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CHAPTER 7
Deductions: Categorical Logic
Exercise 1
1. All Rolls Royce cars are things that are expensive. (A)
2. Answer in text.
3. No people who are parents of young children are people who have a lot of time to
themselves. (E)
4. All wars are events that kill the innocent. (A) Or, on another interpretation, Some wars
are events that kill the innocent. (I) This issue of interpretation is discussed later.
5. Answer in text.
6. Answer in text.
7. No rolling stone is a thing that gathers moss. (E)
8. Some things that are new drugs are things that have proved harmful to the patients. (I)
9. No sports that are extreme are sports that are safe for diabetics. (E)
10. Answer in text.
11. Some foods that are vegetables are not foods that are low in carbohydrate content. (O)
12. Answer in text.
13. Some persons who are consumers are not persons who are concerned to save money.
(O)
14. (a) All things are things that have places. (A) (b) All things are things that should be
in their places. (A) (Hard.)
15. Answer in text.
16. Answer in text.
17. All things that are life are things that have just one damned event (thing) after
another. (A)
18. Some things that are reading are ingenious devices for avoiding thought. (I)
19. Answer in text.
20. Answer in text. Exercise 2: Part A
1. Answer in text.
2. C = computers; H = things that can cheat. No C are H. (E statement.) Obverse: All C
are non-H.
3. Answer in text.
34
4. B = bureaucracies; N = things that are needed to accomplish their task. Some B are N.
(I statement) Obverse: Some B are not non-N.
5. Answer in text.
6. D = Dogs; C = creatures that need exercise. All D are C. (A statement) Obverse: No D
are non-C.
7. Answer in text.
8. Answer in text.
9. All persons who are radicals are persons who have both feet planted firmly in the air.
R: persons who are radicals; P: persons who have both feet planted firmly in the air. All
R are P. (A statement) Obverse: No R are non-P.
10. Answer in text.
11. There are two statements here. (1) All is in flux. Let T = things that exist and F =
things that are in flux. All T are F. (A statement) The obverse is No T are non-F. (2)
Nothing stays still. Let T = things that exist and S = things that stay still. No E are S. (E
statement) The obverse is All E are non-S. Heraclitus' statement is a conjunction of (1)
and (2); that is to say, it is a conjunction of an A statement and an E statement.
12. D = direct democracy; W = practices that work only in a small society. All D are W.
(A statement). Obverse: No D are non-W.
13.B = times when businesses can expand; H = times when interest rates are high. No B
are H. (E statement). Obverse: All B are non-H.
14. All things that have Kellogg's in the box are things that say Kellogg's on the box. Let
I = things that have Kellogg's in the box; S = things that say Kellogg's on the box. All I
are S. (A statement) The obverse is No I are non-S.
Exercise 2: Part B
1. Answer in text.
2. M = medications; N = things that need to be tested on human subjects. The statement
is All M are N which is an A statement. The converse is All N are M. The contrapositive
is No non-N are non-M. The statement is not equivalent to its converse. The statement is
equivalent to its contrapositive.
3. C = cancers; T = terminal illnesses. Some C are not T. This is an O statement. The
converse is: Some T are not C. (not equivalent) The contrapositive is Some non-T are not
non-C. (equivalent)
4. Answer in text.
5. S = places in sub-Saharan Africa; T = places where HIV-AIDS is a serious threat to
economic development. All S are T, which is an A statement. Converse: All T are S. (not
equivalent). Contrapositive: All non-T are non-S. (equivalent)
6. Answer in text.
7. Answer in text.
8. Answer in text.
35
9. D = dog; C = creature that has its day. All D are C. (A statement). Converse: All C are
D (not equivalent). Contrapositive: All non-C are non-D (equivalent).
10. E = Intelligence reports; R = reports that are unreliable. Some E are R. (I statement).
Converse: Some R are E. (equivalent) Contrapositive: Some non-R are non-E. (not
equivalent)
Exercise 2: Part C
1. Answer in text.
2. L = legal educations; T = things that are cheap. No L are T. Contradictory: Some L are
T.
3. Answer in text.
4. T = teachers; W = persons who are well-paid. Some T are W. Contradictory: No T are
W.
5. Answer in text.
6. B = nations that are identical to Britain; N = nations that experienced many problems
while attempting to govern Iraq in the early twentieth century. All B are N.
Contradictory: Some B are not N.
7. P = philosophers; Eppersons who explore questions of meaning. All P are E.
Contradictory: Some Pare not E.
Exercise 3
A recommendation for labeling circles in Venn diagrams for categorical syllogisms:
Once students have put a syllogism into categorical statement form, ask them to label the
top two circles of their Venn diagram with the subject and predicate letters from the
conclusion, subject on the left, predicate on the right. The bottom circle is then always
labeled with the letter of the middle term. This convention benefits the students in two
ways: first, they have a straightforward procedure to follow that gets them started on the
diagram; second, when they come to read the diagram for validity, they are always
looking at the same circles, namely, the top two. The procedure also makes grading exam
diagrams easier because all correct diagrams will look the same.
1. C = things that are the common cold; E = illnesses that have economic costs; S =
things that should be taken seriously. The argument is All C are E; All E are S; therefore
All C are S.
c s
E
Valid.
36
2. Answer in text.
3. B = businesses; H = businesses that succeed by cutting labor costs; U = businesses that
exploit their workers. The argument is, Some B are H; All H are U; therefore, some B are
U. The Venn Diagram is:
B U
Valid. H
4. F = foods that can be kept on the shelf for several weeks without rotting; D = foods
that contain additives; H = foods that are hazardous to the health of allergy sufferers. The
argument is: All F are D; some D are H; therefore some F are H.
Invalid.
F H
5. F = fishermen; L = loggers; H = hunters. The argument is No F are L; Some L are not
H; therefore some F are H. Invalid.
37
F
H
x
Valid.
6. M = mammals; O = lions; G = creatures that give birth to their young alive. The
argument is, as written but with the sentence rearranged: Only mammals give birth to
their young alive; all lions give birth to their young alive; therefore, some lions are
mammals. This turns into: All G are M; All O are G; therefore some O are M.
Not valid according to the Hypothetical Interpretation; valid according to the existential
interpretation.
O M O M
Hypothetical. Existential.
38
7. Answer in text.
8. Z = zoos; K = places in which animals may be bred; H = places in which animals
should be kept in cramped conditions. The argument is All Z are K; No K are H;
therefore No Z are H.
Z H
K
Valid.
9. S= All things that are sunbathing; R = All things that carry with them a risk of cancer;
D = All things that are dangerous. The argument is All S are R; All R are D; therefore All
S are D. Valid.
S D
R
39
10. S = Shoes without traction; F = Shoes safe for mountain climbing; B = Shoes that are
sturdily built. The argument is: No S are F; All F are B; therefore some S are not B. Not
valid.
S B
11. C = those who can manage the trip from Calgary to Banff; F = those who are fast
cyclists; P = those who are Pedro. All C are F; All P are F; therefore all P are C.
Not valid.
12.Answer in text.
40
13.P = persons eligible for the internship program; B = persons under the age of thirty; J
= persons identical with Malema. The argument is: All P are B; No J are B; therefore, No
J are P.
B
Valid.
14. A key to making sense of this syllogism is appreciating that the conclusion is in the
first sentence. S = skeptics; F = people who know that full (complete) knowledge is
impossible; A = people who can admit to their own ignorance without shame. All S are F;
All F are A; therefore, All S are A.
41
Valid.
15. This passage does not contain an argument; therefore, it does not contain a categorical
syllogism.
16. Answer in text.
17. Answer in text.
18. P = photographers; W = writers; E = editors. The argument is: All photographers are
writers; some editors are not writers; therefore, some editors are not photographers. All P
are W; Some E are not W; therefore some E are not P. Valid.
E P
x
W
Exercise 4
1. Answer in text.
2. Answer in text.
3. C = completely unprejudiced observations; G = observations that are made with no
goal in mind; O: observations. The argument is: All C are G; No O are G; therefore, No O
are C.
o
Valid.

