AP Biology

4 CELL COMMUNICATION
& HOMEOSTASIS
UNIT 4 CELL COMMUNICATION & CELL CYCLE
 Topics: (click one to jump to that section)
(1) Signal Reception
(2) Signal Transduction and Cellular Response
(3) Distances of Cell Communication
(4) Homeostasis & Feedback Mechanisms

Unit 4 Self-Assessment Questions

TOPIC 1
UNIT 4 CELL COMMUNICATION & HOMEOSTASIS

SIGNAL RECEPTION
Overview of Cell Communication
● Cell signaling is essential for both unicellular and multicellular organisms, and
allows cells to communicate with one another and respond to their
environment.
○ In single-celled organisms, cell signaling influences how the cell responds
to its environment.
○ In multicellular organisms, cell signaling coordinates the activities within
individual cells that support the function of the organism as a whole.
● Similar pathways and molecules used for cell communication are shared
among all organisms on Earth, suggesting that they evolved first in prokaryotes
and have since been adopted by eukaryotes.
○ Evidence for evolution!
Overview of Cell Communication
● Cell signaling, in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, occurs via signal
transduction pathways.
● A signal transduction pathway is a series of steps by which a signal from
outside the cell is converted into a specific cellular response.
● Cell signaling occurs in three stages: Reception, Transduction, and Response
Signal Reception
● A signal molecule that produces a response in a cell is called a ligand.
● Cells affected by a ligand are called target cells.
● Ligands bind to very specific receptor proteins on target cells.
● Only cells with the necessary receptor proteins (target cells) can respond to a
signal
Signal Reception
● Signaling begins with the recognition of a chemical messenger (a ligand) by a
receptor protein in a target cell.
● The ligand-binding domain of a receptor recognizes a specific chemical
messenger — which can be a peptide, a small chemical, or a protein.
Signal Reception
● Ligand-receptor binding is noncovalent
and reversible.
○ Reversible binding is important
because cells need to stop
responding to a signal after the
appropriate response has occurred.
● Signal transduction pathways often
involve allosteric regulation, which is
when a protein’s shape changes in one
area (often the active site) as a result of a
molecule binding elsewhere on the
protein.
Signal Reception
● Receptors can be classified by their location:
○ Intracellular receptors are located inside a cell. Their ligands are small or
nonpolar and can diffuse across the membrane.
○ Membrane receptors located on the cell surface have large or polar
ligands that cannot diffuse through the membrane. Two common
examples:
■ G-Protein Linked Receptors
■ Ligand-Gated Ion Channels
Intracellular Receptors
● Some receptor proteins are intracellular,
and are found in the cytosol or nucleus
of target cells.
○ Small or hydrophobic ligands can
readily cross the membrane and
activate these receptors
○ Examples of hydrophobic
messengers are steroid hormones
(such as testosterone and estrogen)
● An activated intracellular hormone
receptor can act as a transcription factor,
which turns on specific genes inside the
cell.
Membrane Receptors: Ligand-Gated Ion Channels
● One type of membrane receptors are
ligand-gated ion channels. These are
closed channel proteins that change
shape and open when a ligand binds.
○ This allows certain ions to diffuse
into or out of the cell, changing
the concentrations of certain ions.
● The change in ion concentration inside
and outside the cell initiates a signal
transduction pathway, leading to a
certain cellular response.
Membrane Receptors: Ligand-Gated Ion Channels
● Ex: Acetylcholine (ACh) receptors on
skeletal muscle cells are ligand-gated ion
channels that bind to acetylcholine (the
ligand) and open to allow Na+ and Ca2+
ions to diffuse into the cell.
○ This activates motor proteins in
muscles cells, causing the muscle to
contract.
Membrane Receptors: G-Protein Linked Receptors
● A G-protein linked receptor is a plasma membrane receptor that works with
the help of a mobile membrane protein, called a G-protein.
● G proteins, in their inactive form, are bonded to a low-energy molecule called
GDP. When GDP is replaced by an energy-rich molecule called GTP, the G
protein becomes activated.
● The binding of a ligand to the receptor allows it to bind to an inactive G protein
on the cytoplasmic side. This binding is what replaces GDP with GTP on the G
protein.
● The activated G-protein then travels and binds to a second protein on the
membrane which ultimately triggers a cellular response inside the cell.
Membrane Receptors: G-Protein Linked Receptors
Membrane Receptors: G-Protein Linked Receptors
● Similarities in structure among G-proteins and
G-protein linked receptors of modern
eukaryotic organisms (including yeast, protists,
fungi, plants, and animals) suggest that they
evolved very early in life on Earth.
● Among eukaryotic organisms:
○ All G protein linked receptors have 7
transmembrane domains (regions that go
through the phospholipid bilayer).
○ All G proteins are composed of three
polypeptides (an alpha, beta, and gamma
subunit).
Draw an overview picture of cell signaling that
includes reception, transduction and response.

