Developing

AUTO-
INSTRUCTIONAL
MATERIALS
This page intentionally left blank
I N S T R U C T I O N A L DEVELOPMENT
INSTRUCTIONAL D E V E L O P M E N T SERIES
SERIES

Developing
Developing
AUTO-
INSTRUCTIONAL
MATERIALS
MATERIALS
From
F r o m programmed
p r o g r a m m e d TEXTS to
to
CAL and
CAL a n d INTERACTIVE VIDEO

A J Romiszowski
A Romiszowski

~l Routledge
Iii \. Taylor & Francis Group

LONDON AND NEW YORK

Copyright © A . J . Romiszowski 1986

All rights reserved

First published in 1986 by Kogan Page Ltd

This edition published 2013 by Routledge

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon 0X14 4RN
711 Third Avenue, New York, N Y 10017

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group,

an informa business

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Romiszowski, A. J.
Developing auto-instructional materials: from
programmed texts to CAL and interactive video.—
(Instructional development; 2)
1. Individualized instruction 2. Teaching—
Aids and devices
I. Tide II. Series.
37l.3'94 LB1031
ISBN 0-85038-911-9
ISBN 0-85091-221-1 (pbk.)

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Romiszowski, A . J .
Developing auto-instructional materials.
(Instructional development; 2)
Bibliography: p.
Includes indexes.
1. Programmed instruction—Authorship. 2. Instructional
systems—design. 3. Computer-assisted instruction.
4. Audio-visual education. 5. Individualized instruction.
I. Title. II. Series: Romiszowski, A . J . Instructional
development; 2.
LB1028.35.R653 1984 vol. 2 1987 371.3'944 86-28597
[LB1028.6]
ISBN 0-89397-208-8
ISBN 0-89397-269-X (pbk.)
Contents

Preface to the
Preface the Instructional
Instructional Development
Development Series 9
9

Introduction to Developing
Introduction Developing Auto-Instructional Materials 13
13

Part 1. The Context for Materials Development 17

17

1. The
1. Individualized Instruction: T h e Philosophical Context 19
19
1.1 Approaches to individualization
individualization 19
1.2
1.2 Sorting out
out the
the approaches
approaches 20
1.3
1.3 The mediation of instruction 22
1.4
1.4 The control of instruction 23
1.5
1.5 A schema
schema of systems
systems for individualizing instruction 24
1.6
1.6 Towards an integrated methodology of ID
integrated methodology I D 27

2. A
AMModel
o d e l of Learning: The
of Learning: The Theoretical Context 29
29
2.1 Introduction 29
Introduction

3. F
3. Four of Instructional Design: The
o u r Levels of The Practical
Practical Context 57
57
3.1 Introduction 57
Introduction

Part 2. Instructional Programming

Programming and its Evolution
Evolution 95
95

4. The
4. The F
Fourth Level of
o u r t h Level of Analysis: Task-Centred
Task-Centred and
and Topic-Centred
Topic-Centred Approaches 99
99
4.1 Individualized materials design 99
Individualized instruction and materials
4.2 Two
T w o approaches
approaches to materials
materials design and two forms of of analysis 100
4.3 Techniques for objectives-oriented
objectives-oriented analysis: output
output to input
input 100
4.4 The three models of analysis: similarities
similarities and differences
differences 103
103
4.5 example of mathetical analysis 105
A practical example 105
4.6 Techniques for content-oriented input to output
content-oriented analysis: input output 116
116

5. A Study of
5. A in Programmed Instruction: Analysis of
o f Change in of the
the Topic-Centred
Topic-Centred
and Task-Centred Programming
and Task-Centred Programming Techniques 131
131
5.1 The changing face of programmed
programmed instruction 131
131
5.2
5.2 techniques of programming 133
Changing techniques 133
5.3 Analysis of E
Exhibit
x h i b i t 5.1 134
134
5.4
5.4 Analysis of
o f Exhibit
E x h i b i t 5.2
5.2 146
146

6. Tactics for
6. for Producing
Producing Expositive Self-Instructional
Self-Instructional Materials 155
155
6.1 The basic model for expositive instruction 155
6.2 A discussion of E
Exhibit
x h i b i t 6.1 155
155
6.3 Sophistications o
off the
the basic expositive
ex positive model —
- special tactics
tactics for the
the teaching
teaching
of
of multiple discriminations 163 163
 6.4 Sophistications of the basic expositive model - backward chaining 166
6.5 Sophistications of the basic expositive model - conceptual learning 170
6.6 The limitations o f expositive programmed techniques and some of the possible
alternatives 174
6.7 The basic model for experiential instruction 174
6.8 Some examples of experiential programmed instruction 177
6.9 Experiential programming and current educational trends 178

