Test of Personality: Projective and Psychometric Approaches

1. Introduction
According to Allport (1961) personality is the “dynamic organisation within the individual
of those psycho-physical systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment”
It means that personality “resides” within the individual and these systems are woven into
an organisation. Personality is not static but dynamic, the organisational pattern determines
the kind and degree of adjustment of the individual to his environment, and this
adjustment-pattern is unique to the individual. With the Latin meaning of the term
personality taking backseat and acceptance of personality as an all inclusive concept
scientists from different disciplines of knowledge approached personality from different
angles.

By assessment we mean quantification of different traits present in the personality of a

person. This enables us to know to what extent a particular trait is present and further it
affords us to make comparative study of individuals on that trait. Besides personality
assessment also enables us to determine the extent to which different traits of his
personality are organised or are in harmony with each other. For example, person residing
in neighbourhood is, let us say, a philanthrophist. Let us say he also has spiritual bent of
mind and is known for his human welfare activities in the locality. Can you expect this
person to engage in cruelty against animals, or can you imagine him taking stance against
women’s education? Answer is a big no. Why because all the activities in question are just
the contrary of the attributes ascribed to him and do not reflect organisation and harmony.
When a trait is a natural corollary to another trait present, the two traits are said to be in
harmony with each other. Internal harmony or organisation between the traits signifies a
balanced personality, But if the traits present in one’s personality are disorganised or
contradicting each other it is indicative of some abnormality and maladjustment.

2. Test of Personality
Test or assessment of personality refers to the measurement of personal characteristics of
an individual. It involves information gathering through interviews etc. and administering
of psychological test to understand the typical characteristics. Assessment is an end result
of gathering information. It contributes to furthering of research in the area and also helps
in making appropriate decisions in regard to which type of test to be applied and in what
manner. Assessment is based on the assumption that each individual differs from another in
regard to the personality traits. Even if they possess the same traits their behaviour will
vary in terms of their experiences to different situations and thus a personality assessment
will make this very clear as to what actually contributes to this difference and what are
typical of a particular person’s personality.

A distinctive feature of personality assessment is the scientific approach to personality

measurement. That is how the human characteristics are described quantitatively and
qualitatively. The assessment also throws light on how many traits are present and which
of these is dominant and which one acts negatively creating problems to the adjustment of
the individual. The sophisticated assessment and measurement of personality of an
individual depends on the use of a variety of concepts to provide trait definitions and
entails the application of various methods of observation and evaluation. Personality
assessment serves two purposes – theoretical and practical. Theoretically personality
assessment provides knowledge about different dimensions and aspects of personality
development and provides information about its nature. It provides impetus to research on
personality and help develop new theories about personality. Practical purposes of
personality assessment is to know the strength and weaknesses of a person. It tells which
traits in a person are lacking and what are its implications for his adjustment with the
environment? It provides help in developing intervention program for persons who need
help to overcome some of their personality based difficulties. For example, if a person is
extremely shy and refuses to move with others even though in all other aspects the person
behaves well, it would be worth the while to know what is it in the person that makes the
person so shy that the individual avoids all relationships. For this a personality assessment
will be helpful to understand the fact as to where the problem lies and through which kind
of counseling one can help the person overcome the problem. Approaches of personality
assessment can be categorised under two headings: projective and psychometric
approaches.
 3. Projective Approach
These approaches are based on the principal of projection ( a defense mechanism) in which
a person projects his her own desires, needs and feelings onto other person or object. To
give an example, Suppose you hate a person but you can not say this to that person as he
is powerful and has the capacity to punish you. Now what will you do. You will go away
from that person or you will dare express your feelings for him in his face. But what if both
the options are not available to you or you simply are unable to choose one of the two
options. In such circumstances there is also an option of taking recourse to projection. You
can pronounce or declare that it is not you who hates the person but actually that person
hates you. Thus instead of expressing or giving vent to your feeling in direct manner you
simply project them onto that person. Thus you avoid the possibility of punishment and are
still able to rid of those feelings.

In projective tests personality is measured in indirect manner by presenting the person with
an unstructured, vague stimulus or situation. It is believed that when a person reacts to such
vague or unstructured stimulus or situation, he projects his unconscious desires, mental
conflicts and unethical wants without knowing that he is doing so.