Label the ligand and receptor in your picture above.

Interactive Notes
A cell releases ligands, but only some of the nearby
cells appear to respond, while others do not appear
to be affected. Why is this?

Interactive Notes
A drug was developed that inhibited all of the
membrane receptors on the surface of a cell. It was
observed, however, that estrogen hormones still
had an effect on the cell. How is this possible?

Interactive Notes
In general, what type of ligands do not bind to
membrane proteins? Do these messengers have
receptors? If so, where?

Interactive Notes
The ligand-gated ion channel pictured below is
found in the membrane of a neuron (nerve cell). The
membrane of nerve cells also contains a lot of
sodium-potassium pumps that produce a high [Na+]
outside the cell and a high [K+] ions inside the cell.
Given this information, what do you think is the
identity of the small dots? Explain your reasoning.

Interactive Notes
Draw a picture of a G-Protein Linked Receptor, a G
protein, and another membrane protein that is
activated by the G protein.

Interactive Notes
TOPIC 2
UNIT 4 CELL COMMUNICATION & HOMEOSTASIS

SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION
& CELLULAR RESPONSE
Signal Transduction
● The binding of a ligand to a receptor triggers the start of a signal transduction
pathway within the cell, ultimately leading to a specific cellular response.
● Signal transduction pathways take place in multiple steps.
○ Multistep pathways amplify a signal: A few starting molecules can produce
a large cellular response involving a huge number of activated proteins.
○ Multistep pathways provide more opportunities for coordination and
regulation of the cellular response than simpler systems do.
● Like falling dominoes, the initial receptor protein activates another protein,
which activates another, and so on, until the proteins producing the response
are activated.
● Common components of signal transduction pathways include:
phosphorylation cascades and secondary messengers.
Phosphorylation Cascades
● Phosphorylation and dephosphorylation are a
widespread cellular mechanism for regulating
protein activity.
○ The addition of phosphate groups often
changes the conformation (shape) of a
protein from inactive to active
● In many pathways, a signal is transmitted by a
cascade of protein phosphorylations carried
out by a series of protein kinases.
○ Protein kinases transfer phosphates from
ATP to other proteins, a process called
phosphorylation
FINAL
Phosphorylation Cascades
● A signaling pathway involving a series of
protein kinases phosphorylating and
activating other kinases is referred to a
phosphorylation cascade.
● Protein phosphatases remove the
phosphates from proteins, a process called
dephosphorylation
● Phosphatases provide a mechanism for
turning off the signal transduction pathway
● They also make protein kinases available for
reuse, enabling the cell to respond to the
FINAL
signal again
Secondary Messengers
● The extracellular signal molecule (ligand) that
binds to the receptor is a pathways “first
messenger”
● Signal transduction pathways often involve
the release of secondary messengers inside
the cell.
● Secondary messengers are small,
nonprotein, hydrophilic molecules or ions that
quickly diffuse throughout a cell and activate
proteins involved in the transduction pathway.
● Cyclic AMP and calcium ions are common
examples of secondary messengers
Secondary Messengers
● Cyclic AMP (cAMP) is one of the
most widely used second
messengers.
● Adenylyl cyclase, an enzyme in the
plasma membrane, converts ATP to
cAMP in response to an extracellular
signal.
● Many signal molecules trigger the
activation of adenylyl cyclase.
● cAMP usually activates protein
kinase A, which initiates a
phosphorylation cascade.
Secondary Messengers
● Calcium ions (Ca2+) are another
common second messenger.
● A signaling pathway can trigger
an increase of calcium ions into
the cytosol, which can diffuse
quickly to find proteins to bind
to and activate.
● These activated proteins initiate
responses such as muscle
contraction and cell division.
Signal Amplification
● Signal transduction pathways
often amplify the signal (and
thus the response).
● At each step, the number of
activated products is much
greater than in the preceding
step.
● EX: 1 molecule of epinephrine
(hormone molecule) binding to a
receptor on a liver cell releases
up to 100,000,000 glucose
molecules into the blood!
Signal Specificity
● The response of a particular cell to a signal
depends on its particular collection of signal
receptor proteins, relay proteins, and proteins
needed to carry out the cellular response.
○ Two cells that respond differently to the
same signal differ in one or more of the
proteins that handle and respond to the
signal.
Signal Specificity
● EX: Liver and heart muscle cells are two different types
of cells in your body.
● Both are exposed to the bloodstream and thus exposed
to numerous hormones. Because they have different
types of receptors, they respond to some of these
hormones but ignore others.
● Both have receptors for the hormone, epinephrine, but
they display different responses:
○ Epinephrine causes heart muscles to contract,
leading to a faster heartbeat.
○ Epinephrine causes liver cells to break down
glycogen and release glucose into the blood.
Epinephrine's Effect on Liver Cells
Cellular Response
There are COUNTLESS different ways in which cells respond to environmental
signals:

