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ii
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ADVANCES IN DECISION ANALYSIS

Decision analysis consists of a prescriptive theory and associated models and tools that
aid individuals or groups confronted with complex decision problems in a wide vari-
ety of contexts. Decision analysis can offer workable solutions in domains such as the
environment, health and medicine, engineering, public policy, and business. This book
extends traditional textbook knowledge of decision analysis to today’s state of the art.
Part I covers the history and foundations of decision analysis. Part II discusses struc-
turing decision problems, including the development of objectives and their attributes,
and influence diagrams. Part III provides an overview of the elicitation and aggrega-
tion of probabilities and advances in model building with influence diagrams and belief
networks. Part IV discusses utility and risk preferences, practical value models, and
extensions of the subjective expected utility model. Part V consists of an overview of
advances in risk analysis. Part VI puts decision analysis in a behavioral and organiza-
tional context. Part VII presents a selection of major applications.

Ward Edwards (1927–2005) received his Ph.D. in psychology from Harvard Univer-
sity. He was the recipient of many awards, including the Frank P. Ramsey Medal from
the Decision Analysis Society of INFORMS in 1988 and the Distinguished Scientific
Contributions Award in Applied Psychology from the American Psychological Asso-
ciation in 1996. He wrote more than 100 journal articles and books, including Decision
Analysis and Behavioral Research and Utility Theories: Measurement and Applications.

Ralph F. Miles, Jr., received his Ph.D. in physics from the California Institute of Tech-
nology and is a consultant in risk and decision analysis. He was the editor and coauthor
of Systems Concepts and has written many articles. Until 1991, he worked as an engi-
neer, supervisor, and manager in the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) at the California
Institute of Technology. At JPL he was the Spacecraft System Engineer for two flights
to Mars. He was awarded the NASA Exceptional Service Medal for his contributions
to early mission design and spacecraft development in the role of Mission Analysis
and Engineering Manager for the Voyager Mission to Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and
Neptune.

Detlof von Winterfeldt is Professor of Industrial and Systems Engineering and of

Public Policy and Management at the University of Southern California (USC). He
is also Director of the Homeland Security Center for Risk and Economic Analysis of
Terrorist Events at USC. He received his Ph.D. in psychology from the University of
Michigan. He cowrote Decision Analysis and Behavioral Research with Ward Edwards
and has published more than 100 articles and reports on decision and risk analysis. He
is a Fellow of the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences
(INFORMS) and of the Society for Risk Analysis. In 2000 he received the Frank P.
Ramsey Medal for distinguished contributions to decision analysis from the Decision
Analysis Society of INFORMS.

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Advances in Decision Analysis

FROM FOUNDATIONS TO APPLICATIONS

Edited by
Ward Edwards
University of Southern California

Ralph F. Miles, Jr.

Detlof von Winterfeldt

University of Southern California

iii
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo

Cambridge University Press

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK
Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521863681

© Cambridge University Press 2007

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of

relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place
without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published in print format 2007

ISBN-13 978-0-511-34172-4 eBook (EBL)

ISBN-10 0-511-34172-5 eBook (EBL)

ISBN-13 978-0-521-86368-1 hardback

ISBN-10 0-521-86368-6 hardback

ISBN-13 978-0-521-68230-5 paperback

ISBN-10 0-521-68230-4 paperback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls
for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not
guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
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Contents

List of Contributors page ix

Preface xi

1 Introduction 1
Ward Edwards, Ralph F. Miles, Jr., and Detlof von Winterfeldt

PART I. HISTORY AND FOUNDATIONS OF DECISION ANALYSIS

2 The Emergence of Decision Analysis 13
Ralph F. Miles, Jr.
3 The Foundations of Decision Analysis Revisited 32
Ronald A. Howard
4 Decision Analysis: A Personal Account of How It Got Started
and Evolved 57
Howard Raiffa
5 Reflections on the Contributions of Ward Edwards to Decision
Analysis and Behavioral Research 71
Lawrence D. Phillips and Detlof von Winterfeldt

PART II. STRUCTURING DECISION PROBLEMS

6 Defining a Decision Analytic Structure 81
Detlof von Winterfeldt and Ward Edwards
7 Developing Objectives and Attributes 104
Ralph L. Keeney

PART III. PROBABILITIES AND BAYES NETS

8 Eliciting Probabilities from Experts 129
Stephen C. Hora
9 Aggregating Probability Distributions 154
Robert T. Clemen and Robert L. Winkler
10 Model Building with Belief Networks and Influence Diagrams 177
Ross D. Shachter
11 A Bayesian Approach to Learning Causal Networks 202
David Heckerman

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vi Contents

PART IV. UTILITIES

12 Utility and Risk Preferences 221
David E. Bell
13 Practical Value Models 232
Ralph L. Keeney and Detlof von Winterfeldt
14 Extensions of the Subjective Expected Utility Model 253
Robert F. Nau

PART V. RISK ANALYSIS

15 Probabilistic Risk Analysis for Engineered Systems 279
Vicki M. Bier and Louis Anthony Cox, Jr.
16 The Engineering Risk-Analysis Method and Some Applications 302
M. Elisabeth Paté-Cornell
17 Health Risk Analysis for Risk-Management Decision-Making 325
Louis Anthony Cox, Jr.

PART VI. DECISION ANALYSIS IN A BEHAVIORAL AND

ORGANIZATIONAL CONTEXT
18 What Have We Learned from Our Mistakes? 351
Barbara Mellers and Connson Locke
19 Decision Conferencing 375
Lawrence D. Phillips
20 Resource Allocation Decisions 400
Don N. Kleinmuntz
21 From Decision Analysis to the Decision Organization 419
David Matheson and James E. Matheson
22 Building Decision Competency in Organizations 451
Carl S. Spetzler
23 Negotiation Analysis: Between Decisions and Games 469
James K. Sebenius

PART VII. APPLICATIONS OF DECISION ANALYSIS

24 The Adoption of Multiattribute Utility Theory for the Evaluation
of Plutonium Disposition Options in the United States and Russia 489
John C. Butler, Alexander N. Chebeskov, James S. Dyer,
Thomas A. Edmunds, Jianmin Jia, and Vladimir I. Oussanov
25 Choosing a Tritium Supply Technology for Nuclear Weapons:
Reflections on a Controversial Decision Analysis 514
Detlof von Winterfeldt
26 Applications of Decision Analysis to the Military Systems
Acquisition Process 539
Dennis M. Buede and Terry A. Bresnick
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Contents vii

27 Balancing Environmental and Operational Objectives in Nuclear

Refueling Strategies 564
Phillip C. Beccue and Jeffrey S. Stonebraker
28 Perspective on Decision Analysis Applications 582
Donald L. Keefer, Craig W. Kirkwood, and James L. Corner

Index 611
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viii
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List of Contributors

PHILLIP C. BECCUE Strategy, Baxter BioScience

DAVID E. BELL Harvard Business School, Harvard University

VICKI M. BIER Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, University

of Wisconsin-Madison
TERRY A. BRESNICK Innovative Decisions, Inc.

