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 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
GRAPH ALGORITHMS, ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES,
CODING THEORY, AND CRYPTOGRAPHY

Sriraman Sridharan and R. Balakrishnan

A Chapman & Hall Book

Discrete Mathematics
Graph Algorithms, Algebraic
Structures, Coding Theory, and
Cryptography
Discrete Mathematics
Graph Algorithms, Algebraic
Structures, Coding Theory, and
Cryptography

R. Balakrishnan
Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, INDIA

Sriraman Sridharan
Laboratoire LAMPS, Département de Mathématiques et
d’Informatique, Université de Perpignan Via Domitia,
Perpignan, FRANCE
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Sridharan, Sriraman, author. | Balakrishnan, R. (Rangaswami), author.

Title: Discrete mathematics : graph algorithms, algebraic structures, coding
theory, and cryptography / Sriraman Sridharan, R. Balakrishnan.
Description: Boca Raton : CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2019. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019011934| ISBN 9780815347392 (hardback : alk. paper) |
ISBN 9780429486326 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Mathematics--Textbooks. | Computer science--Textbooks.
Classification: LCC QA39.3 .S7275 2019 | DDC 511/.1--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019011934

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 The first author, R. Balakrishnan, dedicates this book
affectionately to his granddaughters:
Amirtha and Aparna

The second author, Sriraman Sridharan, dedicates this book in

memory of his thesis supervisor:
Professor Claude Berge
Contents

List of Figures xiii

List of Tables xvii

Preface xix

Acknowledgment xxiii

Authors xxv

1 Graph Algorithms I 1
1.1 Representation of Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Minimum Spanning Tree Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.1 Prim’s minimum spanning tree algorithm . . . . . . . 11
1.2.2 Kruskal’s minimum spanning tree algorithm . . . . . . 19
1.2.3 Rooted ordered trees and traversal of trees . . . . . . 22
1.3 Shortest Path Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.3.1 Single-source shortest path algorithm . . . . . . . . . 24
1.4 Dijkstra’s Algorithm for Negative Weighted Arcs . . . . . . . 33
1.5 All-Pairs Shortest Path Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.5.1 An application of Floyd’s algorithm . . . . . . . . . . 43
1.6 Transitive Closure of a Directed Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.7 An O(n3 ) Transitive Closure Algorithm Due to Warshall . . 47
1.8 Navigation in Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
1.9 Applications of Depth-First Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
1.9.1 Application 1: Finding connected components . . . . . 55
1.9.2 Application 2: Testing acyclic graph . . . . . . . . . . 56
1.9.3 Application 3: Finding biconnected components of a
connected multigraph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
1.10 Depth-First Search for Directed Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
1.11 Applications of Depth-First Search for Directed Graphs . . . 70
1.11.1 Application 1: Finding the roots of a directed
graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
1.11.2 Application 2: Testing if a digraph is without
circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
1.11.3 Application 3: Topological sort . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
1.11.3.1 An application of topological sort: PERT . . 76

vii
viii Contents

1.11.4 Application 4: Strongly connected components

algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
1.12 Traveling Salesman Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
1.12.1 Approximate algorithms for traveling salesman
problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
1.13 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

2 Graph Algorithms II 103

2.1 Breadth-First Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
2.2 Applications of bfs Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
2.3 Matchings in Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
2.3.1 An application: (k − 1)-regular subgraphs of k-regular
graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
2.4 Matrices and Bipartite Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
2.4.1 Personnel assignment problem or weighted matching
in a bipartite graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
2.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

3 Algebraic Structures I (Matrices, Groups, Rings,

and Fields) 147
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
3.2 Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
3.3 Operations on Matrices: Addition, Scalar Multiplication,
and Multiplication of Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
3.3.1 Block multiplication of matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
3.3.2 Transpose of a matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
3.3.3 Inverse of a matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
3.3.4 Symmetric and skew-symmetric matrices . . . . . . . 150
3.3.5 Hermitian and skew-Hermitian matrices . . . . . . . . 150
3.3.6 Orthogonal and unitary matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
3.3.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
3.4 Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
3.4.1 Abelian and non-Abelian groups . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
3.4.2 Examples of Abelian groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
3.4.3 Examples of non-Abelian groups . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
3.4.4 Group tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
3.5 A Group of Congruent Transformations (Also called
Symmetries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
3.6 Another Group of Congruent Transformations . . . . . . . . 157
3.7 Subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
3.7.1 Examples of subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
3.7.2 Subgroup generated by a subset of a group . . . . . . 158
3.8 Cyclic Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
3.8.1 Examples of cyclic groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
3.9 Lagrange’s Theorem for Finite Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
3.10 Homomorphisms and Isomorphisms of Groups . . . . . . . . 166
 Contents ix

3.11 Properties of Homomorphisms of Groups . . . . . . . . . . . 168

3.12 Automorphism of Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
3.13 Normal Subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
3.14 Quotient Groups (or Factor Groups) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
3.15 Basic Isomorphism Theorem for Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
3.15.1 Examples of factor groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
3.16 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
3.17 Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
3.17.1 Rings, definitions and examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
3.17.1.1 Unity element of a ring . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
3.17.2 Units of a ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
3.17.2.1 Units of the ring Zn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
3.17.2.2 Zero divisors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
3.18 Integral Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
3.19 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
3.20 Ideals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
3.21 Principal Ideals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
3.22 Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
3.22.1 Examples of fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
3.23 Characteristic of a Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

4 Algebraic Structures II (Vector Spaces and Finite Fields) 191

4.1 Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
4.1.1 Examples of vector spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
4.2 Subspaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
4.2.1 An example of a subspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
4.3 Spanning Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
4.4 Linear Independence of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
4.5 Bases of a Vector Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
4.6 Dimension of a Vector Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
4.7 Solutions of Linear Equations and Rank of a Matrix . . . . . 201
4.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
4.9 Solutions of Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
4.10 Solutions of Non-Homogeneous Linear Equations . . . . . . 206
4.11 LUP Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
4.11.1 Computing an LU decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
4.12 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
4.13 Finite Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
4.14 Factorization of Polynomials Over Finite Fields . . . . . . . 220
4.15 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
4.16 Mutually Orthogonal Latin Squares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

5 Introduction to Coding Theory 225

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
5.2 Binary Symmetric Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
5.3 Linear Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
x Contents

5.4 Minimum Distance of a Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

5.5 Hamming Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
5.6 Standard Array Decoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
5.7 Sphere Packings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
5.8 Extended Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
5.9 Syndrome Decoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
5.10 Error Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
5.11 Sphere Packing Bound or Hamming Bound . . . . . . . . . . 238
5.12 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
5.13 Cyclic Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
5.14 Dual Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
5.15 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

6 Cryptography 249
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
6.2 Some Classical Cryptosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
6.2.1 Caesar cryptosystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
6.2.2 Affine cryptosystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
6.2.3 Private key cryptosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
6.2.4 Hacking an affine cryptosystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
6.3 Encryption Using Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
6.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
6.5 Other Private Key Cryptosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
6.5.1 Vigenere cipher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
6.5.2 The one-time pad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
6.6 Public Key Cryptography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
6.6.1 Working of public key cryptosystems . . . . . . . . . . 257
6.6.1.1 Transmission of messages . . . . . . . . . . . 257
6.6.1.2 Digital signature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
6.6.2 RSA public key cryptosystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
6.6.2.1 Description of RSA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
6.6.3 The ElGamal public key cryptosystem . . . . . . . . . 260
6.6.4 Description of ElGamal system . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
6.7 Primality Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
6.7.1 Non-trivial square roots (mod n) . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
6.7.2 Prime Number Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
6.7.3 Pseudo-primality testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
6.7.3.1 Base-2 Pseudo-prime test . . . . . . . . . . . 263
6.7.4 Miller-Rabin Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
6.7.5 Horner’s method to evaluate a polynomial . . . . . . . 263
6.7.6 Modular exponentiation algorithm based on repeated
squaring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
6.8 The Agrawal-Kayal-Saxena (AKS) Primality Testing
Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
6.8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
 Contents xi

6.8.2 The basis of AKS algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267

6.8.3 Notation and preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
6.8.4 The AKS algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