● Opening of ion channels: This changes the concentration of ions outside and
inside of the cell and results in a changed electrical potential across the
membrane (vital for nerve and muscle cells).
● Alterations in gene expression: Transcription factors (proteins responsible for
turning genes on and off) can be activated or inhibited, changing the type of
enzymes and other proteins being made inside the cell.
● Regulation of enzyme activities: Enzymes can be inhibited or activated,
changing the type and amount of certain reactions taking place in the cell.
Benefits of Signal Transduction Pathways
● They allow cells to respond to signal molecules that cannot cross the plasma
membrane.
● Variations in signal transduction pathways allow cells to respond differently to
the same signal.
● They help amplify a signal so that a cellular response is more efficient and so
that organisms do not have to waste energy producing large amounts of signal
molecules.
● Correct and appropriate signal transduction processes are generally under
strong selective pressure and increases an organism’s fitness (natural
selection).
 Signal Disruption: Anthrax
● Conditions where signal transduction is
blocked or defective can have deleterious
effects.
● Many poisons target specific components
of signal transduction pathways.
● The toxin produced by anthrax bacteria
causes an increase in cAMP levels inside
cells, altering the ability of those cells to
properly respond to signaling molecules.
Signal Disruption: Diabetes
Normal Individual

The hormone insulin binds to The pancreas produces little or The signaling initiated by the
insulin receptors on target cells, no insulin. Thus, the signal is not insulin receptors is defective
initiating a signal transduction detected by the target cells and and does not activate the Glut-4
pathway that causes the protein Glut-4 is not activated. protein.
Glut-4 to transport glucose from
the blood into the cell.
Signal Disruption: Diabetes
Signal Disruption: Diabetes
In the diagram below, label
the arrow that represents
phosphorylation and the
arrow that represents
dephosphorylation. Indicate
where the enzymes kinase
and phosphatase are being
used. Shade in the (likely)
active form of the protein in
the diagram above.
Interactive Notes
Analyze the phosphorylation cascade pictured in
the notes. If the active form of each protein kinase
can phosphorylate 10 other proteins before it is
dephosphorylated, how many final active proteins
will there be at the end of the phosphorylation
cascade if the cascade starts with ONE “activate
protein kinase 1”?

Interactive Notes
What are three characteristics of secondary
messengers used in cell signaling?

Interactive Notes
Examine the picture in the slides that show calcium ions as a
secondary messenger. Sequence the events (1-6) of the
signal transduction pathway.