DENNIS M. BUEDE Innovative Decisions, Inc.

JOHN C. BUTLER A.B. Freeman School of Business, Tulane University

ALEXANDER N. CHEBESKOV State Scientific Center of Russian Federation,

Institute for Physics and Power Engineering
ROBERT T. CLEMEN Fuqua School of Business, Duke University

JAMES L. CORNER Waikato Management School, University of Waikato

LOUIS ANTHONY COX, JR. Cox Associates and University of Colorado

JAMES S. DYER McCombs School of Business, University of Texas-Austin

THOMAS A. EDMUNDS Systems and Decision Sciences Section, Lawrence Liv-

ermore National Laboratory
WARD EDWARDS Department of Psychology, University of Southern California
(deceased)
DAVID HECKERMAN Machine Learning and Applied Statistics Group, Microsoft
Research
STEPHEN C. HORA College of Business and Economics, University of Hawaii-
Hilo
RONALD A. HOWARD Department of Management Science and Engineering,
Stanford University
JIANMIN JIA Faculty of Business Administration, The Chinese University of
Hong Kong
DONALD L. KEEFER W. P. Carey School of Business, Arizona State University

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x List of Contributors

RALPH L. KEENEY Fuqua School of Business, Duke University

CRAIG W. KIRKWOOD W. P. Carey School of Business, Arizona State University

DON N. KLEINMUNTZ School of Policy, Planning, and Development, University

of Southern California
CONNSON LOCKE Haas School of Business, University of California, Berkeley

DAVID MATHESON SmartOrg, Inc.

JAMES E. MATHESON SmartOrg, Inc., and Department of Management Science

and Engineering, Stanford University
BARBARA MELLERS Haas School of Business, University of California, Berkeley

RALPH F. MILES, JR. Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technol-

ogy (retired)
ROBERT F. NAU Fuqua School of Business, Duke University

VLADIMIR I. OUSSANOV State Scientific Center of Russian Federation, Institute

for Physics and Power Engineering
M. ELISABETH PATÉ-CORNELL Department of Management Science and Engi-
neering, Stanford University
LAWRENCE D. PHILLIPS Department of Operational Research, London School
of Economics and Political Science
HOWARD RAIFFA Harvard Business School and the Kennedy School of Gov-
ernment, Harvard University
JAMES K. SEBENIUS Harvard Business School, Harvard University

ROSS D. SHACHTER Department of Management Science and Engineering, Stan-

ford University
CARL S. SPETZLER Strategic Decisions Group

JEFFREY S. STONEBRAKER Decision Sciences, GlaxoSmithKline

ROBERT L. WINKLER Fuqua School of Business, Duke University

DETLOF VON WINTERFELDT Viterbi School of Engineering, University of

Southern California
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Preface

Decision analysis consists of models and tools to improve decision making. It

is especially useful when decisions have multiple conflicting objectives and when
their consequences are uncertain. The theoretical foundations of decision analysis
can be found in the three areas of decision theory: individual decision theory, social
choice theory, and game theory. In addition, disciplines including the behavioral
sciences, economics, operations research, philosophy of science, and statistics have
contributed to the foundations of decision analysis.
Several introductory decision analysis texts have been written since Raiffa’s
Decision Analysis (1968); including Bell and Schleifer (1995); Brown (2005);
Brown, Kahr, and Peterson (1974); Clemen (1996); Keeney and Raiffa (1976);
Kirkwood (1997); Skinner (1999); von Winterfeldt and Edwards (1986); Watson
and Buede (1987); and Winkler (2003). Nevertheless, none of these books
cover all of the recent developments in decision analysis. These developments
include advances in risk analysis, the use of Bayesian networks and influence dia-
grams, analysis with multiple stakeholders, generalizations of the expected utility
model, and much more. The purpose of this book is to fill this gap with the present
state of the art of decision analysis.
This book is intended for two audiences: (1) students who are taking a second
course in decision analysis, following an introductory course using any of the texts
listed above; and (2) decision analysts or managers who are already familiar with
the subject and wish to know the present state of the art. The word “Advances” in
the title is meant to convey the significant advances since the first decision analysis
books were published, but that we also expect there to be many more to follow
in the twenty-first century.
This book came about as a result of weekly meetings between the editors while
discussing a future paper on the distinction between normative, prescriptive, and
descriptive decision analysis (see Chapter 1: “Introduction” for our resolution)
and putting forth our praise of prescriptive decision analysis in support of deci-
sion making. We were also discussing possible revisions for a second edition of
Detlof’s and Ward’s Decision Analysis and Behavioral Research (von Winterfeldt
and Edwards, 1986). It became clear that expanding Detlof and Ward’s book
to cover recent advances was just not possible. Decision analysis has expanded
to encompass such a wide range of theories and applications that we lacked the
intellectual resources to master it. Nevertheless, we recognized the need for such
material in text form. Thus the idea for this book was born.

xi
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xii Preface

Our first task was to identify the advanced areas of decision analysis that
should be included in this book. We identified roughly twenty advanced topics
and developed an outline in the form of chapters. We also thought that some
chapters on the foundations and applications of decision analysis were important
and included several chapters on these topics. We then organized the chapters
into the seven principal parts of the book. Our second task was to find the most
knowledgeable authors for each of the chapters. Much to our delight, nearly every
author we approached agreed to participate, and all recognized the need for this
book. Almost everyone followed through and delivered their chapters by our
deadlines. With few exceptions, if these authors were asked if they were, along
with other talents, a decision analyst, the answer would firmly be “yes.” Finally,
Cambridge University Press agreed to publish this book.
Following are the seven principal parts. Part I covers the history and founda-
tions of decision analysis. Part II discusses structuring decision problems, including
the development of objectives and their attributes. Part III presents an overview
of probabilities and their elicitation and aggregation across experts, model build-
ing with belief nets and influence diagrams, and learning causal networks. Part IV
discusses utility and risk preferences, practical value models, and extensions of
the subjective expected utility model. Part V reviews engineering risk analysis
and risk analysis for health risk management. Part VI puts decision analysis in
a behavioral and organizational context, including behavioral research, decision
conferencing, resource allocation decisions, transitioning from decision analysis
to the decision organization, and negotiation analysis. Part VII presents case stud-
ies of applications based on the discussions of decision analysis throughout the
book.
Some subjects are conspicuous by their limited appearance. Social choice the-
ory has its own disciples and many excellent texts. It does appear in the context of
Part VI: “Decision Analysis in a Behavioral and Organizational Context.” Like-
wise for game theory, which provides theoretical support for Sebenius’ Chap-
ter 23,” Negotiation Analysis: Between Decisions and Games.” The reader will
find little on nonexpected utility theory, except as it has a bearing on decision
analysis – see Nau’s Chapter 14, “Extensions of the Subjective Expected Utility
Model.” We believe that the theoretical foundations for decision-making support
should come from expected utility theory, and that the role of nonexpected utility
theory lies in understanding the heuristics and biases that one encounters in deci-
sion making (Kahneman and Tversky 1982; Kahneman, Slovic, and Tversky 2000;
Gilovich, Griffin, and Kahneman 2002) and in understanding market behavior
(Glaser, Nöth, and Weber 2004). We had hoped for chapters on the growing use
of decision analysis in the medical field and on the subjects of options pricing and
decision analysis innovations in finance, but for various reasons these chapters
were not written.
Finally, decision analysis is an emerging discipline, having existed by name
only since 1966 (Howard 1966). As a result there remains much in contention
among decision analysts. Even the nomenclature is in debate. See the June 2004
(Vol. 1, No. 2) issue of Decision Analysis and the articles by Brown (2004), Clemen
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Preface xiii

