of the Romans. In the second part is the Museo Chiaramonte,
containing also various fragments, but possessing many fine busts
and statues.
A flight of steps conducts us to the Museo Pio-Clementino, where,
in the first chamber, our attention is attracted by the sarcophagus of
C. L. Scipio Barbatus. The spelling and grammar exhibit the ancient
language of Rome, before the cases of the nouns had received a
settled form, and the use of the ablative for the nominative and
accusative, seems to announce some degree of relation to the
modern Italian. A little further are the Torso and the Meleager, and
turning to the left we enter a court, in some little cabinets in the
angles of which are the Apollo, the Antinous, and the Laocoon.
In the first course that a stranger makes through the Vatican,
criticism is lost in admiration; but after repeatedly visiting this
collection of rarities, we are naturally desirous to distinguish a little
more precisely, the good from the bad; and the ancient sculpture
from the modern restorations. Just feeling, correct knowledge, and
the habit of observation, can alone furnish the means of determining
the first question, and here is the best school in the world to obtain
these qualifications; but there are various accidental circumstances
with respect to the second, which may greatly assist the judgment of
the inexperienced observer. Marble fragments are sometimes
restored in plaster; this is easily detected; but when the restorations
are in marble, there is often a difference of quality, which affords a
guide almost equally obvious, after a little attention to the marbles
themselves, and their mode of varying in the size of the grains, in
compactness, and in transparency. There are also, frequently slight
differences of colour, either in the whole mass or in particular parts,
the abrupt termination of which marks a modern addition. Ancient
statues of all sorts have usually been repaired with the marble of
Carrara; and as the ancient statues of this are comparatively few,
they being generally formed out of marble of a larger grain and
looser texture, it is not difficult to distinguish the modern parts.
Again, when they are restored in marble of the same nature, the
substance is often not so perfectly homogeneous, but that the eye
can discover minute differences of texture; and if these are
continued across a joining, they form a pretty decisive proof that the
parts were originally one block. Some indications may be taken from
the joinings themselves. A statue is never broken without some
damage to the angles of the fracture, and the joining is
consequently either partially or wholly, wide and unfinished, or filled
up with plaster, or with accessory pieces of marble; if therefore a
neat even joining appear all the way round, it is a decisive proof that
one or both the pieces is modern. Any person who will take the
trouble to go thus through the Vatican, will I am persuaded find,
before he has completed his task, that he can generally distinguish
the restorations, before he is near enough to decide upon the
qualities of the marble. Yet he probably would not be able to do this,
even in the best casts. One circumstance which will strike him, is
that almost every emblem, or design, which determines the
individuality of the statue, is a modern addition. Considerable efforts
have at times been made, to repair the ancient figures in such a
manner as to render it impossible to separate the new from the old,
and Thorwaldson has restored the Egina marbles so perfectly, that I
do not believe it possible for the most practised eye to determine,
with any certainty, which is which; but this is a mistaken notion; it is
better, on the contrary, that the difference should be visible, not
perhaps at the first glance, but by any person who wishes to inquire
into it: the confidence that certain parts are antique, when it is
known, as it always must be, that the whole is not so, adds much to
the interest of the observer; and in this way the Elgin marbles ought
to be restored. In their present state, the imagination of the artist
and skilful amateur readily supplies many deficiencies which are
necessary to the understanding of the form, attitude, and action of
the figure; but to the rest of the world these noble productions lose
much of their value, because they are not well understood; which
they would be if judiciously restored on this principle.
Connoisseurs find in the statues of the Vatican, a distinction
between the Greek and Roman schools of art. I have attempted to
follow them, but hitherto without success; as the best rule I have
been able to hit upon is, that those of the Greek school are of
Italian, and those of the Roman of Parian marble. The beau ideal is
another abstruse subject. It is probable that the elasticity of the
human skin, after repeated stretchings, does not perfectly recover
itself, but in youth, as long as the body continues to grow, this is
taken up by the increase of size. Afterwards, seams and wrinkles
gradually begin to appear. A similar process takes place in the veins,
and the protuberance of the lower part of the trunk. Unless
therefore we suppose an immortality like that of Swift’s Struldbrugs,
we must suppose in the gods, the perfect recovery of the parts after
action, and consequently they can have no wrinkles; and no veins,
except when they are swelled by strong muscular action. This seems
a necessary consequence of their nature, rather than any part of the
beau ideal. We might perhaps go a step farther, and conclude, that
beings who were nourished with nectar and ambrosia, or with the
smell of sacrifices, could not require very large digestive organs.