4. P = politicians; D = persons who are dishonest; B = persons who take bribes. The
argument is: all B are D; some P are B; therefore some P are D. Passes all rules. Valid.
5. G = things that contain all the genetic information necessary to form a complete human
being; P = things that are mere property; E = fertilized eggs growing into embryos. No G
are P; All E are G; therefore, No E are P.
E
Valid.
6. Answer in text.
7. Answer in text.
8. The conclusion is that the much-praised dam was
financed at least in part by taxes. The premises are
that if the much-praised dam (D) was worth building
(W) someone would have been able to build it for a
profit (P) and that no one was able to build it for a profit.
From these premises we can infer by a valid syllogism
that the dam was not worth building. D = all things
identical with the much- praised dam; W = all
things that are worth building; P = all things that make a
profit. No D are P; All W are P; therefore, No D are W.
This syllogism is valid. But this does not get us to the
conclusion, which is that the dam was funded by taxes. Could we use the conclusion we
have derived so far (No D are W) to get to the main conclusion which (assuming that T =
things funded by taxes) would be All D are T? No ~ not even if we add that All non-W
are T as an unstated premise. We would, even in that event, get a syllogism with one
negative premise, and when one premise is negative, the conclusion must be negative
also, for the argument to be valid.
9. F = organized life forms; E = life forms that evolved through a random process; H =
human beings. The argument as stated is: No F are E; therefore No H are E. This
argument is enthymematic. The unstated premise is All H are F. With this premise added,
the argument is: No F are E; All H are F; therefore, No H are E. This argument is valid,
because it does not violate any rules of the syllogism.
10. W = well-founded inferences to an infinite cause; O = inferences based upon the
observation of an infinite effect; G = inferences to God's existence from the design in
nature. On the reasonable assumption that "well- founded inferences to an infinite cause,"
and "well-founded inferences" are intended to name the same category, we can construct
the following: All W are O; No G are O; therefore, No G are W.
43
G W
I
Valid.
o
11. N = nonprofit organizations; E = organizations exempt from paying income taxes;
C = organizations identical with the church choir. The conclusion is indicated by the
rhetorical question at the end of the passage, which is a way of saying that the church
choir does not have to pay any taxes. The argument is: All N are E; all C are N; therefore,
All C are E. Valid; passes all rules.
12.Answer in text.
13.Answer in text.
14.R = people who respect human life; T = people who are terrorists; H = people who
hijack airplanes. The question in the first sentence referring to 'these people' has to be
understood with reference to the second sentence, which makes it clear that 'these people'
are people who hijack airplanes. It is a rhetorical question, and a way of saying that no
person who hijacks an airplane is a person who respects human life. That is the
conclusion. The argument is: All H are T; No T are R; therefore, no H are R. Valid;
passes on all rules.
15.G = persons who are truly good; L = liars; W = persons worthy to be believed.
Assume that a person who is credible and believable is a person worthy to be believed;
thus what appear to be four categories can be reduced to three. The argument is then: No
L are W; all G are W, therefore, No G are L. Valid; passes on all rules.
16. Some things that are taught to us are things that feel natural. No things that are taught
to us are things that are natural. Therefore, some things that feel natural are not things
that are natural. T = things that are taught to us; F = things that feel natural; N = things
that are natural. Some T are F; No T are N; therefore some F are not N. Valid. No rules
are broken.
44
CHAPTER 7, EXERCISE 3

1.

VALID

3.

VALID

5.