and Kleinmuntz (2004), Howard (2004, 2004a), Keeney (2004), Kirkwood (2004),
and Smith (2004).
It is interesting to reflect on the views of the three founders of decision analysis,
as each provides a different perspective and emphasizes different aspects of deci-
sion analysis. Ronald Howard emphasizes the uncertainty part of decision ana-
lysis over the multiple objective part, criticizing some of the simpler applications
of multiattribute utility theory. Ward Edwards considered multiple objectives as
the key problems in decision analysis, while he worked on probability problems
in the 1960s and in the 1980s. Howard Raiffa, who pioneered multiattribute utility
theory with Ralph Keeney, also sees a major role of decision analysis as solving
multiattribute problems. In addition, Howard Raiffa always had a strong interest
in expanding decision analysis to bargaining and negotiation problems, and he
expressed regret that these aspects of decision analysis have not become more
prominent.
There are even different views about history. Ronald Howard traces the history
of subjective probability back to Laplace (1814), who introduced probability by
partitioning an event space into equally likely events. Many other decision analysts
and philosophers have criticized Laplace’s definition of probability and instead
see the foundations of subjective probability in the works of Bayes (1763), Ramsey
(1926), de Finetti (1931, 1937), and Savage (1954).
As editors, we believe that taking a position on these issues is not our role.
Thus all opinions of the authors are presented without restriction in this edited
book. We leave it to future generations to resolve these issues. Quoting Kirkwood
(2004), “In the long run, the answers to these questions will be determined by the
research, teaching, and practice of those who view themselves to be in the field.”
Ralph Miles wishes to thank Ron Howard and James Matheson for introducing
an engineer to decision analysis in a course taught for Caltech’s Jet Propulsion Lab-
oratory in the mid-1960s. Detlof von Winterfeldt wishes to thank Ralph Keeney
for many years of friendship and collaborations on decision analysis projects. He
also acknowledges the support of the Department of Homeland Security under
grants EMW-2004-GR-0112 (FEMA) and N0014-05-0630 (ONR). However,
any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations in this document
are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the United
States Department of Homeland Security. Unfortunately, Ward Edwards died on
February 1, 2005, before this book could be completed. We believe he would be
proud of the product that he initiated.

R. F. Miles, Jr.
D. v. W.

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Bell, D. E., and Schleifer, A. Jr. (1995). Decision making under uncertainty. Boston, MA:
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Brown, R. (2004). Naming concepts worth naming. Decision Analysis, 1, 86–88.
Brown, R. (2005). Rational choice and judgment: Decision analysis for the decider. New
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Brown, R., Kahr, A., and Peterson, C. (1974). Decision analysis for the manager. New York:
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Clemen, R. T., and Kleinmuntz, D. N. (2004). From the editors . . . . Decision Analysis, 1,
69–70.
de Finetti, B. (1931). Sul Significato Soggettivo della Probabilità. Fundamenta Mathemati-
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Gilovich, T., Griffin, D., and Kahneman, D. (Eds.). (2002). Heuristics and biases: The psy-
chology of intuitive judgment. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Glaser, M., Nöth, M., and Weber, M. (2004). Behavioral finance. In D. J. Koehler and
N. Harvey (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of judgment and decision making. Malden, MA:
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Skinner, D. C. (1999). Introduction to decision analysis: A practitioner’s guide to improving

decision quality (2nd ed.). Gainesville, FL: Probabilistic Publishing,
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xvi
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1 Introduction
Ward Edwards, Ralph F. Miles, Jr., and Detlof von Winterfeldt

This first chapter of Advances in Decision Analysis presents definitions for decision
analysis that will be used consistently throughout this volume and provides a list
of references on the subject of decision analysis. As this is an edited volume on
“advances” in decision analysis, it is assumed that the reader is familiar with the
subject to the level presented in one or more of the introductory decision analysis
texts listed in the Preface.
This book attempts to maintain consistent distinctions among normative, pre-
scriptive, and descriptive decision theories—distinctions that we find inconsistent
in the literature. There is a rich and related literature on microeconomics, decision
theory, behavioral psychology, and management science, which is only touched
on in the following chapters.
Advances in Decision Analysis presents methodologies and applications of
decision analysis as derived from prescriptive decision theory. Each of the first six
parts of the book concentrates on different aspects of decision analysis. Part VII
is devoted to applications of decision analysis.

The Rational Decision Maker

Many books in economics and decision analysis propose theories and method-
ologies that claim to be “rational.” Philosophers disagree on what is rational
(Mele and Rawling 2004; Searle 2001). Many decision theories define the “ratio-
nal decision maker” through mathematical principles or axioms, which, if com-
bined, imply rational behavior (e.g., to maximize expected utility). But how com-
pelling are these axioms? We would be remiss not to define what we mean by
rationality.
For the purposes of this book, “rationality” will be interpreted as “Bayesian
rationality,” with an emphasis on (1) decision making guided by maximizing sub-
jective expected utility, and (2) the importance of information and the processing
of that information through Bayes’ theorem. We take a pragmatic view of why this
position is compelling. By pragmatic, we mean that systematic and repeated vio-
lations of these principles will result in inferior long-term consequences of actions
and a diminished quality of life. See also Chapter 5: “Pragmatism” in McClennen
(1990).