Appendix A: Answers to Chapter 1—Graph Algorithms I 279

Appendix B: Answers to Chapter 2—Graph Algorithms II 287

Appendix C: Answers to Chapter 3—Algebraic Structures I 289

Appendix D: Answers to Chapter 4—Algebraic Structures II 295

Appendix E: Answers to Chapter 5—Introduction

to Coding Theory 299

Appendix F: Answers to Chapter 6—Cryptography 303

Bibliography 307

Index 311
List of Figures

1.1 Geometric representation of a graph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.2 A multigraph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Incidence matrix of a graph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 A graph and its adjacency lists. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5 A multigraph and its adjacency lists. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6 Linked lists representation of graph of Figure 1.5. . . . . . . 6
1.7 A tree. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.8 A weighted graph G and its spanning tree T . . . . . . . . . 12
1.9 A minimum spanning tree T  of G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.10 A step in the proof of Prim’s algorithm. . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.11 Kruskal’s minimum spanning tree T  of G. . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.12 Recursive definition of a rooted tree. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.13 Illustration of tree traversals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.14 A directed weighted graph G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.15 A minimum spanning arborescence A of Figure 1.14. . . . . 25
1.16 A step in the proof of Dijkstra’s algorithm. . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.17 Illustration of Dijkstra’s algorithm for negative weighted arcs. 33
1.18 A step illustrating Floyd’s algorithm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.19 A digraph on which Floyd’s algorithm is executed. . . . . . 39
1.20 A tree illustrating different recursive call interpath(4,2). . . 43
1.21 Graph illustrating eccentricities, radius and diameter. . . . 43
1.22 A graph to illustrate transitive closure. . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
1.23 The transitive closure of the graph of Figure 1.22. . . . . . . 46
1.24 A simple graph to illustrate depth-first search. . . . . . . . 51
1.25 Illustration of depth-first search algorithm. . . . . . . . . . . 52
1.26 Illustration of cut points and bridges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
1.27 Illustration of biconnected components of a graph. . . . . . 60
1.28 Depth-first search of the graph of Figure 1.27. . . . . . . . . 61
1.29 Digraph to illustrate the depth-first search. . . . . . . . . . . 69
1.30 Depth-first search of graph of Figure 1.29. . . . . . . . . . . 69
1.31 Illustration to test if a graph is acyclic. . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
1.32 A graph to illustrate topological sort. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
1.33 Topological sorting of the graph of Figure 1.32. . . . . . . . 73
1.34 An activity digraph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
1.35 A graph and its strongly connected components. . . . . . . . 80

xiii
xiv List of Figures

1.36 Illustration of strong components algorithm. . . . . . . . . . 81

1.37 dfs: strong components algorithm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
1.38 Illustrating the traveling salesman problem. . . . . . . . . . 91
1.39 Illustration of Fleury’s algorithm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
1.40 Spanning tree of Figure 1.38. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
1.41 Doubling the edges of the tree of Figure 1.40. . . . . . . . . 98
1.42 A weighted simple graph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
1.43 A weighted directed graph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
1.44 A simple connected graph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
2.1 A graph G and its breadth-first search, bfs(G). . . . . . . . 104
2.2 Breadth-first search tree of graph G of Figure 2.1. . . . . . . 104
2.3 An example of a geodetic graph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
2.4 Algorithm to test if a connected graph is bipartite. . . . . . 111
2.5 Finding a bipartition of a bipartite graph G of Figure 2.5. . 112
2.6 Illustration of matchings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
2.7 A 3-regular graph without a perfect matching. . . . . . . . . 114
2.8 Illustration of the dancing problem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
2.9 A graph and its alternating paths. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
2.10 A graph G and the spanning subgraph induced by
M1 ΔM2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
2.11 An outline of maximum matching algorithm. . . . . . . . . . 120
2.12 A graph to illustrate matching algorithm. . . . . . . . . . . 121
2.13 Algorithm to find a (k − 1)-regular subgraph in a k-regular
graph with no induced star K1,3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
2.14 A perfect matching in bipartite graph. . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
2.15 A graph to illustrate the idea of a succinct certificate. . . . . 125
2.16 A bipartite graph and its corresponding (0,1) matrix. . . . . 127
2.17 A bipartite graph G and a partial M -alternating tree. . . . 134
2.18 Informal algorithm for finding an M -augmenting path. . . . 135
2.19 Algorithm to find a matching that saturates all the vertices
of the set X1 or else a succinct certificate. . . . . . . . . . . 136
2.20 The graph Gl , where l is the good label. . . . . . . . . . . . 140
2.21 An M -alternating tree A of Gl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
2.22 An M -alternating tree A1 of Gl1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
2.23 The graph Gl2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
2.24 Kuhn-Munkres algorithm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
3.1 An example for quotient group. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
5.1 Communication channel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
5.2 Binary symmetric channel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
5.3 Standard array decoding of Z72 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
5.4 Form of the parity-check matrix of Hm (m ≥ 2). . . . . . . . 234
5.5 Case when two spheres intersect. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
A.1 A weighted simple graph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
A.2 A weighted directed graph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
 List of Figures xv

A.3 A simple connected graph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282

A.4 A dfs drawing of the graph of Figure A.3. . . . . . . . . . . 283
A.5 dfs: strong components algorithm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
A.6 dfs: topological sort. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
B.1 The Petersen graph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
List of Tables

1.1 Execution of Prim’s algorithm on graph of Figure 1.8 . . . . 14

1.2 Sorting the edges of graph Figure 1.8 in order of
increasing cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.3 Execution of Kruskal’s algorithm on the graph G of
Figure 1.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.4 Execution of Dijkstra’s algorithm on the graph of
Figure 1.14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.5 Execution of Dijkstra’s algorithm on Figure 1.17 . . . . . . 33
1.6 Execution of improved Dijkstra’s algorithm on
Figure 1.17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.7 Eccentricity table of graph of Figure 1.21 . . . . . . . . . . . 44
1.8 Depth-first search number table of graph G of
Figure 1.25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
1.9 Depth-first search number (dfsn) table of the graph of
Figure 1.28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
1.10 LOW function table of the graph of Figure 1.28 . . . . . . . 62
1.11 Depth-first search number (dfsn) table of graph of
Figure 1.37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
1.12 LOWLINK function table of graph of Figure 1.37 . . . . . . 83
1.13 Three tours of Figure 1.38 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
1.14 Execution of NN algorithm on Figure 1.38 . . . . . . . . . . 94
1.15 An approximate algorithm for TSP using MST . . . . . . . 96
1.16 Informal Fleury algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
1.17 An approximate algorithm for TSP using a minimum
matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
2.1 Checker board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
2.2 Domino . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
2.3 Execution of matching algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
2.4 Brute-force weighted matching algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . 138
3.1 Group table of Klein’s 4-group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
3.2 Group table of the dihedral group D3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
6.1 Numerical equivalents of English characters . . . . . . . . . 250
6.2 Horner’s method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
6.3 Modular exponentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
6.4 Certificate of compositeness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
6.5 Miller-Rabin primality testing algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . 266
A.1 Execution of Prim’s algorithm on graph of Figure A.1 . . . 280

xvii
xviii List of Tables

A.2 Execution of Dijkstra’s algorithm on the graph of

Figure A.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
A.3 Evaluation of dad array in Dijkstra’s algorithm of
Figure A.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
A.4 Dfsn table of graph of Figure A.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
A.5 LOW function table of the graph of Figure A.4 . . . . . . . 282
A.6 dfsn table of graph of Figure 1.38 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
A.7 LOWLINK function table of graph of Figure 1.38 . . . . . . 284
B.1 Execution of matching algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
C.1 Numerical equivalents for English characters . . . . . . . . . 293
Preface

Discrete Mathematics and Programming courses are all-pervasive in Com-

puter Science, Mathematics, and Engineering curricula. This book is intended
for undergraduate/graduate students of Computer Science, Mathematics, and
Engineering. The book is in continuation of our first book, Foundations of
Discrete Mathematics with Algorithms and Programming (CRC Press, 2018).
The student with a certain mathematical maturity and who has programmed
in a high-level language like C (although C is not such a high-level language) or
Pascal can use this book for self-study and reference. A glance at the Table of
Contents will reveal that the book deals with fundamental graph algorithms,
elements of matrix theory, groups, rings, ideals, vector spaces, finite fields,
coding theory, and cryptography. A number of examples have been given to
enhance the understanding of concepts. The programming languages used are
Pascal and C. The aim of the book is to bring together advanced Discrete
Mathematics with Algorithms and Programming for the student community.