INVALID
CHAPTERR 7, EXERCISE 3 (CONT’D)

6.

INVALID VALID

HYPOTHETICAL INTERPRETATION EXISTENTIAL INTERPRETATION

15.

VALID

19.

VALID
CHAPTER 7, EXERCISE 4

3.

VALID

4.

VALID
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
none of the sloth of the Southern, no checking of business between noon and
three to pass in siestas.
It is a busy city. The port is thronged with shipping, mostly British. High-
shouldered elevators stick out long tongues, and streams of wheat, grown on
the plains of the interior, pour food for Europe into the holds. Trucks of cattle
grunt through the noisy railway yards. There are huge killing establishments,
and animals go to their death by the many thousand every day with a celerity
which would awaken a Chicagoan. There are mighty avenues of chilled and
frozen meat. Labour-saving machinery carries it on board the steamers which
hasten across the Atlantic, carrying cheap beef to the London and Liverpool
markets. Commerce is conducted on the latest scientific lines. The North
Americans have nobbled the meat trade, and the Jews have control of the
wheat market.
 Photograph by H. G. Olds, Buenos Aires.
THE PLAZA HOTEL, BUENOS AIRES.

Buenos Aires is the mart where the produce of the rich back-lands is bartered.
It levies a heavy toll. The most imposing business buildings are the banks—
national banks, British, German, French, Spanish, and Italian banks. In and
about Reconquista are these banks, ever busy. Near by are the rival shipping
offices, a glut of them. The offices of the great railway companies are
enormous. Wide-spreading premises exhibit the latest and best agricultural
machinery that Lincolnshire and Illinois can produce. There is the hustle of
commerce. The streets are as narrow and as crowded and as vital as within
the City of London. There is earnestness about the men.
The Argentine is sombre in manner. He dresses in conventional black. A light
waistcoat, a gay tie or fancy socks, is bad form. You cannot tell the difference
between a millionaire and one of his clerks, except that the former has an
expensive motor-car and the latter hires a taxi or a victoria, or travels by
electric tramcar. At every corner you see evidence of prosperity, of successful
money-making. And money speaks in "B.A." as loudly as it does in New York.
Folk of the Saxon breed tend to scoff at the decadence of the Latin race. But
there is something revivifying in the transplanting of a people. We have
evidence in our own colonies. The man of Spanish descent in the Argentine is
not always the spry fellow he thinks himself; but he has dropped the cloak of
sluggishness which enwraps Spain. He is often rich; he lives in a gorgeous
residence; his extravagances are beyond those of a Russian archduke. He is
polite and hospitable.
But the wealthy Spanish Argentine is not the creator of his own wealth. I
heard of only one case of a Spanish Argentine owing his great fortune to
commercial enterprise. The fortunes of most of these Argentines come from
land. Their grandfathers got immense areas by the easiest means. Properties
were so enormous that extent was not reckoned in acres, or even square
miles, but by leagues. But a hundred leagues, however good for cattle or
sheep, or wheat growing—what was its value a couple of hundred miles from
a port? Then came British railways. They pierced the prairies. The land
bounded in value, tenfold, a thousandfold. Other people came in; first shrewd
Scotsmen; then industrious Italians; then Englishmen bent on becoming
estancieros. Their children are Argentines. But the mighty fortunes are mostly
in the possession of the early Argentines—those who were settled fifty and
more years ago. They have sat still and seen their land blossom in value. They
pay no income tax; there is no tax on unearned increment. Mr. Lloyd George
was once in the Argentine, associated with a land development company.
That, however, is another story.
Hundreds of thousands of immigrants pour into the Republic every year. They
come from every land on earth. Mostly do they come from Spain and Italy.
Italy provides the greatest number, and splendid colonists they are. Though
the language will always be Spanish, the race is rapidly becoming Italianised.
There is a commingling of the sterner stuff from Europe. So in this rich land—
rivalling Canada and Australia in productiveness—there is being blended a
new people, keen, alert, successful, ostentatious, pagan—a people that has a
destiny and knows it.
The Argentines are town proud. You are not in Buenos Aires a couple of days
before you are bombarded with the inquiry, "Don't you think this is a beautiful
city?" It is not that; but it is an interesting city.
In the oldest quarters the streets are narrow, after the Spanish style. So
narrow are they that, with electric cars jingling along them, vehicles are
allowed to journey only one way. To reach a shop by carriage it is sometimes
necessary to drive along three and a half sides of a block of buildings. Funny
little policemen, brown faced, blue clad, and with white gaiters and white
wands, direct the traffic. In the Florida—the Bond Street of "B.A."—all
wheeled traffic is prohibited between the hours of four and seven in the
afternoon, so that shoppers may have an easier way.
Most of the streets are called after Argentine provinces, or neighbouring
republics, or national heroes, or some politician or rich man who can influence
the authorities. When a popular man has lost his popularity the remnant of his
fame is obliterated by the street called after him being named after someone
else. It is as though the Government at home decided to change Victoria
Street, Westminster, into the Avenida Asquith, with the prospect of its being
altered later on to the Calle Bonar Law.
Wide plazas decorate the city. Vegetation is luxuriant, and statues are
numerous. The Plaza Mayo is not called after an Irish peer, but after the
month of May, 1810. The shops are as big as those in London. Argentina
manufactures practically nothing, and all the lovely things have to be imported
from Europe. The hotels are imitations of those in Paris. The restaurants are
on a par with the best we have in London. A Viennese band plays whilst you
have Russian caviare and the waiter is asking your choice in champagne. But
everything is expensive. A man needs three times the salary in Buenos Aires
to live the same way he would live in London. If you calculate exchange rates
you go mad. It is best to count the peso (1s. 8d.) as a shilling, and then
remember that you are spending your shilling in South America, where things
are dear. You can get a modest luncheon for 10s.; but you will pay 2s. for a
bottle of beer, and 3s. 6d. for a cigar worth smoking.
 Photograph by A. W. Boote & Co., Buenos Aires.
THE TIGRE, BUENOS AIRES ROWING CLUB.