1
P1: KAE
0521863681c01 CUFX077/Edwards 0 521 86368 6 Printer: sheridan July 7, 2007 11:44

2 Ward Edwards, Ralph F. Miles, Jr., and Detlof von Winterfeldt

Pragmatism
The pragmatism of Peirce (1878) and James (1907) was preceded by that of Kant
(1781), who, in his Critique of Pure Reason, makes two essential points: (1) The
justification for reason is ends for happiness and (2) it cannot be obtained a priori
from logic:

The sole business of reason is to bring about a union of all the ends, which are
aimed at by our inclinations, into one ultimate end – that of happiness – and
to show the agreement which should exist among the means of attaining that
end. In this sphere, accordingly, reason cannot present to us any other than
pragmatical laws of free action, for our guidance towards the aims set up by
the senses, and is incompetent to give us laws which are pure and determined
completely á priori.
In many ways, the behavioral movement of psychology and economics and
the philosophical inclinations of the founding fathers of decision analysis aligned
with this pragmatic philosophy. Many decision analysts today subscribe to the
pragmatic idea that beliefs, values, and actions should serve the pursuit of hap-
piness, whether this be wealth, health, quality of life, or an aggregation of those
attributes into a general notion of utility.

Subjective Expected Utility (SEU)

There are three fundamental principles that are rational because they are prag-
matic in the sense just discussed. These principles apply to choices with certain
consequences as well as to choices with uncertain consequences (gambles). For
generality, these principles are presented here for gambles, because sure things
are simply degenerate gambles. The three principles are:

1. Transitivity.
2. The sure-thing principle.
3. Additivity of probability.

TRANSITIVITY. Transitivity states that if gamble f is preferred to gamble g, and

gamble g is preferred to gamble h, then gamble f must be preferred to gamble
h. The pragmatic argument for transitivity is that its intentional, systematic, and
persistent violation subjects the decision maker to the possibility of becoming a
“money pump” (Davidson, McKinsey, and Suppes 1955), and, in market situations,
to be vulnerable to arbitrage opportunities.

SURE-THING PRINCIPLE. The sure-thing principle states that the preference between
two gambles f and g, which have the same set of events and which have identical
consequences in one of the events (but not necessarily in others), should not
depend on what that identical consequence is. Much has been written about the
rationality status of this principle since it was introduced by Savage (1954). To us,
the convincing pragmatic argument is that violations of the sure-thing principle
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 VIII

BALLS AND DANCES

Dinner and Subscription Dances—Roof-garden Dances—Reciprocal Duties of the

Chaperon and Her Charge—How to Enter and How to Leave a Ballroom—
Objectionable Styles of Dancing—The Stag Line and the Dance Programme—The
Hostess and Her Assistants—The Host—Introductions at Public and at Private
Dances—Duties of Floor Committee—Supper Etiquette—Dress for Young Girls and
Married Women—Dress for Men.