7. Structural Communication: A Cognitive A p p r o a c h to Self-Instruction 181

7.1 The rationale for structural communication 181
7.2 The structure of a typical SC study unit 182
7.3 A n example of a typical SC study unit 184
7.4 Designing and writing structural communications 184
7.5 The potential for structural communication 203

8. Structured Writing or 'Mapping*: A n Information Processing A p p r o a c h 205

8.1 Origins of structured writing 205
8.2 Introduction to structured writing 209
8.3 The process of structured writing 215
8.4 Supplementary maps for aiding reference and initial learning 227

9. 'Experience Programming': Writing Structured Case Studies and Role-Plays 235

9.1 Introduction: the scope of case study and role-playing 235
9.2 The writing of case materials 241
9.3 The writing of interactive case studies 243
9.4 The use of structural communication for the writing of case studies 246
9.5 The development of role-play materials 251
9.6 The rolemap — a systematic approach to the development of role-play 259

Part 3. The Impact of the Computer 265

10. ' C A L \ ' C A P and ' C M I ' : Definitions, Scope and Potential 267
10.1 Computer-assisted instruction: the concept and its variations 267
10.2 The scope and limitations of this section 269

11. Initial Design and Development: The Educator's Role 271

11.1 Materials design for C A I : the initial stages 271
11.2 C A I materials development: the I D task at Level 4 278

12. The Range of C A I Designs: Some Examples of Courseware 293

12.1 The test mode 293
12.2 The drill-and-practice mode 295
12.3 The programmed tutorial mode 298
12.4 The conversational or dialogue mode 305
12.5 The simulation mode 307
12.6 The inquiry mode 312

13. Coding the Courseware for the Computer: Use of Standard Languages
and Authoring Systems 317
13.1 The use of a computer language 317
13.2 The use of an authoring system 318
13.3 The use of a courseware authoring language 320
Part 4. Techniques for Audiovisual Materials Development 323

14. Audiovisual Media: Informational, Motivational or Instructional? 327

15. Audiovisual Instructional Packages: A Review 335

15.1 The functions of A V media i n an instructional system 335
15.2 Types of A V packages and components 339

16. Developing Audiovisual Instructional Materials 351

16.1 Some c o m m o n approaches to the development of audiovisuals 351
16.2 Special case: the development o f instructional audiovisuals 355
16.3 Some examples of scripting for audiovisuals 363

17. Interactive Video and the New Media: A n Evaluation 379

17.1 What are the 'new media'? 379
17.2 What is'interactive video'? 381
17.3 Modern systems of interactive video: the hardware 382
17.4 Some antecedents to interactive video 384
17.5 Some research results 387
17.6 Some existing approaches to ID i n interactive video 389
17.7 What are we learning about the effective use of I V ? 394

Part 5 . The Evaluation of Instructional Materials 399

18. The Validation and Evaluation of Instructional Materials 401

18.1 Developmental and field-testing 401
18.2 Validation and evaluation 401
18.3 A systems view of materials evaluation 402
18.4 Validation: technical and pedagogical 405

19. Developmental and Field-Testing: Organization, E x e c u t i o n

and Interpretation 409
19.1 The organization of developmental testing 409
19.2 The organization of field-testing 412
19.3 Treatment and interpretation of the results 415
19.4 A case study i n field-test data interpretation 419

20. Evaluation: Final Words 427

20.1 Reactions 427
20.2 Costs 427
20.3 Surprises: some case studies 428
20.4 Evaluating the materials design process 430
20.5 The future of instructional design and development: how the I D process
may change i n the future 432
20.6 The computer-based expert instructor: a case study and a look into the
future 436
20.7 Conclusion — ID with a new face 439

Bibliography 443

Subject Index 449

Author Index 455

This page intentionally left blank
Preface to the Instructional
Development Series

