GRAMMAR REFORM MOVEMENT

TRANSLATION METHOD DIRECT METHOD

INDUCTIVE
FIRST LANGUAGE (L1) MEANINGFUL CONTEXT CONVERSATIONS/ORAL
TRANSLATION DIRECT AND SPONTANEOUS
NATURAL ORDER (LISTENING,
DEDUCTIVE (RULES FORM AND MEANING
SPEAKING, READING, WRITING
INDUCTIVE
DIRECTLY AND REAL SITUATIONS L1
EXPLICITLY TRANSLATION AVOIDED STUDENTS: ACTIVE
WRITING AND READING NATURAL WAY CORRECT PRONUNCİATION
TEACHER-CENTERED COMMUNICATION DISCOVERING GRAMMAR RULES
ACCURACY AND FORM REALIA, DEMONSTRATION, ETC.
ERRORS NOT TOLERATED SPEAKING AND LISTENING
SELF-CORRECTION

BEFORE THE
METHODS ERA

ORAL APPROACH AND

COGNATES SITUATIONAL
True Cognates: similar
LANGUAGE TEACHING
spelling and pronunciation
same meaning
e.g. cinema/sinema HABIT FORMATION
EVERYDAY BEHAVIOR, LIFESTYLE
L1
False Cognates
TEACHER-CENTERED
different meaning GRAMMAR-INDUCTIVE-DIALOGUES
e.g. complex/spor kompleksi LISTENING, SPEAKING, READING
ERRORS NOT TOLERATED
 SILENT WAY SUGGESTOPEDIA
AUDIO-LINGUAL
METHOD STUDENTS: AUTONOMOUS LEARNERS DECORATION, FURNITURE,
DISCOVERING THE RULES ARRANGEMENT
PHYSICAL OBJECTS USE OF MUSIC
PROBLEM-SOLVING AT THE CENTER AUTHORİTATIVE
ARMY METHOD
L1: WHEN NECESSARY HUMANISM APPROACH
BEHAVIORISM
FEEDBACK: GESTURES AND MIMICS L1: NOT PROHOBITED (DECREASING
MECHANICAL HABIT FORMATION
IMPERATIVES, NUMERATION, PREPOSITIONS STRESS)
REPETITION
VISUAL AIDS, COLOR-CODED WORD-CHARTS LEARNERS’ FULL MENTAL POTENTION
LISTENING AND SPEAKING
SELF CORRECTION/PEER CORRECTION TEACHER: RELIABLE AUTHORITY
GRAMMAR: INDUCTIVELY
STRUCTURED FEEDBACK GRAMMAR: EXPLICITLY (L1)
VOCAB: DIALOGUES
FIDEL CHART ERROR: REFORMMULATION
TAPE RECORDERS, AUDIOVISUAL
ROD “PERIPHERAL LEARNING”: COLORFUL
DISCRIMINATING INDIVIDUAL
POSTERS TO LEARN EFFORTLESSLY
SOUNDS
EVALUATION: OBSERVING

THE
METHODS
COMMUNITY ERA(I) TOTAL PHYSICAL
LANGUAGE LEARNING RESPONSE

COUNSELLING LEARNING WHOLE LANGUAGE

JAMES ASHER
HUMANISM-WHOLE PERSON APPROACH HUMANISTIC
LEARNING
COMPREHENSION APPROACH
INTERACTIONAL/COMMUNICATION
SPEAKING RESULT OF LISTENING
SECURE CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED SILENT PERIOD, INNATE THEORY,
L1: SHOULD BE USED/LANGUAGE AUTHENTICITY/REAL SITUATIONS BOTH HEMISPHERES (EFFECTIVE
ALTERNATION
HOLISTICALLY (NOT IN AND PERMANENT, STRESS LEVEL
TEACHER: COUNSELOR/BEHIND THE
SEPARATE) L1 AT THE BEGINNING
STUDENTS/CLEAR INSTRUCTIONS
ERRORS: TOLERATED GRAMMAR/VOCAB: IMPERATIVE
GRAMMAR: EXPLICIT IF NECESSARY
COOPERATIVE LEARNERS LISTENING AND SPEAKING
VOCAB: TRANSLATION
NEGLECTS SPELLING AND ERRORS: TOLERATED
ERROR C: NON-THREATENING WAY
PRONUNCIATION NO WRITTEN TEXTS
NO TEXTBOOK: DEPEND ON NEEDS
 NEURO-LINGUISTIC
PROGRAMMING
MULTIPLE (NLP) LEXICAL APPROACH
INTELLIGENCES
ELIMINATE NEGATIVITY/DECREASE
ANXIETY
HOWARD GARDNER DEVELOP SELF-AWARNESS LEXIS: VOCABULARY
“EVERY INDIVIDUAL IS NEURO: SENSES, LINGUISTIC: THE LEXICAL CHUNK: COMMONLY FOUND
UNIQUE” WORDS AND THEIR INFLUENCE, TOGETHER
DIFFERENT INTELLIGENCE PROGRAMMING: TO THINK, SPEAK, GRAMMAR: OBSERVATION
TYPES AND ACT POSITIVELY (TRAINING) VOCAB NOTEBOOK, COLLOCATION
“VARIETY IS THE SPICE” OUTCOMES, RAPPORT, SENSORY PRACTICE
RICH AND BALANCED MIXTURE ACUITY, FLEXIBILITY EXTENSIVE LISTENING AND READING
CHALLENGING AND GUESSING THE MEANING
WORKING WITH DICTIONARIES
DEMANDING (FOR TEACHERS)
THE
METHODS
ERA(II)