A CCORDING to the rules of good society, her mother, or some other

chaperon of good position and suitable age, should always
accompany a young girl when she goes to a ball or other dance in
the evening. If this rule were always enforced as it should be, we
should not hear of the escapades which some thoughtless young
women have indulged in of late years. The swinging back of the
pendulum, which is sure to follow an excess in one direction, will
doubtless result before long in a stricter chaperonage. Suffice it to
say that at present, while a matron is expected to go with her charge
to public balls and dances and on many other occasions, at
subscription affairs and at those in private houses she often does not
do so. It must not be supposed that the young women go alone or
under masculine escort. This would be contrary to good form. In the
absence of the mother a lady’s-maid accompanies the daughter,
waits for her until the dance is over, and returns in the carriage with
her. The girls are not wholly without chaperons, as the patronesses
act in this capacity. It must be remembered also that these
subscription dances are in a sense private affairs, although held in
assembly-rooms. The patronesses make out a list of eligible persons
whom they ask to subscribe, and permit no one else to do so.
Certain assemblies are arranged upon another plan, the patronesses
each subscribing for twelve tickets, and then inviting six men and five
girls to be their guests. They often ask these young ladies to dine
with them on the evening of the dance, or the girls may take dinner
with friends and all go on together.
The case is very different with the afternoon and evening dances
which have sprung up in such great numbers since the advent of the
tango craze. Since anybody is admitted who pays the entrance fee,
these are public affairs, and not private in any sense of the word.
The so-called chaperon who at some places acts as mistress of
ceremonies is supposed to pass judgment on the applicants for
admission; but evidently it would not be possible for her to exercise
this right of judgment except in the most superficial way. To a dance
of this sort no young woman should think of going without a
personal chaperon. In a city like New York we should strongly advise
her to attend only afternoon affairs, and to remain an onlooker. In a
smaller place where every one knows everybody else, and all are
acquainted with the person getting up the dance, the case would be
different. At a public dance the chaperon should not permit any
introductions to be made to the young girl under her charge by
persons unknown to her, and she most certainly should not allow the
latter to dance with strangers. The mistress of ceremonies makes
introductions where they are desired, but to form acquaintances in a
public resort of this kind is not according to good form, and might
indeed be very unsafe. Strangers coming to New York, or any other
large city, should make careful inquiries before going to roof-gardens
or other places of entertainment where there is dancing, for while
some of these are entirely respectable, others are not.
We have said that at a private or subscription dance a girl often
does not have a personal chaperon, the patronesses assuming the
duties of the latter in a general way. When a matron does
accompany a young woman, it is the duty of the former to promote
the pleasure of her young charge, to prevent her from forming
undesirable acquaintances and from making herself too conspicuous.
For all these reasons she needs to keep a watchful eye on her
daughter or other young friend. If the girl wanders off into the
gallery in the company of some agreeable young man, mamma must
go or send after them and bid them return to the floor of the
ballroom. A patroness would do this in the case of an unchaperoned
girl. If a girl shows too marked a partiality for any individual, the
mother who is a clever woman of the world manages to break up the
tête-à-tête.
She would do the same thing should a man of whom she
disapproved be introduced to her daughter. Formerly a chaperon
worthy of the name sat still and served as an island of refuge to the
young woman under her care. The latter returned to her protecting
wing to rest between the numbers of the programme, or when she
had no partner for supper or dance. Whenever opportunity offered,
the chaperon introduced young men to her charge. It must be
confessed that the modern conditions of the ballroom restrict the
beneficent activity of the matron on many occasions. In the first
place, she finds it much harder to sit still. No one under the age of
Methuselah is immune from the present craze for dancing. At the
Charity Ball in New York this year the boxes were deserted, old as
well as young capering about on the light fantastic toe. In the second
place, the new custom of almost continuous dancing leaves few or
no intervals for rest. Hence a girl cannot return to her chaperon so
frequently as under the old régime.
Youth is apt to be selfish, often through thoughtlessness. The
young woman who is having a delightful evening must not forget
that the hours will pass much more slowly for her chaperon. Even if
the latter dances herself, she will not be able to continue it so long as
those of the younger generation. A girl must have some
consideration for her mother and not keep her up until an
unconscionably late hour. If mamma sends word to her daughter that
it is time to go home, the latter should come without unnecessary
delay. The girl should return to her mother’s side from time to time
as opportunity offers, especially if the latter knows few people and is
having a dull evening. She will, of course, always allow the older lady
to precede her, and will introduce her young friends to her chaperon
as occasion arises. Thus, when they make their first entrance into
the ballroom at the beginning of the evening, the latter goes in a
step or two in advance of the younger woman. If a man is of the
party, he follows the ladies. The custom of entering arm-in-arm has
gone entirely out of fashion, as we have already said. At subscription
dances in New York it is usual to announce the guests as they go in,
a servant standing at the door for the purpose. The patronesses
should be in line to receive them; but at some dances there is no one
to perform the office. These official hostesses may greet all comers
with a bow or courtesy, or they may follow the more cordial custom
of shaking hands. At the subscription dances in New York the last-
named method is usually followed. In Boston a girl is taken up to the
receiving-line by an usher. She then makes a sweeping courtesy to all
the patronesses, and dances with him. Whether they shake hands or
merely bow, it is the duty of the ladies who receive to do so in a
gracious manner, as befits a hostess.
Should one take leave of the latter after a dance? This depends
upon circumstances. The persons who take their departure early
often slip out quietly, in order not to advertise the fact that they are
going. It is not altogether a compliment to a hostess to leave early in
the evening, and if many people did so it would tend to break up the
ball. Should one pass near the lady of the house, however, politeness
requires that one should bid her good night and express pleasure in
the evening’s entertainment or congratulate her on its success. Later
on, when the movement to go home becomes general, all take their
leave of the hostess, and of the host, if he is standing near.
The discussion about the merits and demerits of the new styles of
dancing has raged so vigorously in press and pulpit that every one is
familiar with it. The result of all this debate has been good, since the
objectionable features have been to a great extent removed. When
the tango and the other new dances were first introduced, there was
a great deal of unfavorable criticism of the method of holding the
partner, and of the “shaking and wiggling” motions of the body. The
latter was a consequence, it is said, of the slow movement of the
music. This rendered it difficult to dance without a swaying
accompaniment. By making the tempo a little more rapid it has been
found possible to eliminate the last feature, and good dancers have
proved that the tango, one-step, and the like can be executed well
and gracefully without holding the partner too closely. It is evident
that the new dances have been greatly modified, and that they will
not be given up at present. It is pointed out that there always have
been, and perhaps always will be, some persons who dance in a way
that people of refinement disapprove of. It is a rule of good society
to avoid everything that makes a person conspicuous, hence amateur
dancers of good taste do not take their steps in the exaggerated and
sensational style suitable only for professional performers.
A lady who wishes to give a large dance usually hires an assembly-
room, unless she possesses a very spacious house. The
arrangements at the front door, in the dressing-rooms, etc., are the
same as those described elsewhere. Checks for the wraps, hats, and
coats will be needed, cigars and cigarettes may be provided for the
men. The use of dance programmes has been abandoned to a great
extent, except at college, military, and naval balls. Here the young
ladies often come from a distance, and the dance-cards are filled out
for them beforehand by their brothers or friends.
Where a débutante is to be introduced to society she stands beside
her mother, who shakes hands cordially with all her guests and then
presents her daughter to the ladies, the men being introduced to the
young girl. If the older daughters assist in receiving, they stand
beyond the youngest. The husband sometimes receives with his wife,
and sometimes does not. At a dance in a private house, a greater
responsibility devolves upon the hostess than in a subscription affair,
where a floor committee have the management of matters. She
endeavors to provide her guests with partners, and makes some
introductions, her husband and daughters assisting her.
At a subscription dance, if a young girl after making her bow to the
patronesses fails to meet any one whom she knows, one of these
official hostesses or a member of the floor committee presents a
partner to her. These gentlemen wear a small boutonnière to indicate
their office. It is their duty and pleasure to make everything go off
well, and to assist the young girls in any way that may be needed.
They know most of the guests and make introductions.
According to the present system of dancing, a number of the men
form “a stag line” near the patronesses. After a couple have danced
one or more times around the room, another man steps out from this
line and “breaks in,” as the term is. That is to say, he interrupts their
progress and asks the girl to dance with him. This she should