____ Calcium ions are released into the cytosol and activate
proteins.
____ G Protein is activated
____ IP3 opens calcium ion channels
____ Ligand binds to G-protein linked receptor
____ activated proteins produce a final cellular response
____ Phospholipase C enzyme is activated and creates IP3

Interactive Notes
Both liver cells and the heart cells are affected by
the hormone, epinephrine. However, their
responses to epinephrine are very different. Explain
how this is possible.

Interactive Notes
What are three examples of possible responses a
cell would have to a ligand?

Interactive Notes
Describe what would happen if a cell was exposed
to a toxin that inhibited the enzyme adenylyl
cyclase.

Interactive Notes
Add details to the diagrams below to demonstrate
the effect of insulin on target cells in a normal
individual, and in individuals with Type 1 and Type 2
diabetes.
= Insulin Receptor = Insulin
= Glut4 Transporter = Glucose

Interactive Notes
Normal Individual Type 1 Diabetic Type 2 Diabetic

Interactive Notes
TOPIC 3
UNIT 4 CELL COMMUNICATION & HOMEOSTASIS

DISTANCES OF CELL
COMMUNICATION
Distances of Cell Communication
● Cells can communicate with each other through direct contact with other cells
or from short and long distances via chemical signaling.
Direct Contact Communication
● Juxtacrine signaling: signaling that requires
direct contact between cells, and is
accomplished with no secretion of ligands
● Ex: Plant and animal cells have cell junctions
(plasmodesmata and gap junctions) that
directly connect the cytoplasm of adjacent cells
and allow material to be transported between
cells.
● Ex: Cells can also communicate via cell surface
markers embedded on the cell membrane.
These surface markers can act as ligands that
bind to receptor proteins embedded on the
membrane of other cells.
Short Distance Communication
● Cells communicate over short distances by
using local regulators that target cells in the
vicinity of the emitting cell.
● Autocrine Signaling: affects the same cells
that release the chemical signal.
○ EX: Cancer cells can secrete growth
factors that will bind to their own
membrane receptors, causing the
cancer cells to divide faster.
● Paracrine Signaling: chemical signals
diffuse to and affect nearby cells.
Short Distance Example: Morphogens
● Morphogens are ligands produced in embryos
from a central source early in development.
● They diffuse throughout the embryonic tissue
creating a concentration gradient that provides a
spatial reference for the developing cells.
○ Cells close to the morphogen production will
be exposed to a high concentration of
morphogens, which will bind to and activate
a large portion of their morphogen receptors.
○ Cells further away will be exposed to a lower
concentration of morphogen and will have a
small portion of their receptors activated.
Short Distance Example: Morphogens
● Embryonic cells will produce different
responses to the morphogen signals
depending on the amount of their receptors
becoming activated.
● These different responses result in different
sets of genes in the cells being turned on,
causing the cells to start differentiating into
different cell types (such as skin cells, muscle
cells, nerve cells, etc.)
Short Distance Example: Quorum Sensing
● Another example of local regulators used in
short distance signaling is quorum sensing.
● Quorum sensing is a process of cell-to-cell
communication that allows bacteria to share
information about cell density and adjust
gene expression accordingly.
● Quorum sensing bacteria secrete signal
molecules called autoinducers that bind to
receptors on nearby bacteria.
● The binding of autoinducers to the receptors