Yet nobody minds. Immense sums are being spent on improving the city. It is
built on the American T-square plan. But it is to be subjected to the plan of
Haussmann, with great tree-girt avenues radiating diagonally from the Plaza
Mayo. An underground railway, honeycombing beneath the town, is in rapid
construction. The railways have a great suburban traffic, and are being
electrified. There are British colonies at Belgrano and Hurlingham, and you
have a choice of three golf courses. In the summer months—December,
January, and February—there is river life on the Tigre, the Thames of the
Argentine. A charming spot is Palermo, a combination of Hyde Park and the
Bois de Boulogne—open sweeps and charming trees, a double boulevard with
statues and commemorative marbles in the middle, well-cared-for gardens,
radiant flowers and the band playing.
A drive through Palermo at the fashionable hour causes one to gasp at the
thought that one is six thousand miles from Europe. Nowhere in the world
have I seen such a display of expensive motor-cars, thousands of them.
Ostentation is one of the stars of life in the Argentine. Appearances count for
everything. You must have a motor-car, even though you have not the money
to pay for it, and you owe the landlord of your flat a year's rent. The ladies
are exquisitely gowned, but they have not the vivacity of the French women
nor their daring in dress. There is a demureness, a restraint which reminds
one that the atmosphere of far-away Castile is still upon them.
On Sundays and Thursdays there are races at Palermo. The price Argentines
pay for horseflesh has become a proverb. It is a good race-course. We have
nothing in England, neither at Epsom, Ascot, nor Goodwood, so magnificent
as the grand stand. It is a glorified royal box. The restaurant is like the Ritz
dining-room. Everybody dresses as they would at Ascot. There are no
bookmakers. The totalisator is used. Betting is officially conducted by the
Jockey Club, and there is constant announcement of the amount of money
put on the horses. Those who have backed the winners share the spoil, less
ten per cent. As this ten per cent. is deducted from the total amount put on
each race, the income of the Jockey Club runs into hundreds of thousands of
pounds. So the Club maintains a good race-course, offers capital prizes, has a
house in "B.A."—undoubtedly the most palatial club-house in the southern
world—and distributes the remainder amongst the hospitals. The income of
the Jockey Club is so large it is really embarrassing. The members are
proceeding to build an Aladdin's palace of super-gorgeousness.
But at the races at Palermo I noticed that no ladies attended, except in the
members' enclosure. Even there they did not mingle with the men-folk. There
was no mirth, such as we are used to in Europe. They kept themselves to little
groups. Moving from wonder to wonder, I was present at a gala performance
at the Colon Theatre. I have seen all the great theatres in the world, and this
is the loveliest—a harmony of rose and gold. The audience was as fashionably
dressed as at the opera in London, though I missed the dazzling display of
diamonds which had been promised. Most of the audience were ladies; there
were boxes of them, and most of the men were in the stalls. There was one
gallery reserved for women.
I began to discern a strange Orientalism in the relations between the sexes.
The Argentine women are amongst the best mothers in the world. But there is
practically none of the good fellowship between young fellows and young girls
which is so happy a feature of our English life. For a man and a woman to
take a walk together would shock the proprieties. There are brilliant
receptions, but dinner parties, as we know them, are rare. An Argentine
seldom introduces a friend to his wife. Except amongst the poorest a woman
scarcely ever goes into the streets alone. If she does she runs risk of being
insulted. There are Argentines, who would be offended if refused the name of
gentlemen, who think it excellent sport to walk in the Florida in the evening
and mutter obscenities to every unprotected woman who passes. Buenos
Aires is the most immoral city in the world. So the Argentine guards his
women-folk from contact with other men. His attitude is a relic of the days
when the Moors had possession of Spain.
I have called Buenos Aires a pagan city. So it is. The men are frankly
irreligious. In conversation I have been told of the tolerance to all religions.
What is really meant is indifference to any religion.
Money-making and flamboyant display—these are the gods which are
worshipped. The houses in the wealthier districts are exotic in architecture. I
remember driving along the Avenida Alvear, a street of palaces, reminiscent of
the Grand Canal at Venice if it were a roadway. But the fine stone blocks are
nothing but stucco. The ornamentation, the floral decorations, are not carved
stone; they are stucco. Imitation, pretence, showiness, the flaunting of
wealth, are everywhere.
Yet this city, which has grown in a generation on the muddy flats by the side
of the muddy Parana River, has something that is weird in its fascination.
 CHAPTER III
ROUND AND ABOUT THE CAPITAL
The way not to see a city is to be trotted round and shown all the "sights." I
have an idea I may have missed some of the "sights" of Buenos Aires. I did
not "do" the churches. Acquaintances who knew I went to South America to
pursue my trade of writer sometimes asked me what I was going to write
about, and the reply was, "I do not know." But I was not believed.
Anyway, I may say that I drifted about "B.A." I presented my letters of
introduction, made friends, lunched out and dined out, had motor trips, went
here and there as suggestion provided the inclination; maybe to a theatre, or
to smoke a cigar in one of the clubs with men who are of account in Argentina
or no account at all, or to spend a Sunday with an Argentine family; maybe to
idle an hour in one of the cafés; maybe to have a serious talk with a Minister;
maybe do nothing but idle round. That is no scientific way to study a city. But
it just happens to be my way.
The conclusions I draw may be wrong, for I may have met the wrong people
and seen the wrong things, especially as I had no system. Yet out of the
confused jumble of impressions and experiences something coherent evolves,
and that is the substance of my remarks when I am asked, "Well, what do you
think about Buenos Aires?"
It is not my wish to accentuate the point, but open-handed extravagance is
one of the traits of the people. It is a fault of democratic countries that,
having no aristocracy of birth, they proceed to create one of wealth. Argentina
has fine old Spanish families; but, though esteemed, they are in the
background. In the wrangle-jangle of frenzied progress they are not to be
counted amongst the moderns. So garish is the display of money that the idea
left is that you have had your attention called to it by the constant blaring of a
bugle.
But I would shrink from saying the display is vulgar. Keeping in mind that the
people are Latins, and are fonder of colour than we of the cold and moral
north, I would write there is a sort of ostentatious restraint. Argentines glory
in spending money, but amongst the older settled people other things besides
money have their place. They are fond of music, and pride themselves that
they discovered Tetrazzini and Kubelik long before London. Here, as in Paris,
London, and New York, there is the mob which goes to the opera because it is
"the thing" to have an expensive box, and to wear lovely gowns and loads of
diamonds. The prices paid make the charges for a gala night at Covent
Garden seem like those of a twopenny show. It may be said that a well-
known artiste is sure of a kindly reception. Yet Buenos Aires has its moods; it
has its vagaries, and is petulant. For some undefinable reason it will take a
dislike to some performer who arrives with a European reputation. Perhaps
half a dozen ladies who lead the fashionable world will say the artiste is
overrated. "She may be all right for Paris, but she does not come up to
Buenos Aires standard"—that is the attitude. For anybody to praise the poor
singer after that is to advertise their inartistic taste. There is a boycott. So a
European singer or instrumentalist who goes to the Argentine aglow with the
prospect of a dazzling success sometimes returns with the saddest of
experiences—neglect.
 LOLA MORA FOUNTAIN, BUENOS AIRES.

