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The Calculus Story
The Calculus Story
A Mathematical Adventure
DAV ID ACHESON
1
1
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
© David Acheson 2017
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
First Edition published in 2017
Impression: 1
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017935884
ISBN 978-0-19-880454-3
Printed in Great Britain by
Clays Ltd, St Ives plc
Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
In memory of
Dr Janet Mills
(1954–2007)
1. Introduction 1
2. The Spirit of Mathematics 6
3. Infinity 13
4. How Steep is a Curve? 20
5. Differentiation 25
6. Greatest and Least 32
7. Playing with Infinity 38
8. Area and Volume 45
9. Infinite Series 54
10. ‘Too Much Delight’ 60
11. Dynamics 64
12. Newton and Planetary Motion 70
13. Leibniz’s Paper of 1684 78
14. ‘An Enigma’ 87
15. Who Invented Calculus? 93
16. Round in Circles 100
17. Pi and the Odd Numbers 106
18. Calculus under Attack 112
19. Differential Equations 118
20. Calculus and the Electric Guitar 125
21. The Best of all Possible Worlds? 132
22. The Mysterious Number e 139
23. How to Make a Series 144
viii con t e n ts
24. Calculus with Imaginary Numbers 149
25. Infinity Bites Back 154
26. What is a Limit, Exactly? 162
27. The Equations of Nature 167
28. From Calculus to Chaos 174
distance
speed =
time
distance distance
time time
slow fast
2. Motion at constant speed.
The subject came fully to life in the second half of the 17th
century, largely through the work of Isaac Newton, in England,
and Gottfried Leibniz, in Germany.
The two never met, but there was a certain amount of wary
(and indirect) correspondence between them. At first, this was
amicable and polite, but the relationship eventually deteriorated
into a major row about who had ‘invented’ calculus.
While I will say more about this later, my main concern in
this short book is with calculus itself.
Above all, I want to offer a ‘big picture’ of the subject as a
whole, concentrating on the most important ideas, and some-
thing of their history.
We will see, also, how calculus is fundamental to physics
and the other sciences.
One particular aim, for instance, will be to take the theory
far enough that we can understand the vibrations of a guitar
string (see Figure 5).
6. A surprising connection.
And, in due course, I will try to show just why this result is
true.
In short, then, this little book is more ambitious than it
looks.
If all goes well, we will see not only what calculus is really
about, but how to actually start doing it.
And to set about that, we need first to think a little about the
very nature and spirit of mathematics itself.
2
The Spirit of Mathematics
2
√ 1
1
8. A simple deduction.
a2 + b2 = c2 c
b
a
9. Pythagoras’ theorem.
Algebra
( x + a )2 = x 2 + 2ax + a 2 .
a ax a2
x x2 ax
x a
10. Algebra as geometry.
T he Spir i t of M at he m at ics 9
Proof
a b
b c
a
c
a c
c
b
b a
11. Proving Pythagoras’ theorem.
( R + H )2 = R 2 + D2 ,
where R is the radius of the Earth. After rewriting the left-
P
H D
Q
R
R
O
12. Measuring the Earth.
T he Spir i t of M at he m at ics 11
D2
R» .
2H
In about 1019, the scholar Al-Biruni used broadly similar
ideas to estimate the radius R of the Earth, obtaining a result
which differed from the currently accepted value by less than
1%. This was a quite extraordinary achievement for the time.
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