Scope of the Book

In Chapter 1 on Graph Algorithms I, we study various algorithms on graphs.
Unfortunately, the graphs are not manipulated by their geometrical repre-
sentation inside a computer. We start with two important representations of
graphs, the adjacency matrix representation, and the adjacency list represen-
tation. Of course, we have to choose a representation so that the operations
of our algorithm can be performed in order to minimize the number of ele-
mentary operations.
After seeing how the graphs are represented inside a computer, two mini-
mum spanning tree algorithms in a connected simple graph with weights asso-
ciated with each edge, one due to Prim and the other invented by Kruskal,
are presented.
Then, shortest path problems in a weighted directed graph are studied.
First, the single-source shortest path problem due to Dijkstra is presented.
Next, the single-source shortest path algorithm for negative edge weights is
given. Then, the all-pairs shortest path problem due to Floyd and the transi-
tive closure algorithm by Warshall are given. Floyd’s algorithm is applied to
find the eccentricities of vertices, radius, and diameter of a graph.

xix
xx Preface

Finally, we study a well-known graph traversal technique, called depth-first

search. As applications of the graph traversal method, we study the algorithms
to find connected components, biconnected components, strongly connected
components, topological sort, and PERT (program evaluation and research
technique). In the last subsection, we study the famous NP-complete problem,
the traveling salesman problem (TSP) and present a brute force algorithm and
two approximate algorithms.
In Chapter 2: Graph Algorithms II, we introduce another systematic way
of searching a graph, known as breadth-first search. Testing if a given graph
is geodetic and finding a bipartition of a bipartite graph are given as applica-
tions. Next, matching theory is studied in detail. Berge’s characterization of
a maximum matching using an alternating chain and the König-Hall the-
orem for bipartite graphs are proved. We consider matrices and bipartite
graphs: Birkhoff-von-Neumann theorem concerning doubly stochastic matri-
ces is proved. Then, the bipartite matching algorithm using the tree-growing
procedure (Hungarian method) is studied. The Kuhn-Munkres algorithm con-
cerning maximum weighted bipartite matching is presented. Flows in trans-
portation networks are studied.
Chapter 3: Algebraic Structures I deals with the basic properties of the
fundamental algebraic structures, namely, groups, rings, and fields. The sec-
tions on matrices deal with the inverse of a non-singular matrix, Hermitian
and skew-Hermitian matrices, as well as orthogonal and unitary matrices. The
sections on groups deal with Abelian and non-Abelian groups, subgroups,
homomorphisms, and the basic isomorphism theorem for groups. We then
pass on to discuss rings, subrings, integral domains, ideals, fields, and their
characteristics. A number of illustrative examples are presented.
In Chapter 4 on Algebraic Structures II, we deal with vector spaces and
their applications to solutions of systems of linear homogeneous and non-
homogeneous equations. To be specific, bases of a vector space, the dimension
of a vector space, and linear independence of vectors are discussed. As applica-
tions of these concepts, solutions of linear equations over the real field are dealt
with. Moreover, the LUP decomposition of a system of homogeneous/non-
homogeneous linear equations is discussed in detail. This is followed by illus-
trative examples. Finally, a detailed discussion on finite fields is presented.
Coding theory has its origin in communication engineering. It has been
greatly influenced by mathematics. Chapter 5, Introduction to Coding The-
ory, provides an introduction to linear codes. In particular, we discuss genera-
tor matrices and parity-check matrices, Hamming codes, sphere packings and
syndrome coding, cyclic codes, and dual codes. The algebraic concepts that
are used in this chapter have all been discussed in Chapters 3 and 4.
Chapter 6 deals with cryptography. Cryptography is the science of trans-
mitting messages in a secured way. Naturally, it has become a major tool
in these days of e-commerce, defense, etc. To start with, we discuss some of
the classical cryptosystems like the Caesar cryptosystem, the affine cryptosys-
tem, cryptosystems using matrices, Vigenere ciphers, and the one-time pad.
The most important and widely used cryptosystem is the RSA. We discuss
 Preface xxi

this system as well as the ElGamal cryptosystem. RSA is built on very large
prime numbers. So, this gives rise to the following natural question: Given a
large positive integer, how do we test if the given number is prime or not?
We briefly discuss the Miller-Rabin primality testing algorithm. This is a ran-
domized probabilistic algorithm to test if a given number is prime or not.
However, the problem of finding a deterministic polynomial-time algorithm to
test if a given number is prime or not remained unsolved until the Agrawal-
Kayal-Saxena (AKS) primality testing algorithm was proposed in 2002. We
present this algorithm, its proof, and some illustrative examples.

Use of the Book

The instructor has a great deal of flexibility in choosing the material from
the book. For example, the chapters on graph algorithms I and II may be
suitable for a course on “graphs and algorithms.” The chapters on algebraic
structures I and II and the chapters on coding theory and cryptography may
form a course on “Applied Algebra.” Many illustrative examples have been
given to help the understanding of the concepts. Algorithms are expressed
as informal pseudo-codes and programs in Pascal/C. Of course, these can be
easily translated into any language like C++, JAVA, etc. Exercises at the end
of each chapter/section test the understanding of the concepts developed in
the text.
We feel that the presentation of these chapters would go a long way in
providing a solid foundation in Discrete Mathematics to the students of Math-
ematics, Computer Science, and Engineering.
Acknowledgment

Parts of this book have been taught in Indian and French universities. The
authors thank N. Sridharan for going through some of the chapters and offer-
ing constructive suggestions, and Jaikumar Radhakrishnan and Arti Pandey
for their inputs on Chapter 6 to cryptography. They also thank A. Anu-
radha, R. Dhanalakshmi, N. Geetha, and G. Janani Jayalakshmi for their
help in typesetting. We take this opportunity to thank our institutions,
Bharathidasan University, Tamil Nadu, India and Université de Perpignan
Via Domitia, France, for their academic support. Our thanks are also due
to the faculties in our departments whose encouragement proved vital to
attain our goal. We also thank the four anonymous reviewers for suggest-
ing some changes on the initial version of the book. Last but not least, we
thank Aastha Sharma and Shikha Garg of CRC Press for their kind under-
standing of our problems and for their patience until the completion of our
manuscript.
The second author (S.S.) expresses his deep gratitude to (Late) Professor
K. R. Parthasarathy of the Indian Institute of Technology, Chennai, India,
for introducing him to Graph Theory and guiding his Ph.D. thesis. He is
also indebted to (Late) Professor Claude Berge, one of the greatest pio-
neers in Graph Theory and Combinatorics, who invited him to CAMS (Cen-
tre d’Analyse et de Mathématique Sociale) and guided his doctoral work in
Paris. Claude Berge had been a source of immense inspiration to him. Spe-
cial thanks are also due to Professors R. Balasubramanian (A. M. Jain Col-
lege, TN, India), Philippe Chrétienne (Université de Pierre et Marie Curie),
Robert Cori (Université de Bordeaux I), Alain Fougère (UPVD), Michel
Las Vergnas (CNRS), UFR secretaries Mme. Fabienne Pontramont (UPVD),
Mme. Dominique Bevilis (UPVD), Mircea Sofonea (Directeur de Laboratoire
LAMPS, UPVD), Michel Ventou (UPVD), Annick Truffert (Dean of the Fac-
ulty of Sciences, UPVD). Many thanks are also due to my students of UPVD
for their feedback. We are responsible for all the remaining errors, but still,
we feel that the initial readers of this book could smoke out some more bugs.
Though it is not in the Hindu custom to explicitly thank family members,
he would like to break this tradition and thank his wife, Dr. Usha Sridharan,
and his daughters, Ramapriya and Sripriya, for putting up with unusually
prolonged absence, as well as Dheeraj.
The entire book was composed using the TEX and LATEX systems developed
by D. E. Knuth and L. Lamport.

xxiii
xxiv Acknowledgment

The authors welcome corrections, comments, and criticisms from read-

ers, which would be gratefully acknowledged. They can be sent by email to:
[email protected].

R. Balakrishnan
Sriraman Sridharan
Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India
Perpignan, France
August 2018
Authors

R. Balakrishnan studied at the Annamalai Uni-

versity, India for his Honours degree. He got
his Ph.D. degree from the University of Mary-
land, USA. His fields of interest are combinato-
rial designs, graph colorings, and spectral graph
theory. He is a coauthor for the books A Text-
book of Graph Theory, Springer, Second Edition
(2012) and Foundations of Discrete Mathemat-
ics with Algorithms and Programming, CRC Press
(2018).