COMPETENCY BASED
LANGUAGE TEACHING

FOCUSES ON OUTCOMES
DESIGNATED COMPETENCIES
FUNCTIONAL AND INTERACTIONAL
SOCIAL CONTEXT
AUTONOMOUS INDIVIDUALS
DEMONSTRATE PRE-SPECIFIED BEHAVIORS
INDIVIDUALIZED
STUDENT-CENTERED INSTRUCTION
 COMMUNICATIVE
LANGUAGE TEACHING COMMUNICATIVE ACTIVITY
FEATURES
THERE ARE 4 COMPONENTS:
1- LINGUISTIC COMPETENCE
VOCAB AND GRAMMAR
LANGUAGE = COMMUNICATION PUNCTUATION AND SPELLING ETC. INFORMATION GAP:
CONTEXT 2- DISCOURSE COMPETENCE
COHESION AND COHERENCE THE SITUATIONS WHERE ONE DOESN’T
DELL HYMES KNOW THE OTHER PERSON WILL SAY
3- SOCIO-LINGUISTIC COMPETENCE
FUNCTIONS: REFUSING, APOLOGIZING, SOCIAL RULES: POLITENESS, FORMALITY RULES
CONGRATULATING, ARGUING, ETC. NONVERBAL BEHAVIORS CHOICE:
EXPRESSING THE MEANING CULTURAL REFERENCES: IDIOMS ETC. THE SPEAKER CHOOSES WHAT TO SAY
4- STRATEGIC COMPETENCE AMONG MANY OPTIONS
MAKE UP LACK OF LANGUAGE KNOWLEDGE
EFFECTIVENESS OF COMMUNICATION FEEDBACK:
CONVERSATIONAL FLUENCY MUTUAL UNDERSTANDING
LISTENER MAKES IT CLEAR THAT THE
INTENDED MESSAGE IS UNDERSTOOD

CURRENT
COMMUNICATIVE
APPROACHES

TENETS OF COMMUNICATIVE
LANGUAGE TEACHING

CULTURE = DAILY LIFE OF NATIVES

NON-VERBAL/ BODY LANGUAGE IS IMPORTANT
MEANING: CENTRAL
VISUAL AIDS, REALIA
L1: RARELY
STUDENTS: COMMUNICATORS
GRAMMAR ERRORS: TOLERATED (CORRECT THEM LATER)
GRAMMAR AND VOCAB: SITUATIONAL CONTEXT
FLUENCY
SPEAKING AND LISTENING
AUTHENTIC MATERIALS
SCRAMBLED SENTENCES
LANGUAGE GAMES
 NATURAL APPROACH