initiates the transcription of genes that
cause the bacteria to secrete more
autoinducers.
 Short Distance Example: Quorum Sensing
● Once the density of bacteria cells is
high enough and the concentration
of autoinducers in the environment
reaches a certain threshold, specific
genes start being transcribed.
● Because the transcription of these
genes is dependent on cell density,
all of the bacteria start transcribing
the gene at the same time!
● EX: Bioluminescence in bacteria
Short Distance: Quorum Sensing
Short Distance Example: Adaptive Immunity
● Mammalian immune systems have evolved “adaptive immunity”
which can target specific antigens.
○ An antigen is any substance that triggers an adaptive
immune response, which are typically molecules found on
pathogens (such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi). Helper
T Cell
● This immune response is initiated by specialized white blood
cells called helper T cells, which have membrane receptors that
can bind to different antigens.
● Helper T cells become activated when their receptors bind to
specific antigens on antigen-presenting cells (APCs).
○ APCs are macrophage cells that engulf antigens and APC
present fragments of them on the surface of their cells.
Short Distance Example: Adaptive Immunity
● The binding of a helper T cell to an APC is a
type of juxtacrine signalling that causes the
APC to release signaling molecules called
cytokines.
● Cytokines diffuse and “activate” the bound
helper T cell (paracrine signaling).
● The activated helper T cell releases its own
set of cytokines, which signals itself (autocrine
signaling) to proliferate (multiply).
● The activated helper T cells then go and
activate other specialized white blood cells to
produce a targeted attack on the antigen.
Long Distance Communication
● Endocrine signaling is long distance communication that involves secretion
of hormones into the blood, allowing signals released by one cell type to
target cells of another cell type.
● Hormones refer to the chemical signals that travel in the blood.
○ Most hormones are proteins, except for sex hormones, like testosterone
and estrogen, which are steroids (lipids).
Long Distance Communication
● The endocrine system is made up of
glands in the body that secrete hormones
into the blood. The hormones travel to
target cells in other parts of the body.
○ Glands are organs in the body that
secrete particular chemical
substances.
Long Distance: Insulin
● Insulin is a hormone secreted by the
pancreas that targets fat, muscle, and liver
cells.
● The pancreas secretes insulin into the blood
as a response to high levels of blood
glucose.
● Insulin binds to receptors on fat, muscle, and
liver cells, signaling them to transport
glucose from the blood into their cells.
Long Distance: Insulin
● Fat cells use the glucose to
synthesize fatty acids and
glycerol to build
triglycerides (fat), which
stores the energy
long-term.
● Liver and muscle cells use
the glucose to synthesize
glycogen (a large
polysaccharide), which
stores the glucose for later
use (short-term).
Long Distance: Human Growth Hormone
● Human growth hormone (GH) is produced
and secreted into the blood by the brain’s
pituitary gland, and it plays a huge role in the
growth and development of humans.
● Stimulates muscle and bone growth by
increasing their cell division.
● Signals adipose (fat) cells to break down
stored fat and the liver to release glucose.
○ Causes fat cells to shrink and increasing
the amount of usable energy available for
the body’s growth efforts.
Long Distance: Human Growth Hormone
Long Distance: Human Growth Hormone
Draw an example of juxtacrine signaling.