Sriraman Sridharan is a member of the LAMPS

Research Laboratory and teaches in the Department
of Computer Science of the Université de Perpignan
Via Domitia, France. He has been with The Univer-
sité de Bordeaux and The Université de Pierre et
Marie Curie, Paris. He is a coauthor of the book Foun-
dations of Discrete Mathematics with Algorithms and
Programming, CRC Press (2018). He earned his Ph.D.
in Paris under the guidance of Professor Claude
Berge.

xxv
Chapter 1
Graph Algorithms I

The aim of physical sciences is not the provision of pictures, but the
discovery of laws governing the phenomena and the application of
these laws to discover new phenomena. If a picture exists, so much the
better. Whether a picture exists or not is only a matter of secondary
importance.

P. Dirac

In this chapter, we study various algorithms on graphs. Unfortunately, the

graphs are not manipulated by their geometrical representation inside a com-
puter. We start with two important representations of graphs: the adjacency
matrix representation and the adjacency list representation. Of course, we
have to choose a representation so that the operations of our algorithm can
be performed in order to minimize the number of elementary operations.
After seeing how the graphs are represented inside a computer, two min-
imum spanning tree algorithms in a connected simple graph with weights
associated to each edge, one due to Prim and the other invented by Kruskal
are presented. Then, shortest path problems in a weighted directed graph are
studied. First, the single-source shortest path problem due to Dijkstra is pre-
sented. As an application, an algorithm is given to test the bipartiteness of a
graph. Next, a single-source shortest path algorithm for negative edge weights
is given. Then, all-pairs shortest path problem due to Floyd and the transitive
closure algorithm by Warshall are given. Floyd’s algorithm is applied to find
eccentricities of vertices, radius and diameter of a graph.
Finally, we study a well-known graph traversal technique, called depth-first
search. As applications of the graph traversal method, we study the algorithms
to find connected components, biconnected components, strongly connected
components, topological sort and program evaluation and research technique
(PERT). In the last subsection, we study the famous NP-complete problem,
traveling salesman problem (TSP) and present the brute-force algorithm and
two approximate algorithms. For basic properties of graphs and digraphs, the
reader may see [6].

1.1 Representation of Graphs

Consider the graph of Figure 1.1 represented geometrically [3].

1
2 Discrete Mathematics

FIGURE 1.1: Geometric representation of a graph.

This graph of Figure 1.1 on 4 vertices is represented by the following 4 × 4

matrix M : (For a formal treatment on matrices, see Chapter 3.).

1 2 3 4
⎛ ⎞
1 1 1 0 1
2⎜0 0 0 0⎟
M= ⎜ ⎟
3⎝0 2 0 0⎠
4 0 0 1 0

Here, 4 is the number of vertices of the graph. The (i, j) entry of the above
matrix M is simply the number of arcs with its initial vertex at i and the
terminal vertex at j. This matrix is called the adjacency matrix of the graph
of figure.
More generally, for a n vertex graph G with vertex set X = {1, 2, . . . , n},
the adjacency matrix of G is the n × n matrix M = (mij ) where

mij = number of arcs of the form (i, j).

Memory space for the adjacency matrix: Since an n × n matrix has exactly n2
entries, the memory space necessary for the adjacency matrix representation
of a graph is of order O(n2 ). The time complexity of initializing a graph by
its adjacency graph is O(n2 ). This may preclude algorithms on graphs whose
complexities are of order strictly less than n2 .
Properties of the adjacency matrix: Let M denote the adjacency matrix of
a graph with vertex set X = {1, 2, . . . , n}. Then, by the definition of the
adjacency matrix, we have the following properties:
1. The sum of the entries of the ith row of M is equal to the out-degree of
the vertex i.