With such a people, Latin in race and living in the sunshine, life is something
of a holiday. One hears stories of the looseness of life amongst the men—on
the boats running between France and Argentina can be seen the girls going
out to meet the requirements of the hundreds of houses of ill-fame—but the
Argentine women themselves are beyond reproach. Indeed, their regard for
correctness is often amusingly prudish. Public opinion is so strong that no
lady, if she wants the esteem of her neighbours, dare show the slightest
originality in costume or conduct. Plays with the faintest hint of
suggestiveness about them are barred. Performances which would pass
muster in a London West-end theatre are shunned; plays to which the most
innocent of girls cannot go are taboo. The consequence of this is that there
are other places of amusement especially catering for men, which no
respectable woman can enter. Just outside the boundaries there are
cinematograph shows "for men only," which for indecency cannot be outdone
in Port Said or Havana.
I have mentioned how the visitor to Argentina soon begins to be aware of the
low position of women in the minds of men, the way in which there is no real
friendship between the sexes outside the family circle, and how no Argentine
will trust another Argentine in regard to his ladies. With all their finery and
jewellery and expensive motor-cars and boxes at the Colon Theatre, you are
prone to remark, "How un-European!" when you see the segregation of the
women.
Yet with all their frivolity, dress, bridge, amusements, you make a mistake if
you fancy the Argentine lady a guarded, slothful doll—though the description
applies in thousands of cases. I had the opportunity of seeing the other side
of the picture. On two days, under the guidance of ladies themselves, I visited
the establishments of Las Damas da Beneficencia and several Government
hospitals. A noble work is being done. I saw how the poor are cared for. There
was the nurturing of the old. There was tending the sick in buildings worthy of
any city in the world. There were the homes where the wives of poor folk
could come to bring their babies into the world. There is much illegitimacy,
and formerly there was much infanticide. So there was a kind of casement
where, at dusk, mothers could bring their unwanted offspring and deliver
them. No questions were asked, but the infant, because it was a helpless little
child, was cared for. The same work is done to-day, but without the mystery
of the casement. Foster-mothers are engaged to nurse the children. As one
went through the rooms, and saw the tiny morsels of humanity, many of them
feeble, with a shape of head which roused wonder as to the future, it was
hard to keep the tears away.
Poverty, as we understand it in Europe, does not exist in Argentina. But there
are men who are stricken down in early manhood, unable to earn anything,
and who need help. There are widows and the fatherless to be cared for.
There are poor folk, but their trouble is due to misfortune and not to
economic causes. Charity, however, is great, and funds are numerous and the
Government provides handsomely, and there is no distress such as we know
it. But all this good work, hospitals, looking after the aged, providing for the
fatherless, is carried on by the women of Argentina. Except to serve as
doctors, no men have any voice in the control or management. Ladies, with
their presidents and boards of management and committees, have the work
placed entirely in their hands. It is set apart for them, and no man interferes.
Yet the suffrage question has not extended to Argentina.
Life is taken lightly and showily by this new nation. But when anybody dies all
the relatives go into mourning, to the fourteenth cousin. And in death the
display is just as rampant as in life. The Recoleta is a strange cemetery,
bizarre, ghoulish, tawdry. To own a tomb in Recoleta is one of the necessities
if a family wants to be in the swim. These tombs are like chalets, occasionally
of Italian marble, generally of the Buenos Aires stucco—the capital surpasses
all other cities in the world in the amount of stucco—and they are ornate.
There are streets upon streets of them, and you take a walk through a town
of the dead. The doors are open, and you can step in and see half a dozen
coffins ranged round the shelves. Occasionally there are photographs of the
dear departed. On All Saints' Day it is usual for the living family to gather in
the tomb, have tea, and munch cakes. After a number of years the coffins
have to be removed, or a heavy sum paid, and the tomb is "to let." The whole
thing is repulsive to the Englishman, but the Argentine loves it.
The capital of Buenos Aires province is La Plata, about fifty miles away. I went
down one day by the luncheon train, which runs out of the Plaza Constitution
just after midday and does the journey in an hour. It was a fine train, and the
luncheon car was bigger, and the food better than we have on English lines.
The car was crowded with a sallow-skinned, black-moustached, black-garbed
lot of gentlemen, and I gathered they were all Government officials. Nobody
in Government employ thinks of doing any work in the morning. The men go
to the office late and leave early. It was almost like home.
 LA RECOLETA.