HYPOTHESIS
4- THE INPUT (i+1) HYPOTHESIS
1- THE ACQUISITION-LEARNING HYPOTHESIS
STEPHEN KRASHEN ACQUSITION: UNCONSCIOUS AND INTUITIVE PROCESS
INPUT: SLIGHTLY BEYOND THEIR CURRENT PROFICIENCY LEVEL
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION DEVICE (LAD) FOR NEITHER BE SO DIFFICULT NOR CLOSE TO THEIR CURRENT LEVEL
LEARNING: CONSCIOUS
INPUT HYPOTHESIS = COMPREHENSIBLE INPUT
ADULTS ADULTS: LEARN
INPUT THAT CAN BE UNDERSTOOD DESPITE THE UNKNOWN WORDS
CHILDREN: ACQUIRE
UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR AND STRUCTURES
TEACHER MONOLOGUES 2- THE MONITOR HYPOTHESIS
FORMAL QUESTIONS CONSCIOUS LEARNING: MONITOR/EDITOR 5- THE AFFECTIVE FILTER
CHECKS AND REPAIRS THE OUTPUT HYPOTHESIS
ERROR CORRECTION ACQUISITION: FLUENTLY USING ACQUIRED LANGUAGE MOTIVATION MODERATE LEVEL
COMMUNICATION SELF-CONFIDANCE LOWER AFFECTIVE
3- THE NATURAL ORDER HYPOTHESIS FILTER
IMPORTANCE OF VOCABULARY GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURES: PREDICTIBLE ORDER
ANXIETY
ERRORS ARE NATURAL

CURRENT
COMMUNICATIVE
APPROACHES
TENETS OF NATURAL
APPROACH COOPERATIVE
LANGUAGE LEARNING

COMPREHENSIBLE INPUT IS IMPORTANT STUDENTS: SCAFFOLD (yapı iskelesi) EACH

MATERIALS AND AIDS: ENHANCE COMPREHENSION OTHER: INCREASING THE LANGUAGE LEVEL
FOCUS: READING AND LISTENING JOHN DEWEY
MEANINGFUL COMMUNICATION TEAM-WORK: SOCIALLY STRUCTURED
INTERESTINF INPUT: AFFECTIVE FILTER LOW SPEECH CONVERSATION
SILENT PERIOD SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY
SUBCONSCIOUSLY, INDUCTIVELY, IMPLICITLY INTERACTION
HETEROGENOUS GROUPS: WORKING
STUDENT ROLES COLLABORATIVELY: AVOIDING COMPETITION
PRE-PRODUCTION: LISTEN FLUENCY
EARLY PRODUCTION: SHORT RESPONSES
SPEECH-EMERGENT: USE OF COMPLEX UTTERANCES
 TASK-BASED
LANGUAGE TEACHING

TASKS’ FEATURES TECHNIQUES

COMPLEATING TASKS CLEARLY AND CAREFULLY 1- INFORMATION GAP ACTIVITY:
REAL INTERACTION MEANINGFUL PURPOSE EXCHANGE INFORMATION
MEANINGFUL TASKS UNDERSTANDABLE INSTRUCTIONS 2- OPINION GAP ACTIVITY: PROMPTS
FOCUS: MEANING AND REAL-LIFE CONTEXT (OR CLUES), IDEAS, ETC.
INCIDENTAL ATTENTION PRODUCT AND FEEDBACK (TEACHER) E.G. SOLUTION FOR UNEMPLOYMENT
PROBLEM-SOLVING/ 3- REASONING GAP ACTIVITY:
INTERACTIONAL DERIVING NEW INFORMATION FROM
THE DATA THEY ARE PRESENTED

reasoning gap activity: processes of

inference, deduction, practical reasoning, or
CONTENT-BASED a perception of relationships or patterns.
INSTRUCTION CURRENT
COMMUNICATIVE
APPROACHES
LANGUAGE: TOOL
“CONTENT, ACADEMIC CONTENT, SUBJECT
AREA, SUBJECT MATTER”
DISCOURSE-BASED (COMMUNICATION)
MEANINGFUL
ACADEMIC LANGUAGE
TEACHING A SUBJECT WITH TARGET
PARTICIPATORY
LANGUAGE
THEMATIC UNITS
APPROACH
VISUALS, REALIA, TECHNOLOGY, GROUP
INTERACTIONS
VOCAB: CONTEXTUAL CLUES REAL-LIFE ISSUES
COLLABORATION AND NEGOTIATION
TEACHER: CO-LEARNER (ORTAK ÖĞRENİCİ)
TEACHES LANGUAGE VIA SOCIAL TOPICS
EXPERIENCE CENTERED
STUDENTS: INVOLVED PERSONALLY
PROBLEM-POSING AND PROBLEM-SOLVING TASKS
DEBATES
 INFORMATION GAP
ACTIVITY