2. The sum of the entries of the jth column of M is equal to the in-degree
of the vertex j.

3. The sum of all the entries of the matrix M is the number of arcs of the
graph.
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
domestics, who, besides aiding to undress and dress them, serve
them with every species of refreshment. Among these attendants
the man of most consequence is the dellâk or barber. For he who
has the honour to bathe and shave a king must not only be perfect
in his art, but also a man altogether trustworthy; and confidence
amongst eastern rulers is usually followed by favour, and with favour
comes fortune. This accounts for barbers building bridges in Persia!
I was one day speaking to my friend Meerzâ Aga of the munificence
of the barber of the great Abbas, in a manner which implied doubt
of the fact. He observed he knew not whether the barbers of the
Seffavean monarchs built bridges, but "I do know," he said, "that the
Khâsterâsh (literally personal shaver) of our present sovereign has,
in the abundance of his wealth, built a palace for himself close to the
royal bath at Teheran. Then," said the good Meerzâ, "he is entitled
to riches, for he is a man of pre-eminent excellence in his art, and
has had for a long period under his special care the magnificent
beard of his majesty, which is at this moment, and has been for
years, the pride of Persia."
"Well," I replied, "if your personal shaver has built such a mansion, I
will no longer doubt the wealth of the barber of Shâh Abbas, for that
monarch, though he wore no beard, had, we are told by travellers,
and observe from paintings, a noble pair of mustachoes, of which he
is said to have been very proud; and the trimmer of which no doubt
was, as he deserved to be, a great favourite."
This conversation led to a long dissertation on mustachoes and
beards, upon which subject my travels to countries that my Persian
friends had never seen enabled me to give them much useful
information.
I told them many stories about the Sikhs, a nation dwelling between
the territories of Cabool and India, who, devoting their beards and
whiskers to the goddess of destruction, are always prompt to
destroy any one who meddles with them; and who, from a combined
feeling of religion and honour, look upon the preservation of life itself
as slight in comparison with the preservation of a hair of their
beards.
I next informed them how beards, whiskers, and mustachoes were
once honoured in Europe. I told them an anecdote of the great John
De Castro, a former governor of Goa, the capital of the Portuguese
possessions in India. He being in want of a considerable loan from
the citizens of Goa for a military expedition, was at a loss for an
adequate security[103]. His first intention was to pledge the bones of
his gallant son Don Fernando, who had recently fallen in battle; but
finding, on opening the grave, that the carcass was putrid, he
offered, as next dear to his personal honour, a lock of his cherished
mustachoes. This security was accepted, but immediately returned
with more than the amount required; young and old vying with each
other who should show most respect to so valuable a pledge.
The Persians of my audience twisted their mustachoes with a
combined feeling of pleasure and pride on hearing this testimony to
the value of that ornament of the visage; and Khan Sâhib, who was
one of the party, said to me with a smile, "You gentlemen with the
mission wear mustachoes in compliance with the prejudices of the
Persians; but is it true that many officers of your cavalry now wear
them, and that they are again likely to become popular in England?"
I said, perhaps they might; adding, I had no doubt that would be
the case, if there appeared the slightest chance of their ever turning
to account in the money-market, like those of John de Castro.
But I must quit this curious and interesting subject to proceed with
my narration. At Pool-e-Dellâk the Elchee received letters from the
prime minister Hajee Ibrahim, congratulating him upon his near
approach to the capital. "My house," the Hajee wrote, "is assigned
for your residence; and I am to be honoured by having you as my
guest as long as you remain at the abode of sovereignty."
The minister also addressed letters to the mehmandar and to the
secretaries of the Elchee, to inquire the exact time of his intended
entry into Teheran, and to learn the hours at which he took his
meals, the dishes of which he was fondest, and every other minute
particular that could enable him to perform the task he had
undertaken to his own satisfaction and that of the king, whom he
represented as very anxious that every thing should be done to
honour and please the British representatives.
From the Barber's Bridge to our next stage was nearly fifty miles. We
crossed a salt desert,[104] which Hajee Hoosein informed me, as he
handed me the long snake of the kelliân, was once a sea; but at the
birth of Mahomed it dried up, and thus became one of the many
miracles to testify the importance to the world of that auspicious
event.
The change of surface, from a crust of white clay impregnated with
salt, to a stony plain, indicated that we had passed the desert. We
immediately afterwards came to a rugged and broken road, through
the most frightful precipices and ravines I had ever seen. "I wish
these ravines had been made smooth at your prophet's birth," I said
to my friend the Hajee, who continued riding along with me. "Here
also," said he, in a half alarmed voice, "a miracle was effected, but it
was not completed. This dreadful place is called the 'Valley of the
Angel of Death.'[105] That terrific minister of God's wrath, according
to tradition, has resting-places upon the earth, and this is one of his
favourite abodes. He is surrounded by ghools, horrid beings, who,
when he takes away life, feast upon the carcasses.
"The natural shape of these monsters," said Hajee Hoosein, "is
terrible; but they can assume those of animals, such as cows or
camels, or whatever they choose, often appearing to men as their
relations or friends, and then they do not only transform their
shapes, but their voices also are altered. The frightful screams and
yells, which are often heard amid these dreaded ravines, are
changed for the softest and most melodious notes; unwary
travellers, deluded by the appearance of friends, or captivated by the
forms, and charmed by the music, of these demons, are allured from
their path, and after feasting for a few hours on every luxury, are
consigned to destruction.
"The number of these ghools," said the Hajee, "has greatly
decreased since the birth of the prophet, and they have no power to
hurt those who pronounce his name in sincerity of faith. But, what is
that?" said he, spurring his horse, and upsetting the top of the
kullean which he had in his hand, while he repeated aloud the name
of Mahomet, which now resounded through the line. I was myself
not a little startled at seeing a camel, which is one of the shapes the
ghools take, but found, on recovering from my momentary alarm,
that it was one of our own, which, trying to pass a little to the right
of our path, had fallen over a precipice with its load.
When the Hajee rejoined me, he was far from being convinced that
the camel which had fallen was the same he had at first seen. "It
was probable," he said, "that a ghool, by the shape he assumed, had
enticed our animal to follow him, and the latter would certainly have
been lost but for my presence of mind and timely exclamations.
These creatures," he added, "are the very lowest of the supernatural
world, and, besides being timid, are extremely stupid, and
consequently often imposed upon by artful men. I will recount you,"
he said, "a story that is well authenticated, to prove that what I say
is just." I told him I was all attention, and he commenced his tale.
"You know," said he, "that the natives of Isfahan, though not brave,
are the most crafty and acute people upon earth, and often supply
the want of courage by their address. An inhabitant of that city was
once compelled to travel alone at night through this dreadful valley.
He was a man of ready wit, and fond of adventures, and, though no
lion, had great confidence in his cunning, which had brought him
through a hundred scrapes and perils that would have embarrassed
or destroyed your simple man of valour.
"This man, whose name was Ameen Beg, had heard many stories of
the ghools of the 'Valley of the Angel of Death,' and thought it likely
he might meet one. He prepared accordingly, by putting an egg and
a lump of salt in his pocket. He had not gone far amidst the rocks
we have just passed, when he heard a voice crying 'Holloa, Ameen
Beg Isfahânee! you are going the wrong road, you will lose yourself;
come this way; I am your friend Kerreem Beg; I know your father,
old Kerbela Beg, and the street in which you were born.' Ameen
knew well the power the ghools had of assuming the shape of any
person they choose; and he also knew their skill as genealogists,
and their knowledge of towns as well as families; he had therefore
little doubt this was one of those creatures alluring him to
destruction. He, however, determined to encounter him, and trust to
his art for his escape.
"'Stop, my friend, till I come near you,' was his reply. When Ameen
came close to the Ghool, he said, 'You are not my friend Kerreem,
you are a lying demon, but you are just the being I desired to meet.
I have tried my strength against all the men and all the beasts which
exist in the natural world, and I can find nothing that is a match for
me. I came therefore to this valley in the hope of encountering a
ghool, that I might prove my prowess upon him.'
"The Ghool, astonished at being addressed in this manner, looked
keenly at him, and said, 'Son of Adam, you do not appear so strong.'
'Appearances are deceitful,' replied Ameen, 'but I will give you a
proof of my strength. There,' said he, picking up a stone from a
rivulet, 'this contains a fluid; try if you can so squeeze it, that it will
flow out.' The Ghool took the stone, but after a short attempt
returned it, saying 'the thing is impossible.' 'Quite easy,' said the
Isfahânee, taking the stone and placing it in the hand in which he
had before put the egg: 'Look there!' and the astonished Ghool,
while he heard what he took for the breaking of the stone, saw the
liquid run from between Ameen's fingers, and this apparently
without any effort.
"Ameen, aided by the darkness, placed the stone upon the ground
while he picked up another of a darker hue. 'This,' said he, 'I can see
contains salt, as you will find if you can crumble it between your
fingers;' but the Ghool looking at it confessed he had neither
knowledge to discover its qualities, nor strength to break it. 'Give it
me,' said his companion impatiently, and having put it into the same
hand with the piece of salt, he instantly gave the latter all crushed to
the Ghool, who seeing it reduced to powder, tasted it, and remained
in stupid astonishment at the skill and strength of this wonderful
man. Neither was he without alarm lest his strength should be
exerted against himself, and he saw no safety in resorting to the
shape of a beast, for Ameen had warned him, that if he commenced
any such unfair dealing, he would instantly slay him; for ghools,
though long-lived, are not immortal.
"Under such circumstances he thought his best plan was to
conciliate the friendship of his new companion, till he found an
opportunity of destroying him.
"'Most wonderful man,' he said, 'will you honour my abode with your
presence; it is quite at hand: there you will find every refreshment;
and after a comfortable night's rest you can resume your journey.'
"'I have no objection, friend Ghool, to accept your offer; but mark
me, I am, in the first place, very passionate, and must not be
provoked by any expressions which are in the least disrespectful;
and in the second, I am full of penetration, and can see through
your designs as clearly as I saw into that hard stone in which I
discovered salt; so take care you entertain none that are wicked, or
you shall suffer.'
"The Ghool declared that the ear of his guest should be pained by
no expression to which it did not befit his dignity to listen; and he
swore by the head of his liege lord, the Angel of Death, that he
would faithfully respect the rights of hospitality and friendship.
"Thus satisfied, Ameen followed the Ghool through a number of
crooked paths, rugged cliffs, and deep ravines, till they came to a
large cave, which was dimly lighted. 'Here,' said the Ghool, 'I dwell,
and here my friend will find all he can want for refreshment and
repose.' So saying, he led him to various apartments, in which were
hoarded every species of grain, and all kinds of merchandise,
plundered from travellers who had been deluded to this den, and of
whose fate Ameen was too well informed by the bones over which
he now and then stumbled, and by the putrid smell produced by
some half consumed carcasses.
"'This will be sufficient for your supper, I hope,' said the Ghool,
taking up a large bag of rice; 'a man of your prowess must have a
tolerable appetite.' 'True,' said Ameen, 'but I eat a sheep and as
much rice as you have there before I proceeded on my journey. I
am, consequently, not hungry, but will take a little lest I offend your
hospitality.' 'I must boil it for you,' said the demon; 'you do not eat
grain and meat raw, as we do. Here is a kettle,' said he, taking up
one lying amongst the plundered property. 'I will go and get wood
for a fire, while you fetch water with that,' pointing to a bag made of
the hides of six oxen.
"Ameen waited till he saw his host leave the cave for the wood, and
then with great difficulty he dragged the enormous bag to the bank
of a dark stream which issued from the rocks at the other end of the
cavern, and after being visible for a few yards disappeared under
ground.
"How shall I, thought Ameen, prevent my weakness being
discovered; this bag I could hardly manage when empty, when full it
would require twenty strong men to carry it; what shall I do? I shall
certainly be eaten up by this cannibal Ghool, who is now only kept in
order by the impression of my great strength. After some minutes'
reflection, the Isfahânee thought of a scheme, and began digging a
small channel from the stream, towards the place where his supper
was preparing.
"'What are you doing?' vociferated the Ghool, as he advanced
towards him; 'I sent you for water to boil a little rice and you have
been an hour about it. Cannot you fill the bag and bring it away?'
'Certainly I can,' said Ameen. 'If I were content, after all your
kindness, to show my gratitude merely by feats of brute strength, I
could lift your stream if you had a bag large enough to hold it; but
here,' said he, pointing to the channel he had begun, 'here is the
commencement of a work in which the mind of a man is employed
to lessen the labour of his body. This canal, small as it may appear,
will carry a stream to the other end of the cave, in which I will
construct a dam that you can open and shut at pleasure, and
thereby save yourself infinite trouble in fetching water. But pray let
me alone till it is finished,' and he began to dig. 'Nonsense,' said the
Ghool, seizing the bag and filling it; 'I will carry the water myself,
and I advise you to leave off your canal, as you call it, and follow
me, that you may eat your supper and go to sleep; you may finish
this fine work if you like it to-morrow morning.'
"Ameen congratulated himself on this escape, and was not slow in
taking the advice of his host. After having eat heartily of the supper
that was prepared, he went to repose on a bed made of the richest
coverlets and pillows, which were taken from one of the store-rooms
of plundered goods. The Ghool, whose bed was also in the cave, had
no sooner laid down than he fell into a sound sleep. The anxiety of
Ameen's mind prevented him from following his example: he rose
gently, and having stuffed a long pillow into the middle of this bed,
to make it appear as if he were still there, he retired to a concealed
place in the cavern to watch the proceedings of the Ghool. The latter
awoke a short time before daylight, and rising, went, without making
any noise, towards Ameen's bed, where not observing the least stir,
he was satisfied that his guest was in a deep sleep, so he took up
one of his walking sticks, which was in size like the trunk of a tree,