La Plata is a town that has missed its way. Full of grandiose ideas, and taking
the United States as a model, it was decided to build La Plata as the federal
capital on the Washington plan. Gorgeous buildings were erected; magnificent
avenues were constructed; the loveliest of public gardens were laid out; a fine
museum was founded; a great municipal theatre was piled up. In the public
square bandstands were provided and statues to national heroes hoisted. It
was to be the flower of Argentine towns. And every Argentine town, when it
sets out to beautify itself, must have an avenida and a plaza and an
equestrian statue of San Martin; the matters of water supply and drainage
come later.
But the federal capital absolutely refused to settle at La Plata. It was too near
Buenos Aires, where society lived, and where there was a whirl of excitement.
So, perforce, the capital had to be at Buenos Aires, and a Government House
for the residence of the President of the Republic was built, and is known as
the "Palace o Gold," because of the money consumed in its construction.
Argentina is ever willing to vote vast sums for town adornment; but the
money has a habit of evaporating before half the work is done, and then more
is needed.
However, La Plata is the capital of the province of Buenos Aires; but the
majority of officials refuse to live there. They prefer to come down from
Buenos Aires at a quarter past one, and catch the quarter to five train back.
The Governor has made appeals; he has even threatened what he will do if
the officials do not live in La Plata. They take no notice. The consequence is
that this beautiful city—and without doubt it is majestic in its spaciousness—is
deserted, and a saunter through it is like a walk through an old cathedral
town on a drowsy afternoon.
As a companion and a host no one could be more charming than the
Argentine. He loves his country, but is willing to hear praise about other
countries without thinking you wish to depreciate Argentina. He will go to
infinite trouble to secure some particular information you are anxious to
possess. Men on whom I had no personal claim whatever laid aside their work
and devoted a couple of days in my behalf. As the men are courteous so the
women are graceful, until lack of exercise and over-eating makes them stout.
The girls are modest, but, I am afraid, centre their thoughts on dress. It
rather shocked one to see that it is a habit for quite young girls of thirteen or
fourteen years to daub their faces with powder. As for the young gentleman,
he begins when twelve years of age to smoke and to tell lewd stories. He is
impudent to the servants and to his parents, and I have known fathers smile
when told their sons of fifteen have taken to visiting houses of ill-fame. Some
Argentines are taking to healthy sport; but it would be better if all of them
took to outdoor exercises, cricket, football, baseball, tennis, and golf. The
Argentine young gentleman is bright but superficial, and is too fond of the
clothes of the dandy and jewellery and perfumes to excite any admiration
amongst men who dislike effeminacy in their own sex.

THE GOVERNMENT BUILDING, LA PLATA.

It was my good fortune to receive nothing but kindness from every class of
Argentine that I met. But I am not going to hide I met Englishmen, who knew
more about the Argentines and who had few generous things to say. "There is
no morality, unless the young women are guarded; the Argentine is egotistic
beyond words; domestic habits are dirty, and taking a bath is rare; the men
chatter, and, whilst voluble with friendship, are suspicious; they are bombastic
about patriotism, but are not above receiving bribes; all the advantages the
Argentine has he owes to foreigners; he produces nothing himself; he is
shallow and shiftless; the only business instinct he has is cunning, and the old
Spanish mañana spirit—always putting off till to-morrow the performance of a
business duty—is deep seated." All of which shows how impossible it is to
draw a composite picture of an individual to represent a nation. Just as there
are nice Englishmen and vulgar fellows, cultured Americans and bounders,
delightful Germans and hoggish sots, so in Argentina it takes all sorts to make
a people. The growing practice of well-to-do Argentines of sending their
children to be educated in Europe has its advantages, though there is another
side of the picture. They certainly acquire better manners than they pick up at
home; they learn that Argentina is not the centre of the world. When they
return to Argentina and display the consequences of foreign travel they are
not popular.
As far as I could discern the Argentine, though still infused with Latin traits,
still showy and talkative, more inclined to gamble than to do hard work, is
breaking through and away from the old Spanish habits. European business
men told me they were keen witted, but incompetent in practical affairs. But
there is too much business now going on in Argentina, too much development
of industries in which foreigners have little hand, too thorough a grasp of
some of the problems which face all new lands, for the Argentines to be
dismissed with a phrase.
I could see they were inexact, that they were fond of showing off, that
knowledge of the world was thin; but I did understand their genuine ambition
to lift Argentina into the first rank among nations; that where they lacked
technical and mechanical knowledge themselves they were willing to let
others come in; that they were quite alive to what progress means in the
modern sense. The conservatism of the old Spaniard has completely
disappeared. The Argentine wants the latest and the best. If one goes forth to
gather faults it is easy enough to get a basketful. What drew me, however,
was not so much listening to a catalogue of things he is not, but to mark
down what he is, what he has done and is doing, and what he intends to do.
As a small instance, in Buenos Aires the habit of the Spanish siesta is
abandoned. There is no pulling down of business shutters between noon and
three o'clock. The climate is enervating, but be the day never so steamy, with
hot gusts panting from the north, the city is early alive with commerce, the
suburban trains are packed, the Stock Exchange is a babble of excitement—
and there never seems to be any drawing of rein till five or six in the
afternoon. There is hustle.
THE SOUTHERN STATION AT LA PLATA.
 IN THE GREAT SQUARE AT LA PLATA.