An Information Gap Activity is an interactive language exercise where learners are given
different sets of information, and they need to communicate with each other to fill in the
missing details. The key feature is that each participant has information that the other(s) do
not possess, creating a gap that must be bridged through communication.
How it Works:
1. Divide Participants: Learners are divided into pairs or small groups.
2. Different Information Sets: Each participant or group receives different information related to a
topic.
3. Communication: Participants must ask each other questions to gather missing information.
4. Fill in the Gap: By sharing and comparing information, participants fill in the gaps in their
knowledge.
Example 1: Travel Plans
Information Set 1:
You want to go on a vacation.
Destination: Paris
Dates: June 15 to June 20
Accommodation: Hotel
Information Set 2:
You also want to go on a vacation.
Destination: Rome
Dates: June 10 to June 18
Accommodation: Airbnb
Participants have to ask each other questions to find out the destination, dates, and
accommodation plans of their partner.
Information Gap Activities are effective for language learners as they encourage communication,
listening, and the use of language in a practical context. They make learning more interactive and
engaging.
 OPINION GAP
ACTIVITY

An Opinion Gap Activity is an interactive language exercise where learners express and
share their opinions on a specific topic. The goal is to engage participants in discussions
that promote the use of language to express personal views and ideas. The key feature is
that participants may have different opinions, creating a gap that encourages
conversation and the exchange of viewpoints.

How it Works:
1. Choose a Topic: Select a topic that allows for diverse opinions, such as favorite movies,
food preferences, or social issues.
2. Divide Participants: Participants can be divided into pairs or small groups.
3. Express Opinions: Each participant or group shares their opinion on the given topic.
4. Discuss and Compare: Participants discuss their views with each other, exploring
differences and similarities.
Example 1: Favorite Book
Prompt:
Participants are asked to share their favorite book and explain why they like it.
Possible Opinions:
"I love 'Harry Potter' because of its magical world and interesting characters."
"My favorite is 'To Kill a Mockingbird' because it addresses important social issues."
"I prefer 'The Hunger Games' because of its suspenseful plot and strong heroine."
Participants express their opinions on their favorite books, leading to discussions on genres,
themes, and literary preferences.
 REASONING GAP
ACTIVITY

A Reasoning Gap Activity is an interactive language exercise where participants engage in

discussions to express and justify their reasoning or opinions on a particular topic. The focus is on
providing reasons or explanations for one's viewpoint. The key feature is that participants may have
different reasons behind their opinions, creating a gap that encourages conversation and the
exploration of diverse perspectives.

How it Works:
1. Choose a Controversial Topic: Select a topic that allows for different reasoning or justifications, such
as whether homework is beneficial or harmful.
2. Divide Participants: Participants can be divided into pairs or small groups.
3. Express Reasoning: Each participant or group shares their opinion on the topic and provides reasons
to support their viewpoint.
4. Discuss and Compare Reasoning: Participants discuss their reasoning with each other, exploring
differences and similarities in the rationale behind their opinions.
Example 1: Homework Policy
Prompt:
Participants are asked to discuss their views on whether having homework is beneficial or not.
Possible Reasoning:
"I believe homework is essential because it reinforces what we learn in class and helps us practice."
"I think too much homework is harmful because it adds stress and takes away from free time."
"Homework should be optional because students have different learning styles and preferences."
Participants express their opinions on homework and provide reasons to support their viewpoints,
leading to discussions on education and learning strategies.
 POST POST METHOD ERA? ECLECTIC APPROACH
METHOD
ERA COMBINING TECHNIQUES FROM VARIOUS METHODS
THERE’S A SHIFT AWAY FROM STRICT METHODS EVERY EDUCATIONAL SETTING IS UNIQUE
DESIRABLE, COHERENT, PLURALISTIC
TEACHERS RECOGNIZE THAT DIFFERENT THE TEACHER CHOOSES THE BEST AND THE MOST
LEARNERS HAVE DIFFERENT NEEDS, AND APPROPRIATE AND USEFUL ASPECTS OF EXISTING
THERE’S NO ONE-SIZE-FITS-ALL APPROACH METHODS
DEDUCTIVE TEACHING→ GRAMMAR
PROBLEM POSING - PROBLEM SOLVING DIVERSE TECHNIQUES AND PRACTICES
FLEXIBILITY
WORKING WITH CLASSMATES IN PAIRS, SMALL FOCUS ON LEARNER-CENTEREDNESS
GROUPS (COLLECTIVE PARTICIPATION) ENGAGING AND PERSONALIZED LEARNING EXPERIENCE