Again, the strength of gods is not founded on ‘cumbrous flesh,’ or on
‘the brittle strength of bones,’ and therefore the expression of
muscle and bone is to be kept down; but as the sculptor has no
other way of giving the appearance of force, something of these
must be preserved. It is probably not true that great muscular
strength is always accompanied by distinctly marked muscles. The
fibres may be supposed individually stronger, instead of more
numerous. Topham, so celebrated for his extraordinary force, is said
to have been remarkably round and smooth in his forms. To
overcharge the muscles, may not therefore be the best way of
expressing strength, and when in action, if the effect be given, the
less the appearance of exertion, the more is the idea of
supereminent force excited.
From this court, which I mentioned so long ago that you have
perhaps forgotten it, and which, besides the productions above-
mentioned, contains some beautiful baths of porphyry, granite, and
basalt, bas-reliefs, sarcophagi, &c., we pass into the hall of the
animals; these are executed in various marbles, and some of them
are of the greatest beauty and truth. In some instances marbles of
different colours are employed to indicate the various colours of the
animal. The room is about 110 feet long, and 30 wide, and seems
entirely filled with them. From this we enter a long gallery of statues
and busts, of which the extreme length is about 200 feet, and the
width about 25. On one side of this room is an elegant little cabinet,
containing the Venere accoviata, a beautiful fawn of rosso antico,
and other things of the same scarce marble, too numerous for me to
mention, and among these productions of ancient art, four beautiful
columns of modern alabaster from Monte Circello, the best parts of
which are equal to the oriental.
Returning into the animal room, we enter from that into the hall of
the Muses, and afterwards to the noble Sala Rotonda. In the middle
of this is a great basin of porphyry, fourteen feet in diameter, in a
single block. Throughout most of the Vatican, the apartments
themselves are of little importance; we visit them for the objects
they contain; but this is a magnificent room. The pavement is an
ancient mosaic.
The next in succession is the Sala a croce Greca, whose name
indicates its form. In this room are the two great sarcophagi,
supposed to have contained, one the ashes of Helena, the mother of
Constantine, the other those of his sister. As they are now, they have
not the appearance of productions of the same age. Perhaps this
may arise from modern restorations; but they both agree in this,
that they are rather monuments of labour and expense, than of
taste and skill.
A double flight of steps conducts us to a vestibule, whence we
enter the beautiful little circular room of the Biga, so denominated
from an ancient two horse car, executed in marble, and adorned
with the most delicate ornamental sculpture. The whole of one horse
and the limbs of the other are modern restorations, but the chariot
itself is nearly entire. If an English coachmaker had it, he would
certainly think the pole inserted the wrong way. The beautiful
sculptures of this room I shall pass over in silence, as I have so
many others.
Returning from the Biga room, we enter a long gallery,
corresponding to that by which we entered the museum, but a story
higher. This is divided into several parts, the Gallery of miscellaneous
objects, the Gallery of candelabra, containing also a multitude of
vases, some finely sculptured, others precious for the elegance of
their forms, or the rarity and beauty of the marble of which they are
composed. The last part is the geographical gallery, exhibiting a
collection of maps painted on the walls; a fine idea, but one of the
few things here, which could be better executed in modern times.
After all this we arrive at the chambers hung with the tapestry from
Raphael’s designs, through which I have already conducted you.
Of the Library of the Vatican every one has heard, and I believe it
is not very difficult to obtain permission to make use of it, but I have
hitherto been satisfied with seeing it. The principal room is 198 feet
long, and 49 wide, but divided by a range of piers along the middle.