T h i s t w o - v o l u m e w o r k o n the d e v e l o p m e n t o f i n s t r u c t i o n is p l a n n e d as a
c o m p a n i o n to an earlier b o o k - Designing Instructional Systems.
T h i s earlier book dealt w i t h the d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g process i n v o l v e d i n o v e r a l l
course p l a n n i n g a n d c u r r i c u l u m design - the i n i t i a l m a c r o - d e s i g n stages o f a
project. T h e present w o r k continues o n to the m i c r o - d e s i g n stages o f lesson a n d
i n s t r u c t i o n a l materials d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e w o r k is d i v i d e d into two v o l u m e s .
V o l u m e 1, Producing Instructional Systems, deals w i t h lesson p l a n n i n g for
i n d i v i d u a l i z e d i n s t r u c t i o n i n the c o n v e n t i o n a l classroom e n v i r o n m e n t , as w e l l as
the p l a n n i n g o f s m a l l g r o u p - l e a r n i n g situations, s i m u l a t i o n s a n d games. V o l u m e 2,
Developing Auto-Instructional Materials, deals w i t h the d e v e l o p m e n t o f m a n y different
types o f materials, i n c l u d i n g p r o g r a m m e d i n s t r u c t i o n , s t r u c t u r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n ,
v a r i o u s styles o f structured w r i t i n g , a u d i o a n d a u d i o v i s u a l i n s t r u c t i o n a n d the
m a n y types o f c o m p u t e r - b a s e d materials n o w b e i n g i n t r o d u c e d i n b o t h e d u c a t i o n
and training.
T a k e n together, these two v o l u m e s give extensive coverage o f p r a c t i c a l
techniques for the d e v e l o p m e n t o f i n s t r u c t i o n .
It is quite useful to d r a w a d i s t i n c t i o n between i n s t r u c t i o n a l design a n d
i n s t r u c t i o n a l development, a l t h o u g h some authors seem to use the two terms
s y n o n y m o u s l y . It is true that i n some cases it is difficult to separate ' d e s i g n ' (what
happens o n the d r a w i n g board) a n d ' d e v e l o p m e n t ' (what h a p p e n s i n the
w o r k s h o p ) . T h e two processes are interrelated, f o r m i n g a n iterative cycle o f
design, d e v e l o p m e n t , re-design, etc. H o w e v e r , d e v e l o p m e n t requires the existence
of a p r a c t i c a l try-out situation a n d prototype products or services ready to be t r i e d
out. T h i s is not a r e q u i r e m e n t o f the i n i t i a l design stages o f a project, w h i c h m a y
be a largely theoretical exercise, based o n the experiences g a i n e d i n other projects
or o n p r i n c i p l e s gleaned f r o m a study of the literature. W e differentiate between
design a n d development i n the context o f i n s t r u c t i o n a n d it is this that
distinguishes the present w o r k .
Designing Instructional Systems l a i d the foundations for a systematic a p p r o a c h to
the p l a n n i n g o f i n s t r u c t i o n i n b o t h e d u c a t i o n a l a n d t r a i n i n g contexts, l e a d i n g the
reader t h r o u g h two levels o f d e c i s i o n m a k i n g :
1. Is an i n s t r u c t i o n a l system really necessary?
2. W h a t s h o u l d be its o v e r a l l structure?

T h e s e are the p o l i t i c a l a n d strategic levels.

Instructional Development takes the reader o n to p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f the plans
p r e p a r e d at these earlier levels. N a t u r a l l y , this i n v o l v e s further, m o r e d e t a i l e d ,
d e s i g n , as well as the actual p r o d u c t i o n o f prototype lessons a n d materials. T h e s e
prototypes, w h e n tested, m a y lead to further detailed re-design o r even to changes
i n the i n i t i a l o v e r a l l plans. H o w e v e r , the emphasis is o n p r o d u c t i o n a n d testing
a n d the further design decisions are v e r y detailed, topic-specific or ' t a c t i c a l ' . T h e s e
decisions m a y also be c o n v e n i e n t l y classified i n t o two levels:

3. T h e decisions i n v o l v e d i n the detailed p l a n n i n g o f lessons a n d exercises.

4. T h e decisions i n v o l v e d i n the p r e p a r a t i o n o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s .

V e r y often these two levels o f d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g are p e r f o r m e d b y one a n d the

same person, as i n the case o f a teacher w h o prepares his o w n materials to be
10 Preface

used as part o f the lessons that he gives. It is also v e r y c o m m o n , h o w e v e r , for the