3.1 History of Projective Approach

Use of projective techniques began with Leonardo da Vinci. Vinci in 1400 AD selected
some children and tested them for creativity. He asked them to identify patterns in
ambiguous form and shapes. This was followed by Binet in 1800 AD when he tried to
measure passive imagination among children using a game called Blotto. In it children
were shown ink blots and asked to report what they saw in the blots. In1879 Galton
prepared the Word association test. Jung made extensive use of Galton’s test for testing
purposes. Ebbinghaus used sentence completion test for measurement of intelligence but
soon it was realised that projective tests can be used for personality measurement and thus
the projective tests for personality measurement were developed.

3.2 Types of Projective Tests

Projective tests are categorised under five headings:
i) Association Tests.
ii) Construction Tests.
iii) Completion Tests.
iv) Choice Or Ordering Tests and
v) Expressive Tests.

i) Association Tests:
Association tests involve presentation of vague and unstructured stimulus and the person is
required to respond what he sees and with what he associates that stimulus. Word
association test and Rorschach test are the two main types of this type.

Word Association Tests:

In this, test some predecided stimuli are presented one by one to the subject and the subject
is required to say the first word that comes to mind after hearing the stimulus word. For
example, when the word “chair” is pronounced the subject is supposed to say the first word
coming into his mind on hearing this. Freud and Jung are credited with the use of this
technique for personality assessment. Response given by the person are analysed in terms
of the symbolic meaning of the response and the time taken to respond. Such tests were
successfully used by Jung to study emotional conflict of the individuals.

Rorschach Test:
This test was developed by Swiss psychiatrist Herman Rorschach. It contains 10 cards
bearing inkblots of varied shapes on them. Five of the ten cards are in black and white,
while the remaining five are coloured. All the cards are presented to the subject one by one.
Subject is free to hold, move and twist the card in the manner he likes. Subject is asked to
tell what he sees in the card, whether it is part of the card or whole of the card. All the
responses are recorded and analysed according to letter symbols which are as given below:

a) Location: It tells if the response of the subject is determined by the part or whole of the
blot, W is used to denote the whole of card, D is used to denote if the response is
determined by half of the blot and more, and Dd is used for response determined by
 some small details and out of the small portion of the card. S is used to denote for
response determined responding to certain spaces in between the figures etc.

b) Determinants: It tells which feature of the card is responsible for response. For
example, the subject responds “butterfly”. Now it has to be decided which feature of
the card i.e. form, color, or movement is responsible for the response. 24 letter symbols
are used for this purpose. F for instance is used for form, C for color, M for human
movement and FM animal movement.

c) Content: It tells about the content of the response. If the content is human then H is
used and A is used for animal content.

d) Original response and organisation: Original response means a response frequently

given by people to that card and is called popular response denoted by the letter P.

Once this process of letter assigning is complete, the symbols are analysed and interpreted.
For example, prominence of W responses indicates that the person has high intelligence
and power for abstract reasoning. D is indicative of ability to see and understand things in
a clear manner. Dd should not be more than five percent of the total responses. A Dd higher
than this is indicative of symptoms of schizophrenia (a psychological disease).

ii) Construction test:

These are tests which involve presentation of stimulus upon which the subject is required to
construct some story or construct some other thing. TAT ( Thematic Apperception Test )
developed by Murray is the best example of this category. The test has 31 cards out of
which one card is blank while the other 30 cards bear some picture on it. However, in any
case not more than 20 cards are shown to a person. The test is administered in two sessions.
In the first session 10 cards are shown and in the second session another 10 cards are
shown including the blank one. Blank card is shown at the last. The subject is asked to
write a story on each card. As for the blank card the subject is at liberty to imagine a
picture on it and write a story on it. In the end respondent is subjected to an interview to
ascertain whether the source of the story lies in the picture shown or somewhere else. After
this process is complete the analysis and interpretation starts. Analysis and interpretation is
done on the following basis:

Hero: It is believed that the central character of the story is hero or heroine. Further that
the respondent identifies him or herself with the central character and projects his or her
personality traits onto the central character.