Draw an example of autocrine signaling.

Draw an example of paracrine signaling.

Interactive Notes
Neurons (nerve cells) release signaling molecules
called neurotransmitters, which travel across a
small space called the synapse and bind to
receptors on other neurons. What type of signaling
is this?

Interactive Notes
Morphogens in embryonic development is an
example of what type of cell signaling?

Quorum sensing in bacteria is an example of what

type of cell signaling?

Interactive Notes
In both autoinducers used in quorum sensing and
morphogens used in embryonic development, the
initiation of a particular cell response (such as
certain genes turning on) is dependent on what?

Interactive Notes
Draw a picture of a helper T cell being activated by
an APC. Include and label in your picture an
example of paracrine signaling, juxtacrine signaling,
and autocrine signaling.

Interactive Notes
Draw an example of endocrine signaling.

Interactive Notes
What is the effect of insulin on liver cells, adipose
(fat) cells, and muscle cell?

Interactive Notes
TOPIC 4
UNIT 4 CELL COMMUNICATION & HOMEOSTASIS

HOMEOSTASIS &
FEEDBACK
MECHANISMS
Homeostasis
● Homeostasis refers to the ability of an organism (or a
cell) to maintain a stable internal environment despite
changes in external conditions.
○ A unifying characteristic of all life on Earth!
● Homeostasis is a dynamic state, an interplay between
outside factors that tend to change the internal
environment and the internal control mechanisms that
oppose such changes.
○ This is why it is often referred to as dynamic
homeostasis.
Negative Feedback Mechanisms
● Organisms use feedback mechanisms to
maintain their internal environments and
respond to external environmental changes.
● Negative feedback mechanisms maintain
dynamic homeostasis for a particular condition
(variable) by regulating physiological processes,
and returning the changing condition back to its
target set point.
○ A stimulus initiates a response that is
OPPOSITE of what the stimulus was doing.
● Non-Biology Example: Thermostats
Negative Feedback: Thermoregulation
● Thermoregulation
(maintaining a stable
body temperature) is an
example of animals
using negative
feedback mechanisms
to maintain
homeostasis.
Negative Feedback: Thermoregulation
● When body temperature is too high:
○ Skin blood vessels dilate (get larger) allowing warm blood to be carried
near the skin's surface.
○ Sweat glands are activated and secrete perspiration for evaporative
cooling.
○ Result = body temperature decreases.
● When body temperature is too low:
○ Skin blood vessels constrict forcing blood away from the skin’s surface.
○ Skeletal muscles are activated and begin shivering to produce heat.
○ Result = body temperature increases.
Negative Feedback: Transpiration
● Transpiration is the movement of water
in a plant from the roots to the leaves,
leading to the evaporation of water from
the leaves.
● Water evaporates through tiny openings
on the underside of leaves called
stomata.
Negative Feedback: Transpiration
● Guard cells control the opening and
closing of stomata on the leaves of
plants.
● Guard cells close stomata when
transpiration is occurring too fast and
water is being lost too quickly.
● EX: When water availability is scarce,
plants secrete a plant hormone called
abscisic acid.
○ The hormone triggers the shrinking
of guard cells, which cause the
stomata to close. This reduces the
rate of transpiration and the
amount of water loss.
Positive Feedback Mechanisms
● Sometimes it becomes necessary to push an organism further out of
homeostasis in order to accomplish a vital life function.
● Positive feedback mechanisms amplify responses and processes in biological
organisms.
● Amplification occurs when a stimulus initiates a response that moves a variable
further away from its initial set-point. This in turn increases the stimulus, which
increases the response that pushes the variable even further away from its set
point.
Positive Feedback: Childbirth
● During childbirth, the baby pushing
on the cervix causes the pituitary
gland to secrete the hormone,
oxytocin.
● Oxytocin stimulates the uterine
wall to contract which pushes the
baby against the cervix.
○ This causes the pituitary gland
to secrete more oxytocin, thus
continuing the cycle until the
baby is delivered.
Positive Feedback: Ripening of Fruit
● Ripening fruit release the plant hormone, ethylene (a gas), into the air.
● Ethylene accelerates the ripening of nearby unripened fruit.
● The nearby fruit ripen and release more ethylene into the air.
● Thus, all the fruit ripen together!
Explain how a thermostat acts as a negative
feedback mechanism.

Interactive Notes
What are two responses that occur when your body
temperature is too high?

Interactive Notes
When a human increases physical activity, the amount of
fuel burned in its cells also increases, which in turn
increases the concentration of dissolved CO2 in the blood.
The CO2 reacts with water in the blood to make a weak
acid, which lowers the pH of the blood. Sensory cells in the
brain register this drop in pH and send signals to the
diaphragm and heart to increase respiration. How does this
response help maintain homeostasis? What type of
homeostatic mechanism is this?

Interactive Notes
Explain the response plants have when water
availability is scarce.

Interactive Notes
Summarize the difference between negative and
positive feedback mechanisms, using the words
stimulus and response.

Interactive Notes
When human tissue, such as skin or a blood vessel,
is torn or cut, the cells near the damage release
chemical signals that attract platelets in the vicinity.
Platelets help blood clot. As the platelets begin to
adhere to the injured site, they release more
chemical signals to attract more platelets. What
type of homeostatic mechanism is this? Explain how
you know.

Interactive Notes
UNIT 4 CELL COMMUNICATION & HOMEOSTASIS

SELF-ASSESSMENT
QUESTIONS
Self-Assessment Questions
1. From the perspective of the cell receiving the message, the three stages of cell
signaling are

A. the paracrine, local, and synaptic stages.

B. signal reception, signal transduction, and cellular response.
C. signal reception, nucleus disintegration, and new cell generation.
D. the alpha, beta, and gamma stages.
E. signal reception, cellular response, and cell division.
Self-Assessment Questions
2. When a cell releases a signal molecule into the environment and a number of
cells in the immediate vicinity respond, this type of signaling is

A. typical of hormones.
B. autocrine signaling.
C. paracrine signaling.
D. endocrine signaling.
E. synaptic signaling.
Self-Assessment Questions
3. Synaptic signaling between adjacent neurons is like hormone signaling in which
of the following ways?