materials p r o d u c t i o n tasks to be the responsibility o f specialists, the lesson p l a n n e r
m e r e l y selecting appropriate e x i s t i n g materials or o r i e n t i n g the specialist materials
producer.
O n e reason, therefore, for d i v i d i n g this w o r k into two v o l u m e s is to a i m m o r e
precisely at these two groups o f readers.
A n o t h e r reason for the d i v i s i o n is the sheer size o f the task. T o deal t h o r o u g h l y
w i t h these two levels o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l development i n one book either w o u l d have
p r o d u c e d an u n w i e l d y tome, or size a n d space restrictions w o u l d have prevented
the i n c l u s i o n o f m a n y examples (an essential feature o f a p r a c t i c a l treatment o f the
techniques discussed).
H o w e v e r , b e a r i n g i n m i n d the possibility of two distinct groups o f readers -
lesson planners a n d m a t e r i a l producers - every effort has been m a d e to m a k e the
two v o l u m e s self-contained. Essential basic concepts are defined i n b o t h v o l u m e s ,
so the reader m a y a c c o m p a n y the theoretical a r g u m e n t w i t h o u t necessarily h a v i n g
to refer to b o t h v o l u m e s .
T h e same independence is achieved, i n relation to the earlier Designing
Instructional Systems, b y the s u m m a r y , i n early chapters, of the p r i n c i p a l c o n c e p t u a l
schemata developed earlier a n d n o w used as the basis for p r a c t i c a l decision
making.
H o w e v e r , there is a c o n t i n u i t y a n d coherence w i t h i n the books, best illustrated
by the two ' w o r l d m a p s ' of i n s t r u c t i o n a l design a n d development presented o n the
f o l l o w i n g two pages. T h e first m a p s u m m a r i z e s the p r i n c i p a l content o f the e a r l i e r
b o o k , Designing Instructional Systems.
T h e second m a p s u m m a r i z e s the p r i n c i p a l aspects o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t
covered i n the present w o r k . V o l u m e 1 is devoted to L e v e l 3, a n d V o l u m e 2 deals
w i t h L e v e l 4. T h i s m a p shows clearly h o w these m o r e detailed levels o f d e c i s i o n
m a k i n g are dependent o n earlier decisions taken at the i n i t i a l design levels. T h e
reader w h o has read Designing Instructional Systems w i l l discover a s t r o n g t h r e a d o f
c o n t i n u i t y r u n n i n g throughout the series. S o m e of the present chapters, w h i c h
s u m m a r i z e the basic theoretical a p p r o a c h adopted, m a y be f o u n d to be r e d u n d a n t
i n this case. C l e a r i n d i c a t i o n s are g i v e n , i n o v e r v i e w s , o f those chapters w h i c h
may be safely o m i t t e d i f earlier books i n the series have recently been read.
R e a d e r s m a y prefer, h o w e v e r , to refresh their m e m o r i e s o n the concepts a n d
schemata developed earlier w h i c h n o w come to p l a y an i m p o r t a n t part i n the
i n s t r u c t i o n a l development process. T h i s m a y be p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t i f some
time has elapsed since the earlier book was read.
It is h o p e d that the structure o f the content i n the present w o r k w i l l enable the
two v o l u m e s to be used c o n v e n i e n t l y as both i n i t i a l r e a d i n g or later reference
material.

A l e x a n d e r R o m i s z o w s k i , A p r i l 1984
 Stages
Stages in
in the
the systems
systems approach
approach

problem
Define proble m Analyse problem
Analyse problem Design/develop
Design/develop solution
solution Implement Control/eva! uate
Control/evaluate

III Identify problem

Identify problem Front-end analysis
Front-end analysis Consider
Consider other types
types Has e problem really
Has th
the really
>. -— what
what should
should bebe ~^—- is part
is instruction part ~
^ of solution
o f solution -- been solved?
solved?
-; done/known?
done/known?
- of the
the required
required - ~
~
!::>

Analysis
<= -— what is done/known?
is done/known? solution?
solution? t"l
Preface

(':l
j 1 f
r:: lf 7
1 ,i tI 1
.~
~ discrepancy
'" Transfonn
Transform discrepancy Perfonn job/
Perform a full job/ Design eval uation
evaluation Administrative steps
steps Perform a long-tenn
long-term
"C'" u
'" project subject derive
subject analysis to derive
..... .s: into measurable projec~ instruments .. to
to make
make use
use 0off ~
^ evalua~ion
evaluation of
o f the
the effects
effects
- ~ ~ -
~ ;;..
objectives
objectives *~' the
the post-instruction
post-instruction existing system
system on sOClety
society or

Synthesis
~ rIJ
= objectives
Objectives, I organization
organization

Level 1 design
~ '" 1 1 !
T,I ,I T
, TI
r:: Are the project objectives
project objectives appropriate
Do appropriate (Ye
(Yes) Produce
.S is) Evaluate and
and select
select Produce and
and validate the
viable? instructional systems i existing systems long-tenn
long-term evaluation
evaluation
! ----l
* exist
J~ exist al ready?
already? - ~ instruments
~ Stop or revise (No)