The way the population jumps up is phenomenal. It signifies much that an

eighth of a million is added to the population of a capital in a single year.
Skyscrapers now tower over the buildings which were thought enormous a
dozen years ago. Notwithstanding the services of the policemen directing the
traffic, there is often a tangle of motor-cars, electric tramcars, private
carriages and carts. New broadways are being driven through the city, and up
go palatial stores. Most English newspapers are modest in locale. But the
Argentine newspapers keep in the sun. La Prensa is one of the best-informed
journals in the world. It has a noble exterior to its offices. Inside are luxurious
suites of rooms, lecture halls, libraries, and the public are invited to enter.
Every public building, all the clubs, even the churches, seem to be tied up
with long ropes of different coloured electric lamps, so that on nights of
festival the switch is jerked and the whole place is radiantly illuminated.
It is all very wonderful. The confusion, the barbarism, the love of beauty and
the display of dollars, the inflow of invested gold, the coming of the
immigrant, the whirl of business, the big deals, the gambling, the making of
fortunes and the losing of fortunes, dazzle the mind. But you feel the
fascination of Buenos Aires. It has grown so astonishingly in so short a time
that you gasp when you contemplate how much more it is likely to grow.

STATUE PRESENTED TO ARGENTINA BY THE FRENCH COMMUNITY ON

THE OCCASION OF THE CENTENARY OF INDEPENDENCE.
 CHAPTER IV
RAILWAY DEVELOPMENT IN THE REPUBLIC
The place Argentina holds in the world is due to the meat and wheat it sends
to other lands. But having recognised its fecundity as a good food-producing
area, it is well to start at the beginning. Argentina may have had fine grazing
tracks capable of rearing untold millions of cattle and arable land that had
only to be scratched to yield excellent crops of cereals; but without transport
values are at a minimum. Accordingly, the development and prosperity of the
Argentine is mainly due to railways. The sum of £300,000,000 British capital is
invested in Argentine railways and electric tramways.
I travelled a good deal in the Republic, from Buenos Aires to Inca in the
Andes, and from Tucuman in the north to Bahia Blanca in the south. I
journeyed over hundreds of miles of flat, featureless, dreary country that
grew nothing but wild grasses until a few years ago. And there are plenty of
sandy, bush-studded, alkali-stricken acres—just as you find barren patches in
the United States, Canada, Siberia, and Australia—but there are thousands of
leagues awakened into life, estancias with great herds of cattle munching at
the alfalfa, stretches of wheat and maize, on and on, as though without end,
the only break on the horizon being the colonist's mud hut, a clump of trees—
and it always seems the same clump of trees—which indicates a ranch, and
the ever-whirring American water-wheel. As you travel through England it is
the spires of churches that pierce the sky. The only thing that ever pierces the
sky on the Argentine pampas is the zinc American water-wheel. The Argentine
estanciero thinks a water-wheel is of more use to him than a church.
All over this land, zigzagging, curving, intersecting, sometimes running in an
absolutely straight line for a hundred and fifty miles, is the greatest length of
railway lines in the world for a population of seven millions. The towns are far
apart; villages are few. You journey half a day, and, except at the little
wayside stations, do not see more than half a dozen folk on the land. Yet it is
a smiling land, and greets the sunshine with abundance. The railways in the
Argentine are to garner this wealth. Freight trains, with cars of the colossal
American pattern, trundle their long length across the plains.
I recall one night when, at a forgotten siding, the engine drew out to get
water, taking a saunter along the train side. It was brilliantly lit with electricity,
and the restaurant car, with the usual little red-shaded lamps on the tables,
was busy; crowds of passengers were dining, and the usual waiters were
scurrying, and there was the usual Continental fare, and champagne and
Moselle wines, and the usual mineral waters you get on the Nord express.
That gleaming train in central South America was the symbol of what railway
enterprise has done in Argentina.
There are 20,000 miles of railroads in the Republic. The British showed the
way in the initial building, and their lines pass through some of the fattest
territory. The French have been tardy followers, but have constructed useful
minor lines. The Argentine Government has built State lines through country
that was suitable for colonisation, but which did not appeal to the outside
investor. These State railways are financially a failure. One reason is that the
territory through which they run is not of the best. The principal reason is that
they are the prey of the politicians. Constituencies have to be considered, and
innumerable jobs found for the hangers-on of political parties. Business
conditions are the last to be thought of, and, though the Government has
done well in throwing these lines into distant regions needing development,
they are not likely to succeed until placed under different control.
Not only have the Argentines themselves not started railway companies, but
they have no money invested in the foreign companies. One cause is that,
though the Government insists on a local board of directors, the real board of
directors is abroad, chiefly in London. Another cause is that dividends are
limited by law to 7 per cent., and that is not a sufficient return for the
Argentine. He does not care to touch investments that do not yield 12 per
cent., and when he gets 30 per cent. he thinks that about fair—and the
country is so prosperous it can afford it.
Although within the last fifteen years millions of British money have poured
into Argentina for railway construction, the investor in the old days cast a
hesitating eye on South America as a place to sink his capital. In the 'fifties a
railway a few miles long was all that Argentina could boast, and ten years
later, when 7 per cent. was guaranteed, money was not forthcoming. As an
inducement to construct a line between Rosario and Cordoba the absolute
ownership of three miles on either side of the line was offered. Even with
such an attraction the British investor was shy.
Gradually, however, money was forthcoming, and lines were laid. In the
'eighties there came a spurt. It was not till the years following 1900 that
money could be had for the asking. Lines cobwebbed the profitable country;
distant points were linked up; land which previously had little beyond prairie
value bounced up in price.
Though to-day there is a thought in the public mind that a little too much
money has been thrown into Argentina, that land prices are too inflated—
which they are—I have traversed districts which three years ago were
wilderness; but a spur of railway has been driven into them, and instantly
farming has been started. I saw hundreds of freshly-built homesteads—crude,
and the life harsh, but it was the beginning of great things—and alfalfa had
been laid down, and cattle were feeding, and wide spaces which previously
were sandy and apparently inhospitable were carpeted with the bright green
of new wheat. Just as in Canada there is a belief that the breaking up of the
land had decreased the severity of the frost, so there is a belief in Argentina
that rains follow the plough. Places which formerly had little rainfall, and
which had a doubtful agricultural future, are proving successful. Yet without
the advance of railways the country would have been as forlorn as when the
Indians roved the pampas.