Needs: Each storey reflects certain needs of the central character. Murray identified 28
human needs like need for affiliation, approval, achievement etc.

Press: This means environmental forces operating on the hero by rejecting his need
fulfillment or by helping the needs to be fulfilled.

Thema: This represents the interaction between the needs and the environmental forces.
Thema tells about the continuity in the personality of the individual.

Outcome: This tells how the story has been ended whether the end of the story is decisive
or undecisive, positive or negative etc. Decisive end is indicative of maturity and realistic
attitude of the person.

iii) Completion tests:

In this type of test the subject is usually shown a part of the stimulus (usually a sentence)
and other part of the stimulus is blank which is to be completed by the subject as he thinks
fit. The underlying assumption is that the way subject completes the sentence will reflect
his personality. It was first developed by Rohde & Hidreth in 1940. For example,
1) I often think that…………………
2) I wish that………………………..
3) Very often my parents……………
 The above sentences have to be completed by the subject with whatever comes to his mind
first on reading the incomplete sentence. There are a large number of incomplete sentences
blank , of which the more porpular one is of Rotter’s Incomplete Sentences Blank. Based
on the matter used by the subject to complete the sentence, the analysis is carried out and
the responses interpreted.

iv) Choice or ordering test:

This type of test requires the subject to arrange stimuli in a particular order or he is asked to
select stimulus form amongst the given stimuli on the basis of some dimension or
according to his likes and dislikes. The underlying assumption in it is that the choice made
or order of arrangement will reflect the individual’s personality traits. Szondi test is the
most widely used test of this type. It requires the subject to choose two photographs that he
likes the most and two photographs that he dislikes the most out of six packs of
photographs. Thus photos selected reveal the personality of the person.

v) Expressive tests:
Such tests allow the person to express himself through some drawing. Machover, 1949 is
credited with the construction of this test. It has two formats – Draw-a- person test and
House-Tree-Person test. From the drawings made by the person the drawings are analysed
and the personality traits are delineated. A slightly different version of this test is the
Kinetic Drawing Test in which the subject is asked to draw what is going on in the family
and later on the subject is asked to tell in imagination or otherwise what exactly is
happening in the drawing or the picture. For instance, if the subject has drawn a dining hall
scenario, the subject is asked to tell who is saying what and what is happening at the dining
table, who is interacting with whom and how the subject himself is being treated there etc.
From the responses the psychologist is able to interpret what is going on and in turn the
personality of the individual and the conflicts that the person is facing within the family.

3.3 Evaluation of Projective Tests

Although projective tests are widely used in personality assessment, they are criticized for
the following reasons:
 i) Projective tests are not based on some meaningful and testable criteria hence the
conclusion about the personality of the subject are not tenable.
ii) Scoring and interpretation of projective tests are laced with subjectivity this is
particularly true RT and TAT. Consequently different people reach different conclusions
about the personality of the same individual.
iii) These tests lack in validity and are often used in preparing the case history. Therefore
the results of these tests can’t be relied upon. Most of the psychiatrists believe that there
is lack of scientific evidence over the expected relationship between the indicators of
personality and the traits measured.

4. Psychometric Approach
Psychometric personality tests, commonly known as objective personality tests, are
structured assessments used to measure an individual's personality traits, characteristics,
and behavioral tendencies. These tests are designed to provide consistent, quantifiable
results, making them useful in various fields, including psychology, clinical diagnostics,
organizational recruitment, and personal development. Unlike projective tests, which
require interpretation of ambiguous stimuli (e.g., Rorschach Inkblot Test), psychometric
personality tests rely on standardized questions with fixed response options, such as
multiple-choice or true-false formats. This structure enhances objectivity, reduces bias, and
enables statistical analysis of results.

Psychometric personality tests are widely used in:

• Clinical psychology (to diagnose psychological disorders)
• Career counseling (to guide individuals toward suitable professions)
• Organizational psychology (to evaluate employees' personality traits for job fit)
• Academic research (to study personality theories and behavior)

4.1 History of Psychometric Approach

Early Foundations (Late 19th – Early 20th Century)
The origins of personality testing can be traced back to early psychological research on
individual differences. Francis Galton, a pioneer in psychometrics, explored personality by
analyzing descriptive words in language, leading to the identification of traits that could
define human personality. Around the same time, Wilhelm Wundt’s experimental
psychology laid the foundation for studying personality scientifically. Sigmund Freud and
Carl Jung further influenced the field with their psychoanalytic theories, emphasizing
unconscious processes and personality dynamics.