Evaluation
~
1^,
.~
Perform pop/task/
Perform target pop/task! What are the -- — Analyse the effects
effects o0 ff
;;..
'" topic analysis of what
what --lj~
^ characteristics
characteristics 0o f the Identifv probable
Identify probable ^ instruction
'iii seems 'worth teaching'
'worth teaching' knowledge and
knowledge and skills difficulties of
difficulties of
.- r-- instruction

Analysis
~ content
bf content 1 implementation
implementation
;:; 1 * 1 / 1/ JI f
1I
.!u ,I
•
Derive detailed
//
Develop :thee instructiona(
instructional
T
Dissemination
Dissemination o
,
off plan Control
Control and
1
and evaluate
~ Derive detailed
N
'"
til instructional objectives plan
plan to teachers.
to the full-scale project
the full-scale project
u instructional objectives
'i) .s: and content • -— structure/sequence
structure/sequence ___^- Orientation
Orientation andand -'"
~ and content --J)~
u ;;.. - strategies/methods
— preparation
preparation

Level 2 design
Synthesis
~ rIJ
= — media
- media
- control/evaluation
—
I A
;:; T
,1 f
What
\
~11:1 What is the 'climate' What
What is the worth
worth and
and What level of design Produce and validate
Produce and
What level of design
-;= and
and philosophy
philosophy of the
the practicality
practicality o
off the is required? the final tests
~ --j
~ is
:
required?
wider system?

Evaluation
~ wider sy stem? proposed system?
--J ~ proposed system?

Map
Map 1
1 World
World map
map of
of the
the 'initial
'initial design'
design' stage
stage of
of an
an instructional
instructional design
design projec
projectt
11
 12
.....
I'\:)

Stages
Stages in
in the
the systems
systems approach
approach

problem Analyse problem

Analyse problem Develop
Develop solution
solution Implement
Implement Control/evaluate
Control/eva! uate
Define
Define problem

.~ Inputs
Inputs defined at
defined at Analyse
Analyse the
the Identify
Identify appropriate
appropriate ^
stages: ^ detailed • teaching Identify difficulties :p
1-
.(
c
i:'I:I
earlier
earlier stages:
- Objective
— Objective
detailed instructional
objectives and content
t
instructiOnal.. te.achin g. tactics
tactics Identify difficulties
of implementation
of imPl:Jtation
—
~ Analyse
Analyse the
the effects
effects of
of ~
;::.
<'I
Preface

Objectivesrdc~~te~_~ ___ t~~__

Analysis
— Content
- Content each
each lesson/unit
lesson/unit ~
c t
.... - Instructional
— Instructional T 1
7
.! T Pilot
Q.j ....
Q.j
plan
plan Analyse the Develop
Develop detailed plans
detailed plans Develop an
Develop an Pilot project •
project field-test
field-test
"0 .c ^ Analyse the n real
Project instructional plan lesson, the system
plan ~ the system iin real
~

"ii
~;;...
—- Project
resources
resources to define a
to define a
,-
instructional plan for
for each
each lesson,
including
'l'
material
including material
implementation
implementation plan
conditions
conditions
~ fIJ Train
— Existing
- Existing lesson sequence specifications
specifications Train teachers
teach e rs
~ c lesson sequence
---~------+------"--(Yes)

Level 3 design
materials
materials ^ (Yes) , 1
I
!..
.g Target Analyse
Analyse the existing materials Do
Do all teachers
teachers have Produce
Produce and validate
and validate
~ —- Target Do
Do existing materials
::: population ^ existing instructional meet specifications? the
the necessary skills/
necessary skills! tests
-; population • meet specifications? lesson
lesson tests
~ experience?
experience?
~
materials
~ materials _~ (No)

Evaluation Synthesis
(No)
|
Analyse
Analyse the Perform
Perform a behavioural ^ Analyse
Analyse the effects
the effects
'"
;;...
'" population ^ analysis in
in fine detail samples
\ • Identify suitable samples of
of each sequence or
each sequence or
-;
c
target population
in
characteristics in
' of
of the target population exercise
exercise
.(

Analysis
detail ~ L
c T | t~
.~
Q.j
Select the
the format
format
-+I Develop T
the materials
Develop the materials
Develop aa production
I p~oduction
^»
Developmentally
materials o n
test
DeVelopmentally test
"0 for each exercise ~ - programmed texts ~ — and
and validation
validation schedule —
~ the
the materials on
'o:t' • — programmed texts groups
- infomaps small
small groups
"ii, — infomaps
- structural
Q.j