CENTRAL ARGENTINE RAILWAY COMPANY'S GRAIN ELEVATORS AT BUENOS AIRES.

Railway companies in England have had to fight landowners to make
headway. In Argentina landowners welcome the coming of a railway, for
obvious reasons. Most of the wealthy Argentines owe their fortunes to their
land being benefited by the railways. As a rule, out in the far districts, a
railway company can get the necessary land for nothing. Owners are willing to
make financial contributions. The general managers of the big British railways
in Argentina get large salaries—£7,000 a year. This is partly to remove them
from the range of temptation of being bribed by owners, syndicates, or land
companies to authorise the making of railways where they would not be
economically advisable. Of course, extensions near the big towns cost the
railways as much as they would in England. I know a man who thirty years
ago bought a piece of land for £1,600. He sold it to a railway company for
over £200,000.
Though foreign capital is having so extensive a run in networking the country
with railways, the Argentine Government has a much closer grip on the
working of the lines than the Board of Trade has on English companies. It is
therefore no misrepresentation to say that, whilst private owners are glad to
have their property enhanced in value by the juxtaposition of a railway, the
Government puts obstacles in the way for what are ostensibly public reasons.
Accordingly, expensive "diplomacy" has sometimes to be used. The
Government is sufficiently aware of the return the foreign investor gets—and
when fresh extensions are sought it invariably withholds its consent until
some concession has been wrung out of the company, such as an undertaking
to construct a line through a district that cannot, for some time at any rate,
be a success. There is never any guarantee that another company will not be
formed to work the same district. The Government smiles at the fight
between the two lines for traffic—to the public benefit. When companies
propose to amalgamate the Government either makes such demands in
regard to uneconomic lines that the thing falls through or a veto is put upon
the amalgamation altogether.
Perhaps it is due to the excellence of the railways that the Argentine high
roads are so bad. And frankly, though I know most of the new lands of the
world, I know of no region where the country roads are so villainous as in this
Republic. Rarely are they anything beyond mother earth. In wet weather they
are quagmires, and I have seen vehicles stranded, unable to be hauled by a
team of five horses. In summer, when rain is absent, they are foot-deep
furrows of dust. I shall never forget a motor excursion through the sugar
plantations round about Tucuman. The way was like a magnified ploughed
field, and all the ridges were of dust. We drove through it as an engine drives
through snow.
All railway material comes in duty free, but one of the conditions is that 3 per
cent. of the profits shall be used for the making of roads leading to railway
stations. The companies do not object, because the call is not large, and it is
to their interest that agriculturists should be able to get their produce to the
railway station to be transported over the lines.
The Direccion-General de Ferrocarriles is the authority over the railways in
Argentina. It decides the number of trains which shall be run, and it insists on
the number of coaches. There must be a certain number of dormitory cars on
all-night trains, and restaurant cars are obligatory over certain distances.
Every train carries a letter-box, and recently the companies have been
squeezed into carrying the mails for nothing. A medicine chest, a stretcher, a
bicycle—so that quick communication can be made with the nearest station in
case of accident—and all sorts of necessities in case of a breakdown are
compulsory. Every carriage is thoroughly disinfected every month, and there is
always a card to be initialled by an inspector. All bedding and mattresses are
subject to scientific disinfection such as I have seen nowhere in Europe.
No time-tables can be altered without the sanction of the National Railway
Board at least two months before coming into operation. If trains stop at
stations for which they are not scheduled a heavy fine is imposed; and all late
trains, and the reason, have to be reported to the Government authority. No
alteration, however small, to a station building or to the design of rolling stock
is permissible without the sanction of the Government representatives. A
complaint book is at every station, open to anyone to complain on any
subject. Guards also keep a book. Many of the complaints are amusing. I
heard of one man who insisted on writing in the complaint book that
"everything was in perfect order and the staff faultless." Occasionally
passengers will have a dispute, and whilst one will find fault in the complaint
book with the manners of the train attendants, another will write beneath that
the attendants are all right, and it is the complainant's manners which are at
fault.
There are the usual buffers in front of an engine; but they are all hinged, and
have to be hoisted backwards when a train is travelling, because if an animal
were run into, the cow-catcher might not be able to throw the beast aside, for
it could be caught between the catcher and the protruding buffer. Though, on
the face of it, the Government subjects the companies to innumerable
restrictions, and frequently imposes vexatious regulations, it must be
recognised that public safety is the thought behind them all.
LATEST TYPE OF PASSENGER LOCOMOTIVE.

LATEST TYPE OF DINING CAR.

The Republic lives by its exports of meat and agricultural produce. Ninety-five
per cent. of this trade is carried to the ports by the railways. From the railroad
cars one beholds productiveness; yet fifteen or twenty miles away lies land
just as productive but as yet untouched by the plough, because there is
neither sufficient population to cultivate nor railways to carry. Within the next
dozen years there must inevitably be a further spurt in the making of feeding
or auxiliary lines. Something like £20,000,000 a year is crossing the ocean for
fresh railway enterprises in Argentina. Nearly 40,000,000 tons of goods are
carried over the lines each year, and the receipts are something like
£25,000,000 annually. And yet but a fragment of the harvest of this new land
is being garnered. Its untrodden millions of acres await new railways to open
up the country.
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