certainly do, unless there is some very special reason for refusing. It
would be awkward for the young man to go back to the line, as
every one would see that his invitation had been declined. It would
probably result in an awkward situation for the girl also, as to dance
a long time with the same partner continuously is now considered
highly undesirable. A young woman who does so runs the risk of
being considered a wall-flower. If she does not know many of the
young men present, it may happen that no one will “break in,” and it
will become her duty, after a certain length of time, to release her
partner. There are several ways of doing this. She may ask to speak
to the patronesses or to another girl. In the last case an exchange of
partners may be effected, or the young man whom she is releasing
may bring up a third man and present him to the other young lady;
or our young friend may appeal to a member of the floor committee.
He will perhaps dance with her himself, or present another partner to
her. Young women sometimes serve on the floor committee at a
dance. These are usually girls who have been for some years in
society.
While, as has been said, a young woman should not under
ordinary circumstances refuse to dance with a man who “breaks in,”
it is permissible for her to do so, if her partner is unwilling to release
her. If he intimates to the new-comer that it is his dance and that he
does not want to give it up, then the girl may, if she pleases, go on
dancing with him. This arrangement of a stag line with frequent
change of partners is suitable only for private or semi-private affairs,
such as subscription dances. For a public ball the older method of
engaging a partner for an entire number is the proper one.
For the time being, the cotillion, or German, has gone very much
out of fashion. The modern system of continuous dancing and taking
only short turns with each partner, makes it less of a compliment
than formerly to engage a young lady for a single dance. Hence
special emphasis is now laid on the invitation to supper. A man who
wishes to make some return for hospitality extended to him, or to
show a young woman particular attention, asks her to go in to
supper with him, as he would a few years ago have engaged her for
the German. Hence it is very desirable for a girl to have this part of
the programme arranged in good season. If she has no partner when
the supper-hour arrives, she is in rather an awkward position,
especially if she has no chaperon. The man with whom she is talking
at the moment will be obliged to excuse himself if he has previously
arranged to take in some one else. She should ask him to escort her
to her chaperon, if the latter is present, or to the patronesses; or she
may retire to the dressing-room or go home. Occasionally one girl
joins another who is provided with an escort, but this is seldom
advisable, even if the two young women know each other well. Since
“Two are company but three are a crowd,” a girl does not wish to
spoil her friend’s pleasure by making an unwelcome third member of
the party.
If the young lady has a supper-partner, the question may be
asked, what becomes of her chaperon at a subscription dance? The
latter sometimes goes into the dining-room with one of the older
men, or she joins the patronesses. These ladies are now quite
independent, and go in to supper with or without male escort, as
they find convenient, since few of the husbands attend the dances.
The young people march in after the elders, going in pairs, but not
arm-in-arm. Sometimes four or five couples arrange to have supper
together, and thus make a merry affair of it.
At a dance in a private house, when the musicians play the march
which indicates that all is in readiness in the dining-room, the host
leads the way thither with the eldest or the most distinguished lady
present. The other guests follow without formality. The hostess
makes sure that all have preceded her, or, if some of the ladies prefer
to remain in the drawing-room, she despatches a gentleman or one
of the waiters to attend to their wants. This in case the service is “en
buffet.” If little tables are provided for the guests, then all should be
seated thereat. Should the supper-room not be large enough to
contain these comfortably, the tables should be brought in and
distributed about the drawing-rooms and halls. With this
arrangement a course supper is provided. The buffet service is easier
and calls for fewer waiters to serve the guests. The large table,
decked with lights, flowers, and many good things to eat, produces a
brilliant effect. As much space as possible is procured by setting all
the chairs against the walls of the dining-room. It must be confessed,
however, that when the company is large there is often an
unpleasant jam in the supper-room.
Bouillon, salads, croquettes, oysters, sandwiches or rolls, ices,
fancy cakes, bonbons, and coffee constitute the usual bill of fare, to
which other and more expensive dainties, such as terrapin and birds,
are sometimes added. For an informal dance the menu may be much
simplified. If wine is served, it is usually champagne, although less
expensive and less “heady” beverages, such as light Rhine wines, are
sometimes substituted. There should always be a punch-bowl filled
with lemonade, wine-cup, or punch that is not too strong, placed in
the hall or elsewhere for the benefit of thirsty dancers. On a formal
occasion a servant ladles this out. At an informal affair the guests
help themselves.
At a large public function, such as the Charity Ball in New York, the
floor committee make introductions if these are desired, but the
guests usually go with their own parties. Where the tickets cost five
dollars apiece, in addition to the price of the supper, a certain degree
of exclusiveness is attained, although, as we all know, there are
many persons who have plenty of money yet lack social culture and
experience.
 The opening of such an affair is quite imposing. The officers of the
ball enter in a grand march, the patronesses coming first on the arms
of the governors, the remaining members of the committee following
two by two, all the men wearing badges. Where officers of the army
and navy take part, their uniforms add to the brilliancy of the general
effect. There is usually no reception of guests at such a function, and
no formal entrance to the supper-room. The thoughtful man
endeavors to have a table reserved for his party when a great many
people are present.
All the large hotels in New York now have roof-gardens where
there is dancing in the afternoon and evening. Many people go to
these as lookers-on, ordering a cup of tea, ices, and coffee or wine.
The price of admission in the daytime usually includes the cost of the
tea. At certain of the evening resorts the very objectionable custom
exists of charging no entrance fee but demanding that guests shall
purchase a bottle of champagne. Those who refuse to order wine
and insist upon having a milder beverage are furnished with coffee at
the price of one dollar for each cup. Careful people do not patronize
places of this sort unless they look in for a short time as a matter of
curiosity. If they wish to dance, they go to hotels of established
reputation, usually in parties of four or six. They can thus have a
good time together and be entirely independent of the rest of the
company.
“Dinner dances” may be given either at the residence of the
hostess or at assembly-rooms, as is most convenient. An
entertainment at a private house brings with it an atmosphere of
hospitality which is lacking in a hotel ballroom. Hence, if the affair is
not on so large a scale as to overcrowd her rooms and if these have
good hard-wood floors, the hostess will probably decide to use her
own house. If a large number of persons are to be invited, it will be
necessary to engage the requisite space at a good hotel. The hostess
sends out two sets of invitations; those for the dinner are in her own
name, and that of her husband also, with the words “Dancing at
eleven” or “ten,” as the case may demand, in the lower left-hand
corner. The invitations for the dance are in the name of the hostess
alone. They may be in the “At Home” or “Requests the pleasure”
form. The hour for the second part of the entertainment must be late
enough to insure the termination of the dinner before the arrival of
those invited for the dancing only. Great pains must be taken to have
the floors in first-class condition, polished sufficiently, yet not made
too slippery. For a small dinner dance at a private house, the supper
should be a simple affair, served “en buffet.”
The combination “dinner dance” affords a pleasant way of dividing
the evening’s hospitality so that no hostess need be unduly
burdened. Several friends arrange to give dinners on the same
evening, one of the circle undertaking to have a dance at her house,
or at an assembly-room if she prefers. In either case she assumes
the expense of the occasion; she furnishes the supper, engages the
musicians, and the hall also, if the affair takes place there. The
guests “go on” in automobiles or omnibuses from the various houses
where they have been entertained, meeting at the dwelling of the
latest hostess, or at the assembly-room, at ten or eleven o’clock. The
dancing usually lasts till one or two o’clock.
For a ball, women wear their handsomest clothes, and married
ladies adorn themselves with a profusion of jewels. All appear in
décolleté gowns made with short sleeves and more or less train,
according to the fashion of the moment. In America many elderly
ladies claim exemption from this fashion, thinking the costume
inappropriate to persons of their years. Here, at least, we are
certainly more sensible than our English sisters, who make a sort of
fetish of the low-necked gown. While some American women carry
this style to an immodest extreme, the majority are too wise to do
so. Ball dresses for married ladies are made of rich and expensive
materials—silks, satins, brocades—trimmed with beautiful laces or
combined with chiffon or other gauzy stuffs. While a great deal of
jewelry is worn, it is well to have a certain unity of effect. The
woman who puts on a great variety of jewels combined in a tasteless
way may produce a strong impression upon the beholder, but it will
not be an agreeable one. For young girls, décolleté gowns of
diaphanous material, either white or of a delicate tint, are the most
appropriate and becoming. They should wear little jewelry, simplicity
being the keynote of their costume. Diamonds and rich laces are not
suitable for a débutante. Men wear the regulation evening dress,
black swallow-tail coat with trousers to match, low-cut white
waistcoat, white dress-shirt, patent-leather shoes or pumps, black
socks, white lawn tie, and white or light gloves.
 IX

