CSEC Chemistry Study Notes

1. States of Matter

Key Definitions:

• Matter: Anything that has mass and occupies space.

• Particle Theory of Matter: A theory stating that all matter is made up of tiny particles
(atoms, molecules, or ions) in constant motion.

• Diffusion: The movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration, without the need for an external force.

• Osmosis: The movement of water molecules through a semi-permeable membrane from a

region of high-water potential to a region of low water potential.

1.1 Particulate Theory of Matter

• Evidence Supporting the Theory:

o Processes such as diffusion and osmosis provide evidence for the particulate nature
of matter.

▪ Example of Diffusion:

▪ Potassium permanganate diffusing in water: When a small crystal of

potassium permanganate is placed in water, it dissolves, and the
purple color spreads evenly throughout the water. This
demonstrates the random movement of particles.

▪ Diffusion of ammonia and hydrogen chloride gases in a sealed glass

tube: The gases diffuse and react to form a white ring of ammonium
chloride, showing how particles move independently through space.

▪ Example of Osmosis:

▪ Green pawpaw strips placed in distilled water: The water molecules

move into the cells, causing the strips to swell. This demonstrates
the selective movement of water molecules across a membrane.

o Practical Applications:

▪ Food Preservation:

▪ Salt and sugar are used to draw water out of microbial cells by
osmosis, dehydrating them and preventing spoilage. For example,
salting fish or meat prevents bacteria from thriving.

▪ Agricultural Practices:

▪ Salt can be used to control garden pests by dehydrating them

through osmosis, helping to protect crops without heavy chemical
use.
 ▪ Medical Applications:

▪ Saline solutions are used in intravenous therapy to maintain osmotic

balance in patients, ensuring that body cells do not shrink or swell
excessively.

1.2 Distinguishing the Three States of Matter

Arrangement of Energy of Forces of

State Physical Properties
Particles Particles Interaction

Solid Fixed, tightly packed Low Strong Fixed shape, incompressible

Closely packed but can Takes shape of container,

Liquid Moderate Moderate
move incompressible

Widely spaced, random

Gas High Weak Fills container, compressible
motion

• Key Physical Properties to Consider: Volume, density, and compressibility.

• Examples:

o Ice (solid), water (liquid), and steam (gas).

• Applications:

o Solids like metals are used in construction for their fixed shape and strength.

o Liquids such as water are vital for biological processes, cooling systems, and as
solvents in chemical reactions.

o Gases like oxygen are essential for respiration and industrial processes, while carbon
dioxide is used in carbonated beverages.

1.3 Changes of State

• Processes:

o Freezing (liquid to solid), melting (solid to liquid), boiling (liquid to gas), evaporation
(liquid to gas), sublimation (solid to gas), and condensation (gas to liquid).

• Energy Changes:

o During melting and boiling: Energy is absorbed to overcome intermolecular forces.

o During freezing and condensation: Energy is released as particles come closer

together.

• Particle Arrangement Changes:

o Solid → Liquid → Gas: Particles become more spaced out.

 o Gas → Liquid → Solid: Particles become more closely packed.

• Heating and Cooling Curves:

o Plateaus on the graph represent phase changes where temperature remains

constant as energy is used to change the state of the substance.

Suggested Practical Activities:

• Heat ice, butter, water, and iodine (in a fume hood) to observe state changes and record
temperature changes during phase transitions. Discuss how the amount of heat required
varies with the substance and the intermolecular forces.

2. Mixtures and Separations

Key Definitions:

• Pure Substance: A material with a fixed composition and distinct properties (e.g., elements,
compounds).

• Mixture: A combination of two or more substances physically combined but not chemically
bonded.

• Solution: A homogeneous mixture where solute particles are dissolved in a solvent.

• Suspension: A heterogeneous mixture where particles are large and settle on standing.

• Colloid: A mixture with particles intermediate in size between solutions and suspensions,
exhibiting light scattering (Tyndall effect).

2.1 Pure Substances vs Mixtures

• Pure Substances:

o Fixed composition.

o Examples: Elements (e.g., oxygen), Compounds (e.g., water).

• Mixtures:

o Variable composition.

o Examples: Solutions (e.g., saltwater), Suspensions (e.g., sand in water), Colloids (e.g.,
milk).

Practical Activity:

• Compare the boiling points of pure water and a saltwater solution to observe differences
caused by dissolved substances. Salt increases the boiling point by disrupting hydrogen
bonding in water. Discuss the implications for cooking and desalination.

2.2 Solutions, Suspensions, and Colloids

• Solutions:
 o Homogeneous mixture.

o Particle size: Small (e.g., sugar dissolved in water).

• Suspensions:

o Heterogeneous mixture with visible particles.

o Particles settle on standing (e.g., mud in water).

• Colloids:

o Particles are intermediate in size and do not settle.

o Exhibit the Tyndall Effect (e.g., beam of light visible in milk).

Practical Activity:

• Use a lamp to observe light scattering in colloids compared to solutions and suspensions.
Discuss how this principle is used in technologies such as fog lights and water purification.

2.3 Types of Solutions

• Classifications by Phases of Solute and Solvent:

o Solid in liquid: Sugar in water.

o Solid in solid: Alloys like brass.

o Gas in liquid: Carbon dioxide in soda.

o Liquid in liquid: Alcohol in water.

o Gas in gas: Air (oxygen and nitrogen mixture).

2.4 Effect of Temperature on Solubility

• General Rule: Solubility of most solids increases with temperature.

• Exceptions: Some salts (e.g., potassium nitrate) decrease in solubility with increasing
temperature.

• Practical Activity: Investigate the solubility of potassium nitrate at different temperatures by

dissolving and cooling the solution to observe crystallization. Use temperature vs solubility
graphs to explain trends. Discuss industrial processes such as sugar crystallization and salt
mining.

2.5 Separation Techniques

• Methods and Principles:

o Filtration: Separates insoluble solids from liquids (e.g., sand from water).

o Distillation: Separates based on boiling points (e.g., water from ethanol).

 o Chromatography: Separates based on solute mobility in a solvent (e.g., ink dyes).

o Separating Funnel: Separates immiscible liquids (e.g., oil and water).

Practical Activity:

• Conduct experiments to separate mixtures using filtration, distillation, and chromatography.

Discuss the physical properties that enable each method (e.g., boiling points for distillation).
Relate this to industrial applications such as refining crude oil or purifying drinking water.

2.6 Extraction of Sucrose from Sugarcane

• Steps:

1. Crushing: Extract juice from sugarcane.

2. Precipitation: Add lime to remove impurities by forming insoluble salts.

3. Filtration: Remove solid impurities from the juice.

4. Vacuum Distillation: Concentrate the sugar solution by removing water under

reduced pressure.

5. Crystallization: Form sugar crystals by cooling the concentrated solution.

6. Centrifugation: Separate sugar crystals from the molasses.

Practical Activity:

• Field visit to a sugar factory to observe the industrial extraction process. Discuss how each
step relates to specific separation techniques (e.g., filtration, crystallization). Analyse how by-
products like molasses are utilized in products like rum and animal feed.