A. It sends its signal molecules through the blood.

B. It sends its signal molecules quite a distance.
C. It requires calcium ions.
D. It requires binding of a signaling molecule to a receptor.
E. It persists over a long period.
Self-Assessment Questions
4. Which of the following is (are) true of ligand-gated ion channels?

A. They are important in the nervous system.

B. They lead to changes in ion concentration inside the cell.
C. They open or close in response to a chemical signal.
D. Only A and B are true.
E. A, B, and C are true.
Self-Assessment Questions
5. In general, a signal transmitted via phosphorylation of a series of proteins

A. brings a conformational change to each protein.

B. requires binding of a hormone to a cytosol receptor.
C. requires phosphatase activity.
D. allows target cells to change their shape and therefore their activity.
Self-Assessment Questions
6. At puberty, an adolescent female body changes in both structure and function of
several organ systems, primarily under the influence of changing concentrations of
estrogens and other steroid hormones. How can one hormone, such as estrogen,
mediate so many effects?

A. Estrogen is produced in very large concentration and therefore diffuses widely.

B. Estrogen has specific receptors inside several cell types, but each cell responds in the
same way to its binding.
C. Estrogen is kept away from the surface of any cells not able to bind it at the surface.
D. Estrogen binds to specific receptors inside many kinds of cells, each of which have
different responses to its binding.
E. Estrogen has different shaped receptors for each of several cell types.
Self-Assessment Questions
7. Binding of a signaling molecule to which type of receptor leads directly to a
change in distribution of ions on opposite sides of the membrane?

A. receptor tyrosine kinase

B. G protein-coupled receptor
C. ligand-gated ion channel
D. intracellular receptor
Self-Assessment Questions
8. Phosphorylation cascades involving a series of protein kinases are useful for
cellular signal transduction because

A. they are species specific.

B. they always lead to the same cellular response.
C. they amplify the original signal manyfold.
D. they counter the harmful effects of phosphatases.
E. the number of molecules used is small and fixed.
Self-Assessment Questions
9. Which of the following provides the best evidence that cell-signaling pathways
evolved early in the history of life?

A. They are seen in "primitive" cells such as yeast.

B. Yeast cells signal each other for mating.
C. Signal transduction molecules found in distantly related organisms are similar.
D. Signals can be sent long distances by cells.
E. Most signals are received by cell surface receptors.
Self-Assessment Questions
10. Lipid-soluble signal molecules, such as testosterone, cross the membranes of all
cells but affect only target cells because

A. only target cells retain the appropriate DNA segments.

B. intracellular receptors for testosterone are present only in target cells.
C. most cells lack the Y chromosome required.
D. only target cells possess the cytosolic enzymes that transduce the
testosterone.
Self-Assessment Questions
11. Signal transduction pathways benefit cells for all of the following reasons except

A. they help cells respond to signal molecules that are too large or too polar to
cross the plasma membrane.
B. they enable different cells to respond appropriately to the same signal.
C. they help cells get rid of excess phosphate generated by ATP breakdown.
D. they can amplify a signal.
E. variations in the signal transduction pathways can enhance response
specificity.
Self-Assessment Questions
12. Consider this pathway:
epinephrine → G-protein-linked receptor → G protein → adenylyl cyclase → cAMP.
Identify the second messenger.

A. cAMP
B. G protein
C. GTP
D. adenylyl cyclase
E. G-protein-linked receptor
Self-Assessment Questions
13. Which of the following is true of synaptic signaling in the nervous system and
hormone signaling in the endocrine system?