AUTOMOBILE TRIPS

The Automobilist as Host—Provision for Comfort of Guests—Duties of Guest—

Dress and Luggage—Automobile Picnics—Entertainment of Chauffeur—When a
Visit Becomes a Visitation.

T HE owner of an automobile is able to entertain his friends in a

pleasant way with comparatively little trouble. He can take them
out for a spin without interfering with the machinery of the
household or giving extra work to the servants. Almost every one
enjoys motoring in warm weather, and it is easy to stop for luncheon
at a country club or an inn or to have a picnic by the wayside,
should the owner of the car wish to show more than mere “carriage
hospitality.” The trip may be short or long, as he pleases, and as he
thinks will be agreeable to his guests. If these are persons who are
not young, or who are unaccustomed to motoring, he must be
careful not to take them too far nor too fast. The fatigue of going a
long distance at a rapid rate is a severe tax on the uninitiated. It is
well to have the excursion include some object of interest, such as a
beautiful piece of scenery or fine buildings. During the great heat,
motoring for its own sake is found very refreshing, simply because
the rapidity of the motion makes every one feel cool. In winter few
people care to go out for pleasure trips, but many persons continue
to use their cars as a quick and convenient way of getting about,
when the snow and mud are not too bad. It is a kind attention to
lend a friend one’s automobile for a shopping tour or for paying
visits. She should not detain it a moment after the hour named for
its return. If none has been mentioned, she may be able to find out
from the chauffeur how much time the trip is expected to occupy, or
calculate it herself, remembering that one should not overtax the
generosity of a friend. Having decided upon the hour when the car
should return, it is well to say to the chauffeur, “Please let me know
when it is time to turn back.” One should in any event use the car
only for a moderate distance, since every mile traversed costs a
certain sum.
The automobilist who has invited one or more ladies to go out
with him stops for them in his car. Arrived at their dwelling, he asks
to have them informed that the car is there, and waits for them in
the reception or drawing-room. He assists his guests to enter the
car, and wraps the robe carefully around them, tucking it in at the
sides. In winter, plenty of fur or heavy woolen robes should be
provided. In summer lighter ones will suffice, with linen covers to
protect the dresses from the dust. For an open car, it is well to have
several pairs of goggles of different kinds on hand, and to offer
these to the guests if a long trip is contemplated or if the roads are
dusty. The host asks whether the ladies would like the windows
open or closed, and the wind-shield up or down. In the course of the
trip he repeats these inquiries, especially if there is a strong breeze
blowing, or if a change occurs in the weather. Having made sure that
his guests are comfortably settled, he climbs in and takes his place.
While the tonneau, or main body of the automobile, is held to be the
place of honor, because it is less exposed than the front seats, the
latter are really more comfortable in many cars because the motion
is less felt there. Hence if the host is driving himself, he will ask
whether any of his guests would like to sit beside him. Some young
lady will probably prefer to do so, unless he is a very tiresome
person. A good driver does not go too fast, and proceeds with
caution over the rough places, in order not to shake up the
occupants of the car.
The host decides in what direction the trip shall be, although he
may very properly ask whether his guests would like to go there. If
requested to do so, the latter are at liberty to express their choice. A
courteous person does not insist, however, on being taken in any
special direction. Where the proposed trip is a long one, and the
guest has a later engagement, he should say frankly: “I should enjoy
very much going to ——, but I fear there will not be time, as I have
promised to be down-town at five o’clock.”
If the excursion is to be an all-day or overnight affair, it is usually
arranged beforehand. When the owner of the car invites the party to
go with him at his expense and makes this evident by saying
explicitly, “I want you all to be my guests for the trip,” he pays the
hotel bill and all other costs. He acts as host just as he would in his
own house, ordering the meals and naming the hours when they
shall be served. He should inquire whether any of the party would
like to have breakfast served in their own rooms. He plans the whole
trip and lays out the course to be traversed each day.
There are some circumstances, however, under which the
automobilist may very properly offer only a limited hospitality to his
guests. Thus, it may happen that a number of friends all wish to go
to see a football game or other athletic contest in a neighboring
town. If one of the number then offers to take them there in his car,
it is understood of course that his hospitality extends only to the
means of transportation. All procure their tickets beforehand, and
the expense of the entertainment at the hotel is divided among
them. When one is doubtful on which plan the trip is to be
conducted, one should by all means endeavor to pay one’s share. It
is best in a case of this sort for a single individual to speak for the
rest. He can say when the time comes for payment, “You must let us
know, John, what our share of the hotel bill is.” Or it could be
proposed beforehand that one of the number should act as
treasurer. This is an ungrateful office to fill, since some one is apt to
forget to pay, and dunning friends is an unpleasant task. The man
selected should not be the host, who may be thought to have done
his share. He should, however, be the richest man of the party; first,
because it will be easier for him than for his poorer comrades to
bear any loss should there be one; second, because in nine cases
out of ten rich people care more about money than poor ones; third,
because they are more accustomed to making financial
arrangements. Hence the job of collecting is less difficult for them. A
guest should embark on a motor-trip with the intention of having a
good time and enjoying all that there is to be enjoyed. He should be
prepared to take any delay or mishap with cheerful philosophy. A
man or a woman who possesses the true spirit of sport will not sulk
or complain if the tire bursts or the engine for some mysterious
reason refuses to work. All complicated machinery is liable to
accident, and if one enjoys all the advantages of very rapid motion,
one must expect from time to time to experience the drawbacks.
Neither should one take it in dudgeon if rain comes on. The host
cannot be expected to insure good weather. A guest sitting in the
rear must not talk to the driver. The latter must constantly watch the
road, and cannot turn his head to speak to any one behind him
without risk of accident.
The automobile practically annihilates distance, thus greatly
increasing the number of places which can be readily reached from
any given spot. A picnic to which the company go in motor-cars may
be ten, twenty, or more miles away. If many people are to take part
in it, the site must be selected with great care. When half a dozen
friends go off for a frolic, it does not so much matter what sort of
place they choose, because if it does not come up to their
expectations they can eat their luncheon without leaving the car. For
a larger number all the arrangements should be carefully made in
advance. A committee of one or more should visit the chosen spot
beforehand, and get the owner’s permission to hold the picnic there.
It is very sad for a party of friends on pleasure bent to be warned off
the grounds just as they have their whole luncheon unpacked and
spread out on the grass. Yet this frequently happens at places in the
neighborhood of summer resorts. The city visitor, misled by the
uncultivated aspect of some beautiful spot, fails to realize that it is
private property, and that the owners may find it extremely
inconvenient to have their premises constantly invaded and their
privacy destroyed. Some owners are willing to allow picknickers to
come to their places, provided permission is obtained beforehand,
the débris removed, and no damage done to the trees and shrubs.
The vandalism of certain summer visitors is hardly believable. They
will calmly leave the unsightly and unwholesome remains of their
repast lying about to offend the eyes and nostrils of later comers
and to breed flies. Farmers and others sometimes make a regular
charge for letting their grounds for the day.
Our committee of one should choose a spot where the grass is not
too long, and should find out whether there is any danger of an
incursion by cattle. It is very desirable to select a place near shade-
trees. Luncheon-baskets furnished with knives, forks, etc., can now
be readily purchased. Cold water, fruit-punch, or lemonade and hot
coffee may be conveniently transported in Thermos bottles. Some
people carry chafing-dishes and prepare scrambled eggs,
mushrooms, or Welsh rarebit on the spot. It is usual to have every
one contribute some article to the bill of fare at a picnic. In order
that there shall not be a surplus of one article and a shortage of
another, the persons or committee who get up the affair should
arrange with each individual or party what they shall bring. If there
are tables at the appointed rendezvous, cold ham, chickens, etc.,
may be brought whole. If the cloth is to be spread upon the grass,
the carving should all be done beforehand. The idea of a picnic is
that it shall be a more or less unceremonious occasion, yet care
must be taken that informality does not degenerate into slovenly
disorder. The food should all be done up neatly and daintily, napkins
of paper, if not of linen, should be provided, also knives and forks
and spoons where these will be needed.
The best results are secured by deputing two or more persons to
arrange the table, instead of intrusting this task to the whole
company. When the feast is ready the gentlemen pass the dishes to
the ladies, but it is a part of the fun to have the latter assist in the
work. If there are older people present, they are asked to sit still and
be waited upon. At formal picnics the table is arranged and the food
set out by servants. Impromptu vaudeville, charades, tableaux, or
songs with guitar accompaniment make a pleasant ending to the
affair, where time permits. Dancing has always been popular on
these occasions. They are often held at some place of resort which
boasts a hall or open-air platform for the dancers.
In dressing for a trip in a motor-car, a woman should wear a small,
close-fitting hat or an automobile bonnet. This and the large veil
covering it should be securely fastened down, so that there will be
no danger of their blowing away. All superfluous ribbons and
streamers should be avoided for the same reason. A dust-cloak of
linen or pongee is a great protection in summer. As such a garment
affords little warmth, the tourist should provide herself with a cloth
coat also. Men wear small caps and dusters or light overcoats. Since
there is little room for luggage on a car, a guest who is invited to go
for a tour should take as little as possible, packing it in a suit-case or
bag, or small automobile trunk, if she has received permission to
carry one. Since motoring is extremely dusty business, it is well to
take a change of costume to wear in the evening, if this is to be
spent at an inn. Foulards and India silks are excellent for this
purpose, as they weigh so little and are not easily creased or
tumbled. If one has not space for an entire gown, a dressy waist
should be carried.
The craze for motoring has developed many wayside inns
scattered along the routes most frequented by tourists. Some of
these are ancient hostelries, or reproductions of the same,
charmingly furnished in ye olden style. Here travelers by automobile
stop for lunch, afternoon tea, or dinner, or to spend the night. As
inn-keepers sometimes charge the owners of motor-cars
extortionate prices, those who wish to avoid great expense should
carry lunch-baskets with them. They can then arrange an impromptu
picnic by the wayside and so be independent of landlords, should the
latter be unreasonable in their charges. Indeed, many people
consider these wayside lunches part of the fun of a motor-trip. They
start off for a tour of several days, equipped with a large basket
containing plenty of provisions. Some picturesque spot is chosen for
the daily picnic, the basket being replenished at shops or hotels en
route, should this be necessary.
 People who wish to go on a motor-trip in Europe now find it better
to take over their own car and chauffeur, rather than to hire these
on the other side of the water. It is necessary, however, to procure a
permit allowing the party to cross from one country into another.
Otherwise the traveler is subject to vexatious delays at the frontiers.
The owner of a car must always remember that the chauffeur, like
the passengers, requires food at regular intervals. Sometimes an
allowance is made to him and he gets his meals where he likes;
sometimes his employer arranges for his entertainment. As he is
usually of a better class than the ordinary domestic, he is not willing
to eat with the servants. He prefers to take his meals after his
employer, but at the same table. If the latter is visiting at an
expensive inn, and there are cheaper ones of a suitable character in
the neighborhood, he may request his chauffeur to dine or spend
the night at one of these, furnishing him with the money.
Instead of staying at an inn, the automobilist sometimes makes a
visit to friends in the country. Where this is by invitation, the host
entertains the chauffeur, or arranges to have him cared for in the
neighborhood. As the touring party probably consists of two or three
people in addition, such a visit, if prolonged, may readily become a
tax on the hospitality of the host. Hence the stay should be limited
to one or two nights, else it may become a “visitation.”
If a party of motorists stop to lunch or spend the night at a
friend’s house without previous invitation, they should endeavor to
provide for the entertainment of their chauffeur elsewhere, since it
would hardly be courteous to put this additional strain on the
hospitality of their host.
 X