and struck a terrible blow at what he supposed to be Ameen's head.
He smiled not to hear a groan, thinking he had deprived him of life;
but to make sure of his work, he repeated the blow seven times. He
then returned to rest, but had hardly settled himself to sleep, when
Ameen, who had crept into the bed, raised his head above the
clothes and exclaimed, 'Friend Ghool, what insect could it be that
has disturbed me by its tapping? I counted the flap of its little wings
seven times on the coverlet. These vermin are very annoying, for
though they cannot hurt a man, they disturb his rest!'
"The Ghool's dismay on hearing Ameen speak at all was great, but
that was increased to perfect fright when he heard him describe
seven blows, any one of which would have felled an elephant, as
seven flaps of an insect's wing. There was no safety, he thought,
near so wonderful a man, and he soon afterwards arose and fled
from the cave, leaving the Isfahânee its sole master.
"When Ameen found his host gone, he was at no loss to conjecture
the cause, and immediately began to survey the treasures with
which he was surrounded, and to contrive means for removing them
to his home.
"After examining the contents of the cave, and arming himself with a
matchlock, which had belonged to some victim of the Ghool, he
proceeded to survey the road. He had, however only gone a short
distance when he saw the Ghool returning with a large club in his
hand, and accompanied by a fox. Ameen's knowledge of the cunning
animal instantly led him to suspect that it had undeceived his enemy,
but his presence of mind did not forsake him. 'Take that,' said he to
the fox, aiming a ball at him from his matchlock, and shooting him
through the head; 'take that for your not performing my orders. That
brute,' said he, 'promised to bring me seven ghools, that I might
chain them, and carry them to Isfahan, and here he has only
brought you, who are already my slave.' So saying, he advanced
towards the Ghool; but the latter had already taken to flight, and by
the aid of his club bounded so rapidly over rocks and precipices, that
he was soon out of sight.
"Ameen having well marked the path from the cavern to the road,
went to the nearest town and hired camels and mules to remove the
property he had acquired. After making restitution to all who
remained alive to prove their goods, he became, from what was
unclaimed, a man of wealth, all of which was owing to that wit and
art which ever overcome brute strength and courage."
I was pleased with this tale, first as it bore so near a resemblance to
some parts of my earliest favourite, Jack the Giant Killer; and next as
the last incident of the fox bringing back the Ghool was an exact
copy of the story of the Goat and the Lion in the celebrated Hindu
work, the Pancha Tantra.
The goat, according to the Hindu tale, took shelter during a storm in
the den of a lion; when he saw no chance of escape, he terrified the
king of the beasts by boasting of a celestial origin, and telling him he
had been condemned before he could return to Heaven to eat ten
elephants, ten tigers, and ten lions. He had, he said, eaten every
kind of animal but the lion; and saying this, he marched up to the
astonished monster, who fled by a back way from his den. The lion
in his flight met a fox, and described to him the appearance of the
goat (an animal he had never seen before), his horns, his strange
beard, and above all, his boasting language. The fox laughed, and
told his majesty how he had been tricked. They went back together,
and met the goat at the entrance of the den. The latter at once saw
his danger, but his wits did not forsake him. "What conduct is this,
you scoundrel?" said he to the fox: "I commanded you to get ten
lions, and here you have only brought me one;" so saying, he
advanced boldly, and the lion, again frightened by his words and
actions, fled in terror, allowing the goat to return quietly to his
home.
I narrated this story to my Persian friend, saying, "This proves to me
what I have long conjectured, that the greater part of your tales are
taken literally from the Hindus." "Is it not as likely they have been
stolen from us?" was his reply. "No," said I; "for their works in which
these tales are written are much older than any you have." "That
may be," said he, "but they are not older than Keiomerth, Housheng,
or Jemsheed. These were the glorious days of Persia, and no doubt
it was in their time the wily Hindus stole our stories; and if our
conquering swords have since made us masters of India, and we
have plundered a few tales along with other articles, why we have
only recovered our own."
Khan Sâhib, who had been riding along with us, smoking his kelliân,
but who had not as yet spoken a word, now, with much gravity, took
up the conversation. "I have listened," said he, "with great attention
to Hajee Hoosein's most wonderful tale of the Ghool, and,"
addressing me, "to your supplement about a goat, a fox, and a lion.
I shall store what I have heard in my memory for the benefit of my
excellent grandmother, whom it is my duty to amuse. These tales
shall also be given word for word to my little children, who will no
doubt be as much delighted as I have been, to hear how a stupid
monster was outwitted by a lying rogue, and how an impudent goat
frightened a valiant lion."
"The dispute," said Khan Sâhib, "regarding the invention of such
sublime productions, no doubt involves matter deeply associated
with the fame of the renowned empires of India and Persia; and, in
the present dearth of that article, I do think they are right in
claiming all they can for their ancestors."
"I quite understand, my good friend," said I, "the contempt you
bestow upon the nursery tales with which the Hajee and I have been
entertaining each other; but, believe me, he who desires to be well
acquainted with a people will not reject their popular stories or local
superstitions. Depend upon it, that man is too far advanced into an
artificial state of society who is a stranger to the effects which tales
and stories like these have upon the feelings of a nation; and his
opinions of its character are never likely to be more erroneous than
when, in the pride of reason, he despises such means of forming his
judgment."
"Well, well," said Khan Sâhib, "there may be some truth in what you
say; and I am the more inclined to believe it, as all the learning and
philosophy which my good father endeavoured to instil into me
never wholly eradicated my early predilection for such stories. I wish
not to dispute the claim of our Indian neighbours to the merit of
inventing those maxims of wisdom, which have been delivered to
posterity through the mouths of cats, monkeys, goats, parrots,
foxes, jackalls, and lions. But," added he, "as far as the reputation of
the creative genius of Persia is concerned, I shall remain content
with the wonders of the Shâh-nâmeh, told as they are in the
language of the immortal Firdousee."
Though I could not give up my fondness for fables, I was quite
ready to concur with my friend in his admiration of Firdousee, and
nothing more was necessary to make him dilate upon this favourite
work. His memory is extraordinary; and while I listened with
pleasure to his recitation of several of the most ancient, and at the
same time most beautiful passages of Persian poetry, I was
instructed by his critical remarks, for he combines, with a knowledge
of the European taste for simplicity, a love for Asiatic splendour of
diction; and is particularly versed in those allusions in which their
poetry abounds. He recited to me, from the Shâh-nâmeh, the
greater part of the episode of the combats between Roostem and his
unknown son Soohrâb.
This episode, in the first lines of which the poet tells his reader, "It is
a tale full of the waters of the eye,"[106] is perhaps one of the
greatest efforts of Firdousee's genius; and he rises even above
himself in the relation of the death of Soohrâb and the insanity of his
distracted mother.
The effect produced on the unhappy princess by the account of her
son's death is instantaneous. She sets fire to her palace, desiring,
when he who constituted her sole object in life was gone, to perish
amid that splendour, which she salued on his account alone. Torn
from the flames by her attendants, she commanded them to bring
the body of her son, his horse, his arms, and his clothes.
"She kissed the horse's forehead, she bathed its hoofs with her
tears; she clothed herself in the blood-stained garments of her son,
she drew his bow, she wielded his lance, his sword, and his mace;
and these fond and frantic actions were continued till nature was
overpowered, and the distracted mother departed to join her
beloved Soohrâb."
No translation in verse can convey to the mere English reader any
just impression of the whole poem of the Shâh-nâmeh. The idiom in
which it is written, and the allusions and metaphors with which it
abounds, are too foreign to our language and taste to admit of
success in such an undertaking; but a prose translation of this great
work is a desideratum, and select passages might bear a poetical
form. He, however, who attempts such a task, will not be successful
unless possessed of a genius that raises him above the mechanical
effort of a versifier. If ever such a translator devote himself to the
beauties of this poem, he will find much to gratify himself and
others.
I have before given a specimen of Firdousee's power in describing a
battle; but though this is a species of composition in which the
Persians consider him to excel, I have been more pleased with him
when he strikes a softer and more harmonious note. His tales of love
are often delightful, and nothing can exceed some of his descriptions
of scenery.
I had long entertained this opinion, but was confirmed in it by a
passage which Khan Sâhib recited to me, after concluding the story
of Soohrâb. It was an account of the events which took place when
Siyâvesh was nominated by Afrâsiâb to govern the empire of Cheen.
The young prince, anxious to enjoy with his beautiful bride
Feeringheesh every luxury which this world could afford, sent
persons in every direction over his extensive territories, to select the
most agreeable and salubrious spot, that he might there fix his
residence. The choice fell upon the city of Kung, which is
represented to be a perfect terrestrial paradise. One line in the
description of this favoured spot struck me as an instance of the
power of a poet to seize the finest shades of distinction that belong
to language, and to convey by such terms the most correct idea to
the mind. Speaking of the climate of Kung, Firdousee says,
"Its warmth was not heat, and its coolness was not
cold."[107]
I expressed to Khan Sâhib my admiration of this line, adding my
regret that a poet who could write with such simplicity and beauty
should indulge so often in forced metaphor, and hyperbolical
phrases.
"Why," said my little friend, "I really think your quarrelling with
Firdousee, because he wrote according to the taste of the nation to
which he belonged, is something like finding fault with the Persians
because they do not wear cocked hats and tight pantaloons, instead
of lamb's-wool caps and loose trowsers. They delight, and ever have
done, in those conceits and images which offend you." "But yet,"
said I, "Sâdee is a great favourite, and he is almost always simple
and clear in his style."
"Sâdee," said Khan Sâhib, "has, as you state, a great reputation in
Persia, but it is rather as a wise man and a moralist, than a poet. He
seeks by fiction to adorn, not encumber truth; and the admiration of
his reader is invariably given to the sentiment more than to the
language in which it is clothed.
"As a proof," continued my friend, "that this is just, let us take two
stanzas. In the first of these Sâdee thus describes himself:
'The snows of age rest upon my head,
Yet my disposition still makes me young.'[108]
In these lines, marked as they are by simplicity and beauty, the
thought, not the expression, is what we most admire. In the second,
when addressing sovereigns, he says,
'Be merciful, and learn to conquer without an army
Seize upon the hearts of mankind, and be
acknowledged the world's conqueror.'[109]
The boldness and sublimity of the lesson conveyed in this couplet
predominates over the poetry, and this is the case throughout the
works of Sâdee. How different are the sweet and musical strains of
Hâfiz! whose whole fame rests upon the creative fancy of his
imagination, and the easy flow of his numbers. He delights us by the
very scorn with which he rejects all sobriety of thought, and all
continuity of subject. As a poet he is one of the first favourites of his
countrymen, whose enthusiastic admiration is given to passages in
his works that your taste would condemn; for instance, when
referring to the fiction which relates that the tulip first sprung up in
the soil which was moistened with the blood of Ferhâd, the
celebrated lover of Sheereen, he says,
 'Perhaps the tulip feared the evils of destiny,
Thence, while it lives, it bears the wine-goblet on its
stalk.'[110]
"No conceit can be more fanciful, and you will perhaps add, more
extravagant; but this stanza is most particularly admired by the
Persians, much more so than a succeeding one in the same ode,
where the poet, with a simplicity and feeling that will delight you,
gives the reason for not having left his native place.
'They will not allow me to proceed upon my travels,
Those gentle gales of Moselláy,
That limpid stream of Rooknâbâd.'[111]
"Hâfiz," said Khan Sâhib, "has the singular good fortune of being
alike praised by saints and sinners. His odes are sung by the young
and the joyous, who, by taking them in the literal sense, find nothing
but an excitement to pass the spring of life in the enjoyment of the
world's luxuries; while the contemplative sage, considering this poet
as a religious enthusiast, attaches a mystical meaning to every line,
and repeats his odes as he would an orison. At the time of his
death," continued my friend, "there were many who deemed his
works sinful and impious. These went so far as to arrest the
procession of his funeral. The dispute rose high, and the parties
were likely to come to blows, when it was agreed that a fâl, or lot,
should be taken from his book. If that were favourable to religion,
his friends were to proceed; but if calculated to promote vice, they
promised not to carry his body to the sacred ground appropriated for
its reception.
"The volume of odes was produced, and it was opened by a person
whose eyes were bound, seven pages were counted back, when the
heaven-directed finger pointed to one of his inspired stanzas,
'Withdraw not your steps from the obsequies of Hâfiz:
Though immersed in sin he will rise into paradise.'[112]
"The admirers of the poet shouted with delight, and those who had
doubted joined in carrying his remains to a shrine near Shiraz,
where, from that day to this, his tomb is visited by pilgrims of all
classes and ages."
I found my friend Khan Sâhib, however partial from his habits to a
literal interpretation of many passages, dwelt upon others that he
deemed mystical with all the rapture of a Soofee. I asked him if he
considered Hâfiz equal in this description of poetry to the celebrated
author of the Mesnevee, who is usually called the Moollâh of Room?
[113] "Certainly not," was his reply; "there is a depth and sublimity in
the Mesnevee, which is equalled by no poet of this class. But I will
repeat, in answer to your question, the observation of a famous
Persian critic.
"A friend asked him how it happened that the two most celebrated
Persian Soofee poets should differ so much in their description of
love? Hâfiz, in the commencement of his work, observes:
'Love at first sight appeared easy, but afterwards full of
difficulties.'[114]
The author of the Mesnevee, in exact opposition, says,
'Love at first resembles a bloody murderer,
That he may alarm all who are without his pale.'[115]
"'Poor Hâfiz,' said the critic, shaking his head, 'did not find out till the
last, what the wiser Moollâh saw at a glance.'"
I was proceeding to make some further observations, when the
sound of music and the appearance of the neighbouring villagers
with their chiefs announced that we were near our encampment,
and both Khan Sâhib and myself were obliged to take our places in
the order of march, which was always formed when we met such
parties.