POST-METHOD
PEDAGOGY

NO LIMITATIONS AND RESTRICTIONS

NOT AN ALTERNATIVE METHOD YET “AN ALTERNATIVE TO COMMUNICATION AND REAL-LIFE
METHOD”
CONTEXTS:
MAIN PARAMETERS:
LANGUAGE TEACHING FOCUSES MORE
PARTICULARITY PARAMETER: KINDS OF TECHNIQUES → ON REAL-LIFE COMMUNICATION.
DEPEND ON WHERE, WHEN, AND WHOM THEY ARE
TEACHING PRACTICAL USE OF LANGUAGE IN
PRACTICALITY PARAMETER: A METHOD SHOULD BE AUTHENTIC SITUATIONS IS PRIORITIZED.
APPLICABLE IN REAL LIFE SITUATIONS
TASKS AND ACTIVITIES ARE DESIGNED TO
POSSIBILITY PARAMETER: THE TEACHING METHOD SHOULD
BE SOCIALLY, CULTURALLY, AND POLITICALLY SUITABLE FOR MIRROR SITUATIONS LEARNERS MIGHT
THE SPECIFIC GROUPS OF LEARNERS ENCOUNTER IN THE REAL WORLD.
 COMMON EUROPEAN FRAMEWORK

CEFR
A COMMON BASIS FOR LANGUAGE SYLLABUSES, CURRICULUM, TEXTBOOKS,
→
AND ASSESSMENT TECNIQUES EUROPE
→
MAIN PURPOSE APPLICABLE TO ALL LANGUAGES IN EUROPE
BASIC USER: A1 AND A2
INDEPENDENT USER: B1 AND B2
PROFICIENT USER: C1 AND C2
→
NOT LANGUAGE-SPECIFIC A B1 ENGLISH IS THE SAME AS A B1 CHINESE
OR TURKISH

EUROPEAN LANGUAGE PORTFOLIO

THE LANGUAGE BIOGRAPHY/DIARY: PERSONAL EXPERIENCE OF LEARNER

THE EUROPEAN LANGUAGE PASSPORT: AN OVERVIEW OF THE LANGUAGE
ABILITIES
THE DOSSIER: DOCUMENT INCLUDED SELECTED MATERIALS LIKE WRITTEN,
AUDIO, VIDEO ETC.
 1. COMPUTER-ASSISTED 2. COMMUNICATIVE COGNITIVE 3. INTEGRATIVE-
LANGUAGE LEARNING SOCIOCOGNITIVE-
(CALL) SOCIOCONSTRUCTIVE
GRAMMAR → IMPLICITLY
STRUCTURAL-BEHAVIORISTIC CALL
COMPUTERS → STIMULATE
A. MULTIMEDIA CALL
DISCUSSION, WRITING OR CRITICAL
REPEATED EXPOSURE TO THE THINKING AUTHENTIC LEARNING
SAME MATERIAL →
BENEFICIAL GENERATE ORIGINAL UTTERANCES
→
ENVIRONMENT
OR ESSENTIAL AVOID TELLING ERRORS MULTIMEDIA
REPEATED DRILLS FLEXIBLE
A COMPUTER IS USED AS A
TUTOR →ALLOW STUDENTS →
COMPUTERS → TOOL
B. WEB-BASED CALL
1-CMC
AUTHENTIC SYNCHRONOUS AND
PROCEED OWN PACE AND TIME ASYNCHRONOUS
SAVING COMMUNICATION CHANNELS
TECHNOLOGY IN ELT DIRECTLY, INEXPENSIVELY, AND
CONVENIENTLY
2- THE WEB
LOCATE AND ACCESS AUTHENTIC
WEB 2.0 MATERIALS→ TAILORED TO
WHAT DOES WEB THEIR OWN PERSONAL
2.0 OFFER INTERESTS→ BIÇILMIŞ KAFTAN
- INTERNET CONNECTION →SPEEDIER TEACHERS? CAN PUBLISH TEXT, MULTIMEDIA
- MORE COMPLEX AND DEVELOPED WEB-BASED AND SHARE THEM
SOFTWARE
- IT IS ONLINE→NO NEED FOR DOWNLOADING →
IT IS SOCIALIZATION
FREE COLLABORATION
- COLLABORATIVE ENVIRONMENT → LIKE YOUTUBE
- USERS CONSUME, CREATE, AND EDIT EASILY→ ACTIVE
CREATIVITY
AUTHENTICITY
ROLE