A. Hormone signaling occurs in animals only.

B. Hormone signaling is important between cells that are at greater distances
apart than in synaptic signaling.
C. Both use neurotransmitters, but hormone signaling is for adjacent cells in
animals only.
D. Both are forms of paracrine signaling.
Self-Assessment Questions
14. All of the following are true of cell communication systems except:

A. Cell signaling was an early event in the evolution of life.

B. Communicating cells may be far apart or close together.
C. Most signal receptors are bound to the outer membrane of the nuclear
envelope.
D. Protein phosphorylation is a major mechanism of signal transduction.
E. In response to a signal, the cell may alter activities by changes in cytosol
activity or in transcription of RNA.
Self-Assessment Questions
15. When epinephrine binds to cardiac (heart) muscle cells, it speeds their contraction. When it
binds to muscle cells of the small intestine, it inhibits their contraction. How can the same
hormone have different effects on muscle cells?

A. Cardiac cells have more receptors for epinephrine than do intestinal cells.
B. Epinephrine circulates to the heart first and thus is in higher concentration around
cardiac cells.
C. The two types of muscle cells have different signal-transduction pathways for
epinephrine and thus have different cellular responses.
D. Cardiac muscle is stronger than intestinal muscle and thus has a stronger response to
epinephrine.
E. Epinephrine binds to G-protein-linked receptors in cardiac cells, and these receptors
always increase a response to the signal. Epinephrine binds to tyrosine-kinase receptors
in intestinal cells, and these receptors always inhibit a response to the signal.
Self-Assessment Questions
16. In the figure to the right, part of the signal transduction mechanism common to G
protein–linked receptors is shown. Of the steps in this pathway, select the step that will occur
next.

A. Extracellular signal binds to the receptor.

B. Signal binding to receptor causes a change in shape in the receptor.
C. GTP bound to the G protein is exchanged for GDP.
D. Activated G protein subunit binds to effector protein.
E. Activated cellular enzymes catalyze the formation of products, effectively amplifying the
signal inside the cell.
Self-Assessment Questions
17. Positive feedback differs from negative feedback in that

A. positive feedback benefits the organism, whereas negative feedback is

detrimental.
B. the positive feedback responses are in the same direction as the initiating
stimulus rather than opposite to it.
C. positive feedback results in increases in some parameter (such as body
temperature), whereas negative feedback results only in decreases to the
parameter.
D. positive feedback systems have control centers that are lacking in negative
feedback systems.
Self-Assessment Questions
18. A person with diabetes mellitus is likely to have a deficiency or poor response to
insulin. Elevation of blood glucose levels will typically lead to a concordant rise in
insulin. Insulin is a hormone that triggers liver and muscle cells to transport glucose
from the blood into their cells. However, in some of these patients, insulin is
ineffective in its ability to regulate blood sugar levels. Which of the following is the
unresponsive mechanism?

A. Negative Feedback
B. Negative Control
C. Positive Feedback
D. Positive Control
Self-Assessment Questions
19. Which of the following is NOT an appropriate example of negative feedback?

A. The regulation of human body temperature in which the body shivers to bring
up the temperature and sweats to cool down.
B. The control of hunger in which metabolism slows down to conserve energy
and to allow the organism to survive with less food.
C. The formation of a blood clot where once a vessel is damaged, platelets stick
to the injured site and release chemicals that attract more platelets until a clot
is formed.
D. The production of red blood cells that results from a decrease in oxygen
detected by the kidneys, which secretes a hormone that stimulates the
production of red blood cells.
Self-Assessment Questions
20. In a negative feedback system, a vascular organ of the brain monitors blood osmolarity
and signals the release of ADH (antidiuretic hormone). ADH signals the kidneys to reabsorb
water from the urine back into the blood. When you eat salty food, your blood osmolarity rises
above the set point. Which of the following predicts what will happen next?

A. ADH would not be released into the bloodstream, and a large volume of urine would be
produced.
B. ADH would be released into the bloodstream, and a small volume of urine would be
produced
C. ADH would not be released into the bloodstream, and water would be reabsorbed.
D. ADH would be released into the bloodstream, and a large volume of urine would be
produced.
ANSWERS TO SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1. B 11. C
2. C 12. A
3. D 13. B
4. E 14. C
5. A 15. C
6. D 16. D
7. C 17. B
8. C 18. A
9. C 19. C
10. B 20. B