Synthesis
— structural
oJ - audiovisual, etc

Level 4 design
— audiovisual, etc j1 ± lJf t
c i.L
+I1
~.g
l"J
Evaluate for accuracy
Evaluate for accuracy
Implement
Implement on o n aa
basis and
/ Produce
Produce and
and validate
validate
:s and consistency • one-to-one
one-to-one basis and ~ — criterion
criterion test
test
C;
>
, -+ .-
and consistency
(expert evaluation)
(expert evaluation)
revise
revise as necessary
as necessary items
items

Evaluation
~

The
The 'problem'
'problem' has
has been
been fully
fully defined
defined at
at Levels
Levels I1 and
and 2,2, as
as has
has the
the overall
overall form
form of
of the
the solution.
solution. Level
Level 33 is
is concerned
concerned with
with the
the detailed tactics o
detailed tactics off
each
each lesson
lesson -- what
what learners
learners and
and teachers
teachers should
should dodo at
at each
each stage
stage of
of the
the instructional
instructional process.
process. Level
Level 44 is
is concerned
concerned with
with the
the development
development of
special
special instructional
instructional materials.
materials.

Map
M a p 22 World
World map
map of
of the 'development'
the 'development' stage
stage of
of an instructional
an instructional design project
design project
Introduction to Developing Auto-
Instructional Materials

T h e i n t e n d e d readership o f this v o l u m e is c o m p o s e d o f those teachers o r

instructors w h o i n t e n d to develop a n y f o r m o f self-instructional m a t e r i a l o r
package, those w h o specialize i n the d e v e l o p m e n t a n d p r o d u c t i o n o f t e a c h i n g
materials a n d m e d i a (whether p r i n t - b a s e d , c o m p u t e r - b a s e d o r a u d i o v i s u a l ) a n d the
i n s t r u c t i o n a l designer or student o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l d e s i g n w h o wishes to integrate a
coherent a p p r o a c h to materials design a n d d e v e l o p m e n t into a m o r e general,
b r o a d l y based a p p r o a c h to c u r r i c u l u m a n d lesson p l a n n i n g .
W e l i m i t ourselves to the d i s c u s s i o n o f a u t o - i n s t r u c t i o n a l materials, p a r t l y
because the whole field o f m e d i a a n d materials is so vast that j u s t i c e cannot be
done to it i n a book this size, p a r t l y because we are d e a l i n g w i t h the design a n d
d e v e l o p m e n t o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l systems a n d not w i t h the skills o f p r o d u c t i o n o f
a r t w o r k for v i s u a l s , p h o t o g r a p h y , a u d i o r e c o r d i n g or studio w o r k . T e a c h e r -
d e l i v e r e d i n s t r u c t i o n was dealt w i t h i n the p r e v i o u s v o l u m e , Producing Instructional
Systems a n d so n o w we address ourselves to i n s t r u c t i o n a l systems i n w h i c h the b u l k
of the teaching function (message d e l i v e r y a n d / o r c o n t r o l o f l e a r n i n g a n d / o r
corrective feedback a n d guidance) is a u t o m a t e d .
A u t o - i n s t r u c t i o n generally i m p l i e s a h i g h degree o f i n d i v i d u a l i z a t i o n . T h e r e f o r e
the first part o f Producing Instructional Systems is especially relevant as a s t a r t i n g
point for the study o f the present v o l u m e . I n case this is not a v a i l a b l e , o r was read
some time before, C h a p t e r 1 has been i n c l u d e d i n o r d e r to s u m m a r i z e o u r views
on the i n d i v i d u a l i z a t i o n o f the i n s t r u c t i o n a l process. W e analyse the c r i t i c a l aspects
of this concept a n d e x a m i n e the role o f m e d i a t e d a u t o - i n s t r u c t i o n .
T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f m e d i a t e d i n s t r u c t i o n a l materials s h o u l d be u n d e r t a k e n i n
the b r o a d e r context o f c u r r i c u l a r a n d lesson p l a n n i n g . T h e r e are exceptions to this
rule, w h e n i n s t r u c t i o n a l designers are called u p o n to develop a self-contained
package o n a g i v e n topic, not d i r e c t l y related to a n y specific course, c u r r i c u l u m or
t r a i n i n g need. T h i s is often the case, for e x a m p l e , w h e n C A L courseware is
developed b y a p r o g r a m m i n g 'software h o u s e ' . H o w e v e r , the dangers o f i g n o r i n g
the reality i n w h i c h the package w i l l be used are a l l too apparent - for e x a m p l e , a
package o n F r e n c h g r a m m a r w o u l d not be well received i n a c u r r i c u l a r context
w h i c h tended to a v o i d the direct a n d f o r m a l t e a c h i n g o f g r a m m a t i c a l rules; a
package o n set theory as an i n t r o d u c t i o n to a r i t h m e t i c w o u l d not have m u c h
acceptance i n schools that have a b a n d o n e d , or never used, the ' m o d e r n m a t h s '
a p p r o a c h to c u r r i c u l u m i n m a t h e m a t i c s . T h e r e f o r e , the materials d e v e l o p e r must
be at least aware o f the o v e r a l l ' m a c r o ' processes o f c u r r i c u l u m d e s i g n , as well as
the m o r e ' m i c r o ' considerations o f lesson p l a n n i n g . T h e s e were fully treated i n
earlier books: c u r r i c u l u m design ( L e v e l s 1 a n d 2 o f the four-level I D m o d e l ) i n
Designing Instructional Systems a n d lesson/activity p l a n n i n g ( L e v e l 3 o f o u r m o d e l ) i n
Producing Instructional Systems. W e realize that not a l l readers w o u l d feel the same
i m m e d i a t e need to study these m o r e general levels i n d e t a i l . W e have therefore
i n c l u d e d two i n t r o d u c t o r y chapters - C h a p t e r s 2 a n d 3 - w h i c h s u m m a r i z e the
overall treatment o f the I D process that was developed i n the earlier books.
C h a p t e r 2 presents the theoretical m o d e l o f l e a r n i n g w h i c h w i l l be o f direct use to
the materials developer as w e l l . C h a p t e r 3 presents a n o v e r v i e w o f the p r a c t i c a l
procedures o f c u r r i c u l a r a n d lesson p l a n n i n g , to act as a ' b a c k - d r o p ' for the
present w o r k . T h e s e two chapters are structured i n the f o r m o f ' m a p s ' , to facilitate
r a p i d reference a n d selective r e a d i n g . E a c h ' m a p ' is a synthesis o f one o r m o r e
 A
A gguide
u i d e tto
o tthe eading o
h e rreading off Developing
Developing Auto-Instructional
A uto-Instructional Materials
Materials
14 .....
Part
Part 22 Part
Part 3 Part
Part 4 Part ..p..
Part
Part 11 Part 5
Theory base:
Theory base: Print-based materials:
Print-based materials: Computer-based materials:
Computer-based materials: Techniques or
Techniques ffor T h e evaluation
The evaluation ooff
The
The general
general content for
content for I nstru ct ional
Instructional T h e impact
The impact of the
the audiovisual
audiovisual material instructional materials
instructional materials
materials development
materials development programming
programming and computer
computer development
development
its evolution
its I