The books are in cases entirely close, round the piers, and between
the windows. These cases are placed on both sides, and are very
low in proportion to the room, so that they look like chests, which is
the name the Italians give to them. The arrangement of the
architecture is neither beautiful nor suited to its purpose. Beyond
this the library extends under the galleries of geography, and of the
miscellaneous objects, that is for near a thousand feet, divided into
several rooms; but the books are all closed, and you never feel as if
you were in a library. Upwards of six hundred fictile vases are placed
on the cabinets, but they are so lost in the space over which they
are scattered, that we seem to have seen very few.

1826.
Since my former visit, a new hall has been added to this museum,
which is usually distinguished by the name of Braccio Nuovo. It runs
across the long court or garden, surrounded by the suite of
apartments above described. The central division is covered by a
velum; that is, by a cupola, the diameter of which is equal to the
diagonal of the square on which it rises, and of which consequently
the sides are cut away. I do not much admire it, but the panelling is
badly managed. The other parts are covered with a continued vault,
in which the light is admitted by square holes along the crown; this
also displeases me. The cornice architravata is likewise a defect. The
cornice represents, says Milizia, the edge of the roof, it is therefore
absurd to shew it internally. True, echoed the Italian architects, we
will therefore omit the frieze, and Milizia seems to have admitted the
deduction. The parts also, though very beautiful, are too much
ornamented. The object of the architect seems to have been a fine
hall, ornamented with statues, but in a museum the statues ought to
be the principal object, and the architecture subordinate to them.
The room of the Biga is not free from this latter imputation.
 LETTER XXIX.

PALACES OF ROME.

Rome, April, 1817.

O ne does not at first do justice to the architecture of the Roman
palaces. The great size of many of them, and the abundance, and
bold projection of the ornaments, produce indeed a general
impression of magnificence, but if we can get space enough in front
to examine the parts distinctly, we often turn away dissatisfied from
the absurdity and disproportion they exhibit. Yet with great faults,
we may find amongst them great beauties, which, when habit has
enabled us to support their defects, the mind learns to enjoy.
Generally speaking, there is great simplicity of design, so much so,
that in a large number, the front is not divided into parts, either as a
centre and two wings, or in any other way, but presents one simple
continued line of surface; and this I am persuaded is the best plan
which can be adopted for large houses in streets. They also exhibit
much richness of detail, and you know, simplicity of design and
richness of detail, form my receipt for the production of beauty in
architecture. It is true that these details are frequently very far from
correct in themselves, and the proportions not always good; but to
an architect, the modern palaces of Rome are invaluable, as a
collection of experiments on architectural beauty on a grand scale;
and let me add, in a grand style, for however they may be abused as
extravagant, absurd, or preposterous, they at least avoid the
greatest fault that a building can have, that of being mean and
paltry. The Romans even in these their degenerate days, have
adopted a style fit for those who had the world at their command.
These palaces are rarely decorated, either with columns or pilasters,
and they are better without them; for these never look well in a
building of many stories in height. Ornaments round the windows
are never omitted, and never should be omitted, for without them a
window is a mere hole in the wall. The Roman architects have more
often erred in making these dressings, as they are called, too large
than too small, and their details are frequently very bad; yet even in
their worst state they contribute greatly to the general beauty of a
building, much more so when they are well designed. The stories are
generally divided by horizontal bands or mouldings along the front,
and great space is left between the ranges of windows. This latter
circumstance is of great importance. It gives an air of solidity and
magnificence to the front, and suggests the idea of lofty rooms
within; and it is a great point gained, when in addition to the
magnificence which is seen, the artist can excite the idea of other
magnificence which is not seen. This space is however sometimes
broken by a disagreeable mezzanine. The whole is crowned by a
large and rich cornice. The perfect beau ideal of such an
arrangement is not to be found in Rome, although some of its
palaces are highly beautiful, but it cannot fail to be excited in the
mind of an architect who attentively studies them. The body of the
edifice is nothing but a useful dwelling-house, the ornaments
naturally arise out of the construction required for such an object,
and the design is capable of any degree of magnificence suited to
the rank and consequence of the owner. In short, we find in it every
thing which can satisfy the eye, the imagination, and the judgment.