FOOTNOTES:
[103] These facts are mentioned in the Introduction to Mickle's
translation of the Lusiad.
[104] This desert is called, where we crossed it, Deryâ-e-Kebeer,
or Kemeen which signifies a desert; and the term Deryâ, which
means the ocean, being prefixed, is a proof of the truth of the
popular belief of this having been once a sea.
[105] Melek-ool-Mout derrat.
[106] "Yekee dâstân poor ab-e-cheshem."
[107] Gherm-esh ne-ghermee bood, oo serd-esh ne-serd
[108]
Berf-e-peeree meenesheened ber sêr-em
Hem-choon-ân teba-em jevânee kooned.
[109]
Rehim koon oo bee fouj der teskeen bâsh
Dilhâ-e-âlem gheer oo shâh-e-âlem-gheer bâsh.
[110]
Meger kih lâleh be-dânist bee-wefâ-e-deher
Kih tâ be-zâd oo be-shood jâm-e-mei z' kef-ne-
nihâd.
[111]
Ne meedihend ijâzet me-ra be-seir-oo-Sefer
Neseem-e-bâd-e-moosellâ we âb-e-Rooknâbâd.
[112]
Kedem dereegh medâr ez jinâza-e-Hâfiz.
Kih ger-chih gherek-e-goonâh est meereved be-
bihisht.
[113] Turkey.
[114] Kih ishk âsân nemood avvel welee ooftâd mooshkil-hâ.
[115]
Ishk avvel choo ser-khoonee booved,
Tâ be-tersend her kih beeroonee booved.
 CHAPTER XVII.
Distant view of Teheran—Demavend—Rhe—Entrance into the
Capital—Hajee Ibrahim—Zâl Khan—Terms of Courtesy.