Analysis
Analysis 1.
1. Ind ividual ized
Individualized 4.
4. The
The fourth
fourth level of
level of 1 0.CAL, C
10.CAL, A I and
CAl CMI:
and CMI: 14.
14. Audiovisual
Audiovisual media: 18. h e validation
18. TThe val idation and
and
Understanding the
Understanding the instruction:
instruction: thethe anal ysis: task-centred
analysis: definitions,
definitions, scope informational,
informational, evaluation
evaluation o off
ati
problem ~
problem philosophical
philosophical and topic-centred and potential
and potential motivational
motivational or
or instructional
instru ctional ;;:
context
context approaches
approaches instructional?
instructional? materials
materials ~
c·
Introduction

5.
5. A
A study
study of change 15. Audiovisual
15. ~

programmed
in programmed instructional
instructional
instruction: analysis packages
o
off the
the topic-centred
task-centred
and task-centred
programming
programming
techniques

Synthesis
Synthesis 2.
2. AA model
model ofof learning:
learning: 6. Mathetics
Mathetics revitalized:
revitalized: 11. and
11. Initial design and 16. Developing
16. 19. Developmental
1 9 . Developmental
Designing
Designing a
a solution
solution the theoretical
the theoretical tactics for
for producing development
development audiovisual and field testing:
context
context S-I
expositive S-l 12. T
12. The of C
h e range of AI
CAl instructional
instructional organization,
organizatio n,
3. Four levels of materials
materials designs materials
materials executio and
executionnand
iinstructional design:
nstructiona I design: 7. Structural
Structural 13. Coding the
13. Coding the nte rpretati 0 n
iinterpretation
the
the practical
practical context
context communication
communication courseware
cou rseware for
for
8. Structured writing
writing the computer
the computer
or 'mapping'
Experience
9. Experience
programming: case
role-plays
studies and role-plays