Development of Structured Personality Tests (1920s–1940s)

During World War I, the need for psychological screening led to the development of the
Woodworth Personal Data Sheet (1919), the first structured personality test designed to
identify soldiers prone to psychological distress. This marked a shift toward standardized
personality assessment. The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI, 1943)
was another major milestone, as it used empirical methods to measure a wide range of
personality traits and psychopathologies. The MMPI became a gold standard for clinical
diagnosis and remains widely used today.

Factor Analysis and Trait Theories (1940s–1960s)

The mid-20th century saw the application of statistical techniques, particularly factor
analysis, to identify underlying personality traits. Raymond Cattell's 16 Personality Factor
Questionnaire (16PF, 1949) categorized personality into 16 core traits, helping researchers
and practitioners assess individual differences systematically. Around the same time, Hans
Eysenck proposed a three-factor model of personality based on Extraversion, Neuroticism,
and Psychoticism, offering a more simplified approach to personality assessment.

The Rise of the Five-Factor Model (1980s–Present)

By the late 20th century, the Five-Factor Model (OCEAN: Openness, Conscientiousness,
Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism) gained recognition as a universal framework for
personality assessment. It was supported by extensive cross-cultural research and became
the foundation for many modern psychometric personality tests. Today, advancements in
artificial intelligence and computerized adaptive testing (CAT) have further refined the
accuracy and efficiency of personality assessments.
4.2 Types of Psychometric Personality Tests
Psychometric personality tests can be classified into different types based on their
methodology and purpose.

• Normative Tests compare an individual's scores to a representative sample, providing

a percentile ranking to indicate how their personality traits compare to the general
population. An example is the Big Five Inventory (BFI), which ranks individuals based
on five major personality traits.

• Ipsative Tests, on the other hand, measure relative strengths by forcing individuals to
choose between different personality attributes. These tests do not compare individuals
to others but rather provide a personal profile of strengths and weaknesses. The Myers-
Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is an example of an ipsative test.

Additionally, personality tests can be categorized as self-report tests, where individuals

answer direct questions about their behavior, emotions, and thoughts, or performance-based
tests, which measure personality through observed behavior rather than self-reporting. Self-
report tests are more common and widely used due to their ease of administration.

4.3 Examples of Major Psychometric Personality Tests

i) Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2):

The MMPI-2 is one of the most extensively used clinical personality tests. It consists of
567 true-false questions that assess various psychological conditions, including
depression, anxiety, and personality disorders. The MMPI-2 is often used in clinical
settings, forensic evaluations, and employment screenings for high-risk professions, such
as law enforcement and military personnel.

ii) Big Five Personality Test (NEO-PI-R):

The NEO Personality Inventory-Revised (NEO-PI-R) is based on the Five-Factor
Model and measures five broad personality traits: Openness, Conscientiousness,
 Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism. Each trait is further divided into sub-
facets, providing a detailed personality profile. It is widely used in research, career
counseling, and personal development.

iii) Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI):

The MBTI categorizes individuals into 16 personality types based on four dichotomies:
Introversion (I) vs. Extraversion (E), Sensing (S) vs. Intuition (N), Thinking (T) vs.
Feeling (F), and Judging (J) vs. Perceiving (P). Although popular in career guidance
and self-awareness exercises, critics argue that it lacks reliability and scientific validity.

iv) 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF):

Developed by Raymond Cattell, the 16PF test assesses 16 personality traits that influence
behavior and decision-making. It is used in counseling, occupational psychology, and
research.

v) Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ):

The EPQ measures three primary personality dimensions: Extraversion, Neuroticism,
and Psychoticism. It is frequently used in psychological research to study personality
disorders and behavioral tendencies.

vi) Hogan Personality Inventory (HPI):

The HPI is primarily used in workplace assessments to evaluate leadership potential and
job performance. It helps organizations make informed hiring decisions by identifying
candidates with desirable personality traits for specific job roles.

vii) California Psychological Inventory (CPI):

The CPI assesses interpersonal behavior and social interaction patterns, making it useful
for personal and professional development. It is often used in leadership training and
employee selection.
4.4 Evaluation of Psychometric Personality Tests
Merits (Advantages)
• Objective and Standardized
One of the primary advantages of psychometric personality tests is their objectivity.
Since these tests use standardized formats and scoring methods, they minimize
personal biases in interpretation, making them highly reliable tools for assessment.