The first distant view we had of Teheran, the modern capital of

Persia, was very imposing. It is situated near the foot of Elboorz, a
mountain of the great range which stretches from Europe to the
utmost limits of Asia. This range would appear high, were it not for
Demavend, whose lofty peak, rising above the clouds, and covered
with eternal snow, gives a diminutive appearance to every thing in
its vicinity.
We had seen Demavend at the distance of one hundred miles from
its base, but it increased in magnificence as we advanced; and those
amongst us who delighted in the pages of Firdousee now planned an
early visit to this remarkable mountain, whose summit that poet
describes as "far from the abode of man, and near to Heaven." A
Persian of our party, called Meerzâ Ibrahim, who had been at
Demavend, increased our curiosity by a detail of the wonders we
should see when we visited that place. "Amongst others," said he,
"is the cave that was once the habitation of the Deev-e-Seffeed, who
was slain by Roostem; and if fortunate," he added, "you may catch a
glimpse of the Deev's daughter, whose dwelling is on the point of an
inaccessible rock, at the edge of which she now and then appears;
and is reported, notwithstanding her age, which cannot be less than
two thousand four hundred years, to be as active with her distaff,
and looking as well as ever.
"Higher up the mountain," continued our informant, "amid rocks and
snow, which forbid all mortal approach, dwells Zohâk, the most
wicked of kings, surrounded by a court of magicians and sorcerers;
this at least is the belief of the worshippers of fire. But it has been
considered as unworthy of credit by the Mahomedan historians of
Persia, who, however, do not treat so lightly the record which
asserts, that in ancient times, when Menoo-cheher made peace with
Afrâsiâb,[116] one of the articles of the treaty was, that Persia was to
have all the country in a north-east direction, over which an arrow
could be shot from Demavend. A hero, called Arish, ascended to the
top of the mountain, and such was his miraculous prowess that he
sent an arrow to the banks of the Oxus, a distance of between five
and six hundred miles. Monarchs in these days," said Meerzâ
Ibrahim, "we are assured were very particular in performing their
treaties, and the country was faithfully ceded."
"I have read all the discussions upon this subject," said Meerzâ Aga
Meer, who here joined in the conversation. "One Persian historian,
who relates this fact, admits that it is incomprehensible, but at the
same time adds, that he deems it his duty to give it as received from
former writers, who state, that the arrow which was discharged at
sunrise did not fall till noon.
"Another author of high reputation informs us, that the 'Festival of
the Arrow,'[117] on the 13th of October,[118] which is still kept by the
followers of Zoroaster, is in commemoration of this event.
"The arrow about which so much has been said and written," added
Aga Meer, "is admitted by almost all to have been of gold. Some
philosophers, however, have conjectured that it contained quicksilver
and other substances, which, when heated by the sun, added to its
projectile force; and we are informed, that the great 'Boo-Ali-
seenâ[119] did not consider this feat beyond the compass of human
ingenuity."
I concluded this discussion about the wonderful arrow by observing,
that some sceptical commentators on this passage of ancient history
had given their opinion, that the story of the golden arrow, flying
from Demavend to the Oxus, was nothing more than a bold
metaphor, to express that the Persians conquered that extent of
country by their skill in archery; "But the opinions of such writers," I
said, "are rejected by all who prefer plain facts to far-fetched
metaphors."
At a short distance from our camp we observed several mounds of
earth and ruined walls, which we were told was all that remained of
the once famous Ragas of Tobit—the Rhages of the Greeks, and the
Rhe of the Persians.
While all who had imagination and a love of antiquity dwelt with
delight on the prospect of ascending Demavend, and visiting the
ruins of Rhe, the men of business looked only to Teheran, which
appeared to me to offer little to the view which was either grand or
pleasing. One palace alone attracted any portion of my admiration. It
stood near the base of the mountain Elboorz, on a commanding site,
and was every way suited for a royal residence.
We were called from our plans and prospects to prepare for the
entry of the Mission into the capital; but the ceremonies of the
procession were not yet fully arranged. Letters and notes passed
every minute; secretaries and confidential messengers went to and
fro without intermission. These communications and messages
chiefly related to the forms of our reception. The period of entering
Teheran had been long fixed by the Elchee, who had consulted an
eminent astrologer at Isfahan upon this subject. The wise man, after
casting his nativity, and comparing what he found written in the
book of his destiny with the object of his Mission, which he had been
told was the establishment of friendly intercourse with Persia,
declared, by a paper given under his hand, for which he was no
doubt well fee'd, "That, provided the Elchee entered the gate of
Teheran at forty-five minutes past two o'clock, P.M. on the 13th of
November, 1800, success would attend his negotiation, and he
would accomplish all his wishes."
Meerzâ Aga Meer, who, like the most enlightened of his countrymen,
believed firmly in the occult science of astrology, had the best
chronometer in our party intrusted to his care. It was given him
because his situation enabled him to ride in the procession
sufficiently near the Elchee to prompt him when to go a little faster
or slower, in order that the gate of the capital might be entered at
the exact moment, a point to which the astrologer had attached the
greatest importance.
The party who came out some miles to welcome the Elchee
consisted of several noblemen, the chief of whom was Nou Rôz Khan
Kajir, the Lord of Requests and Commander of the King's Guard.
About six hundred horse, principally royal guards, accompanied this
chief. We prepared for their reception by sounding the trumpets and
beating the drums of our cavalry and infantry, and putting all the
suite, European and native, in regular array.
When the parties were within twenty yards of each other they
halted, and Nou Rôz Khan prepared to dismount. The Elchee did the
same. The latter poised himself a moment in the stirrup, lest his foot
should be on the ground before that of the Persian nobleman, which
would have marked inferiority. But the soldier-like movements of
Nou Rôz Khan showed at once he was a manly fellow, and no
stickler about ceremonies. He not only dismounted with expedition,
but hastened, before the Elchee had time to quit his horse, to come
forward and welcome the guest of his sovereign.
We had all dismounted at the instant the Elchee did, and after
mutual introduction the whole party were again on their march, the
Elchee and Nou Rôz Khan riding exactly parallel, and their
attendants a little in the rear, nearer or more remote, according to
their respective ranks.
On the plain which we passed, before coming to the capital, some of
the guards of the king displayed their skill in horsemanship. They
threw the Jerreed[120] at each other with excellent aim; and it was
often only avoided by extraordinary activity, the horseman
sometimes to all appearance throwing himself from his horse, while
the jerreed whizzed over him.
Another exercise, called the Doghela-Bâzee, is performed by the
rider holding a stick little more than a yard long in his hand, one end
of which he throws with great force on the ground, on the near side
of the horse when at full gallop; the direction given by this stroke
causes it to rebound over the horse's head, and the rider catches it
while yet whirling round in the air.
But of all these exhibitions, that which pleased me most was the skill
they displayed as marksmen. When at full speed, the rider throws a
lemon over his head, and twisting his body completely round to the
left, fires at it from the off-flank of the horse,[121] almost always
with good aim, and often hitting it. This appeared to me, as
combining the different motions of the horse, the rider, and the
lemon, quite wonderful, but, like other surprising feats, it is the
result of constant practice; for the child in Persia commences this
exercise at six or seven years of age, and it is never abandoned,
while there is strength left to sit upon a horse and to pull a trigger.
The crowds of people we now saw announced that we were in the
suburbs of Teheran. I heard Aga Meer whisper the Elchee, "You have
yet ten minutes,—a little slower." "Quicker!" was afterwards
pronounced in an under tone. Again I heard "Slower!" then "Now!"
and the charger of the Elchee put his foot over the threshold of the
gate of Teheran. "Al hamd-ool-illâh! Thanks be to God!" said the
Meer, with a delighted countenance; "it was the very moment,—how
fortunate!" This joy, and the expression of it, told all to Nou Rôz
Khan, who evidently deemed the proceeding as a matter of course;
and when he heard the name of the astrologer who was consulted
at Isfahan, he seemed to think, after such a happy moment of
arrival, there could be no doubt of the fulfilment of his predictions.
This sentiment was general among the Persians in our suite. Some
of them might have doubted the sincerity of the Elchee's belief in the
occult sciences, but even these were pleased at the consideration
given to what he deemed their prejudices.
One day after the treaties were concluded, I heard the prime
minister say, with a smile, to the Elchee, "You see, with all your
European knowledge, of what consequence it is to attend to a
Persian astrologer, who instructs you to fight us with our own
weapons, the stars and planets."
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