For a public building it is not so well suited, nor perhaps for the
palace of a sovereign, which ought to partake of the character of a
public building; nor should I recommend it for a country villa; we
want there less height, less solidity, and more variety of form; less of
the grand, and more of the agreeable; yet even here, the plain
unbroken line is much superior to the unmeaning division into a
centre and wings, or into five parts, both of which are so frequently
seen in our English dwellings.
 Before I enter into any detail of the private palaces, I must say
something about the celebrated Campidoglio. This of course is
among the first objects of a stranger at Rome. But after walking
along the Corso, and keeping in his eye the confused pile of
buildings at the end, which he is told covers part of the Capitoline
hill, he is lost among a labyrinth of narrow dirty streets. At length, if
he is fortunate enough to take the right direction, he will find himself
in a small square at the foot of two lofty flights of steps. The one on
the left, which is the longest and steepest, conducts him to the
apparently half-finished front of a Gothic building, the Madonna di
Ara Cœli. The right leads to the Intermonzio, and the modern
Capitol. At the bottom of this flight are two lions of basalt, of Greek-
Egyptian workmanship, which squirt a little stream of water from
their mouths, or occasionally on great festivals, of wine. At top, a
continued balustrade, which on each side of the step completes the
north-western side of the place or square, is accompanied by
colossal statues of men and horses, and by trophies taken from a
ruined building on the Esquiline, thought to have been the castellum
of the Aqua Marcia, and believed to be of the time of Trajan, though
the trophies themselves are attributed to Marius. I shall not criticise
any of these individually, but remark their fine effect altogether, as
uniting with the architecture, and announcing the magnificence to
be expected in the Capitol itself. The admirable equestrian statue of
Marcus Aurelius next attracts our attention, and deserves equal
praise from its individual merit, and as an ornament to the square.
The attitude and expression are at once graceful and commanding,
and suited to the philosophic and benevolent master of the Roman
world. He gives not the least attention to himself or to his horse, but
is entirely occupied with his people.
I have been induced to mention these accessories before the
building itself, because they first strike the eye. I will now proceed to
the examination of what is perhaps the best architectural work of M.
Angelo Buonarroti. Its merit depends a good deal on the same
circumstances as that of St. Mark’s Place at Venice, that is, the two
side buildings form an avenue conducting to the central one. Its
faults are, First, that this central building has not sufficient character.
It hardly looks like the principal, and I believe in such cases that a
bad display of architecture is better than none at all, because the
general effect depends more upon the air of comparative
importance, than upon the excellence of the parts. Perhaps also, its
destination is not sufficiently important. All the fine arts speak to the
imagination, and the true artist uses every means in his power to
excite the imagination in his favour; not from system, but because
he feels its importance in himself. Secondly, The lines of the side
buildings diverge, and this makes them appear shorter than they
are, when it would be better that they should appear longer, as I
have already explained, in the colonnade of St. Peter’s. Thirdly, A
large ugly window has been inserted in the middle of each side,
thereby making it a separate composition; and there are no positions
more certain, than that unity of design is essential to magnificence,
and that in order to preserve unity of design, the inferior parts
should not form independent compositions. This however was not
done by M. A. Buonarroti, but by his pupil, Giacomo del Duca. The
earliest architects of modern Rome have the merit of preserving
unbroken the leading lines of their architecture; a beauty which
seems to have been little attended to by their successors in any
country; but which nevertheless, everybody feels, when he brings
into comparison, buildings in other respects nearly similar.
Of the three buildings which form this architectural composition,
that on the left hand side of the spectator as he enters, contains the
Museum Capitolinum. That on the right is termed the Palace of the
Conservatori. The front building is the Palace of the solitary senator
of Rome. An open portico supported, or appearing to be supported,
by small Ionic columns, about half the height of the principal order,
extends along the front of each side building. The capitals of these
Ionic columns are very singular, and are perhaps the earliest modern
examples of such capitals, with the volutes uniformly projecting in
the diagonal, instead of being parallel to the face of the building. We
have ancient specimens of this kind at Pompei, but it is hardly
probable that M. Angelo was acquainted with them. In the museum,
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