• Reliability and Validity

Many psychometric tests, such as the MMPI-2 and NEO-PI-R, have undergone
extensive research to establish their reliability (consistency of results) and validity
(accuracy in measuring what they intend to measure). This makes them valuable for
both clinical and organizational purposes.

• Time-Efficient and Scalable

These tests can be administered to large groups simultaneously, making them ideal
for mass assessments in hiring, academic settings, and research studies.

• Predictive Power
Some psychometric tests, particularly the Big Five Model and Hogan Personality
Inventory, have strong predictive validity in job performance and behavioral
tendencies, helping employers and psychologists make informed decisions.

• Useful in Multiple Fields

These tests are applied in various domains, including clinical psychology (diagnosing
mental disorders), career counseling (matching personality traits to suitable careers),
and human resources (assessing job fit and leadership potential).

Demerits (Limitations)
• Social Desirability Bias
 Individuals may respond in ways that make them appear more favorable, especially in
job applications. This can lead to inaccurate results if not controlled by validity
scales.

• Limited Depth in Measuring Complex Personality Aspects

While structured tests provide quantifiable data, they may not capture deeper,
unconscious aspects of personality as effectively as projective techniques like the
Rorschach Inkblot Test.

• Cultural and Language Bias

Some tests may not be equally valid across different cultures due to differences in
language, social norms, and personality expression, leading to potential
misinterpretations.

• Over-Simplification of Personality
Personality is dynamic and context-dependent. Reducing it to fixed categories or
numerical scores may overlook individual uniqueness and situational variations.

• Situational Variability
A person’s responses may differ based on their mood, environment, or recent
experiences, affecting the test’s accuracy in capturing stable personality traits.

5. Conclusion
Both projective and psychometric approaches to personality assessment offer unique
insights into human behavior, each with its strengths and limitations. Projective tests, such
as the Rorschach Inkblot Test and Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), delve into
unconscious processes and provide rich, qualitative data, making them valuable in clinical
and therapeutic settings. However, their subjective nature and reliance on interpretation
raise concerns about reliability and validity. On the other hand, psychometric tests, like
the MMPI-2, Big Five Inventory, and MBTI, provide standardized, objective, and
quantifiable results, making them widely applicable in research, diagnostics, and
occupational settings. While psychometric tests are more scientifically rigorous, they may
oversimplify personality and fail to capture deep, unconscious aspects. Therefore, a
comprehensive personality assessment often benefits from an integrative approach, using
both projective and psychometric methods to gain a well-rounded understanding of an
individual’s personality, emotional functioning, and behavioral tendencies.

References

• Anastasi, Anne and Urbina, Subana (1997) . Psychological Testing (7th edition).
Prentice Hall, New Jersey.

• Freeman, Frank, S.(1953). Theory and Practice of Psychological Testing. Pitman,

London.

• John Maltby, Liz Day, Ann Macaskill (2009). Personality, Individual Differences and
Intelligence (2nd edition ) Pearson Education Europe, Middle East and Africa.,
Canada.

• Robert B. Ewen (1998). An Introduction to Theories of Personality (5th edition)

Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers , New Jersey.

• Cooper, C. (2002). Individual Differences (2nd edition) New York: Oxford University
Press.
 INDEX

1. Introduction

2. Test of Personality

3. Projective Approach

3.1 History of Projective Approach

3.2 Types of Projective Tests

3.3 Evaluation of Projective Tests

4. Psychometric Approach

4.1 History of Psychometric Approach

4.2 Types of Psychometric Personality Tests

4.3 Examples of Major Psychometric Personality Tests

4.4 Evaluation of Psychometric Personality Tests

5. Conclusion

References