Evaluation
E valuation 17.
17. Interactive video Evaluation:
20. Evaluation:
Looking
Looking atat the
the and the
the new media:
new media: words
final words
proposed
proposed solution-
solution — evaluation
an evaluation
and
and rethinking
rethinking

-
Introduction 15

chapters o f the earlier v o l u m e s . References are g i v e n i n each ' m a p ' , to enable the
interested reader to locate m o r e extensive e x p l a n a t i o n s .
T h e b u l k o f the b o o k is d i v i d e d i n t o four further parts. Parts 2, 3 a n d 4 deal
w i t h the three categories o f a u t o - i n s t r u c t i o n a l materials d e v e l o p m e n t w h i c h were
used as an o r g a n i z i n g f r a m e w o r k i n Producing Instructional Systems:

* print-based a u t o - i n s t r u c t i o n a l packages;
* computer-based a u t o - i n s t r u c t i o n a l packages;
* a u d i o v i s u a l packages ( i n c l u d i n g a n y type o f a u d i o v i s u a l m e d i a ) .

F i n a l l y , P a r t 5 deals w i t h the question o f v a l i d a t i o n a n d e v a l u a t i o n o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l

materials d u r i n g the process o f d e v e l o p m e n t .
T h e treatment i n P a r t 2 is o r g a n i z e d i n a h i s t o r i c a l sequence, c o m m e n c i n g w i t h
techniques for p r i n t materials that were d e v e l o p e d i n the early 1960s, p r o c e e d i n g
to later refinements a n d m o r e sophisticated approaches. P a r t 3 then follows w i t h a
discussion o f computer-assisted l e a r n i n g , t r a c i n g early techniques a n d their
s i m i l a r i t y to those already used i n the p r i n t - b a s e d d o m a i n , then c o n t i n u i n g to later
developments w h i c h attempt to use to a greater extent the special o p p o r t u n i t i e s
presented b y the electronic c o m p u t e r .
P a r t 4 follows a s i m i l a r p a t h , c o m m e n c i n g w i t h a n analysis o f a u d i o v i s u a l
packages i n e d u c a t i o n a n d the techniques used some decades ago for the
p r o d u c t i o n o f t r u l y i n s t r u c t i o n a l a u d i o v i s u a l s , a n d then p r o c e e d i n g to the latest
developments o f interactive, m u l t i - m e d i a presentations a n d the n e w o p p o r t u n i t i e s
they present to the i n s t r u c t i o n a l developer.
P a r t 5 closes o u r discussion i n a general w a y : n o w that we have established
that, i n the field o f i n s t r u c t i o n , there is a n o v e r a l l set o f basic p r i n c i p l e s that m a y
be a p p l i e d to materials d e v e l o p m e n t (whatever the m e d i a o f d e l i v e r y ) , it is n a t u r a l
to present a general m e d i a - i n d e p e n d e n t m o d e l for d e v e l o p m e n t a l a n d field testing
o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l materials.
T h e chapters i n most o f the five parts o f the b o o k are sequenced to m o v e from
the analysis o f basic concepts a n d p r i n c i p l e s , to the synthesis o f schemata, strategies,
techniques a n d special i n s t r u m e n t s that m a y assist the materials d e v e l o p e r i n his
or her task. F i n a l l y , these draft materials are themselves subjected to evaluation,
t h r o u g h the study o f specific examples o f their a p p l i c a t i o n to t y p i c a l students. I n
o r d e r to assist the reader to be selective i n r e a d i n g the chapters that are o f most
i m m e d i a t e relevance, the o v e r a l l g r i d structure o f the b o o k is presented i n the
table that follows. G i v e n a reasonable level o f p r i o r k n o w l e d g e o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l
design a n d d e v e l o p m e n t , the reader s h o u l d be able to use the b o o k selectively,
either b y r e a d i n g a specific r o w o r c o l u m n o f the m a t r i x . T h o s e interested i n
analysis a n d i n basic concepts m a y read across the top r o w chapters o f a l l three
parts. T h o s e p r i m a r i l y interested i n tools a n d techniques m a y opt for the second
r o w . T h o s e w h o are p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h e v a l u a t i o n m a y choose the t h i r d
r o w , a l t h o u g h this one is not all that independent o f the p r e v i o u s two rows. T h e
five parts m a y also be read i n d e p e n d e n t l y i f the reader is a l r e a d y f a m i l i a r w i t h the
earlier books Designing Instructional Systems a n d Producing Instructional Systems.

A l e x a n d e r R o m i s z o w s k i , F e b r u a r y 1985
This page intentionally left blank
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