BRIDGE PARTIES AND EVENING RECEPTIONS

Arrangement of the Card-tables—Playing for Prizes—Good and Bad Manners at

the Card-table—Why Certain People are not Asked—Duties of Hostess—Card
Parties for Charity—Dress and Etiquette of Evening Receptions.

T HE extreme popularity of bridge has somewhat lessened since

the tango craze invaded society. Card-playing still has many
devotees, however, and is likely to have them in the future, as in the
past. When not carried on too strenuously, it affords a mild and
gentle form of amusement that is especially valuable to elderly
persons, or to younger ones of quiet tastes.
For a bridge party, card-tables and light chairs can be hired from
furniture stores or caterers. Ordinary tables may be used, provided
they are large enough to seat four persons comfortably, and not so
large as to make it difficult to reach across them to gather up the
tricks. It is now thought well to cover them with a cloth, although
our grandparents used the bare mahogany, if we may judge by the
tables that have come down to us. Hostesses who often give card
parties will find it convenient to buy several tables. These may be
covered with green baize or enamel cloth, or upholstered in silk or
damask to match the room. In the latter case one should have white
linen slips that can be taken off and washed every time they are
used. Small, light chairs are preferred to heavy ones, and they must
be of the right height. The hostess should measure her rooms
beforehand, to see how many people she can accommodate
comfortably.
Space must be left to pass between the tables, and these must
not be placed too near steam-pipes or draughty windows. The
drawing-rooms should be well ventilated before the guests arrive,
yet not quite so cool as they would be for a dance. Should they
become close in the course of the evening, the hostess should be
careful not to open a window without warning those in the vicinity
that she is about to do so, and so give them an opportunity of
changing their seats. In a house furnished with electric lights, it is
easy to have the rooms well lighted yet not overheated. Where it is
necessary to use lamps or candles, their arrangement will require
some care. They must be near enough the players to enable them to
see, yet never set on the card-table itself. It is dangerous to place
them on stands so small and light that they are liable to be upset.
All the paraphernalia used in the game, the playing-cards, scoring
tablets or cards, counters, etc., must be fresh and in good condition.
A pencil that refuses to write furnishes one of the peculiarly
exasperating, though small, miseries of life. If many people are
invited, new cards should be provided. For progressive euchre there
must be punches and score-cards. The hostess asks some one to do
the punching, or attends to it herself. At a large party she does not
play unless it is necessary to fill an empty place.
Some persons think it no harm to play for money, provided the
stakes are very small. The habit of gambling, which was introduced
into society in this country not many years ago, has resulted in such
scandals and so much evil that the wisest and safest way is to avoid
it altogether. Even where there is playing for money, a hostess must
provide one or more tables for those guests who object to it on
principle. Good form and common sense alike demand this. Many
people become so excited by the desire to win the prize or stakes of
the evening that they treat one another with scanty politeness, and
the unfortunate player who makes a mistake is often roundly scolded
for her carelessness. During the card mania which prevailed at
Newport a year or two ago, it was said that many people did not
speak as they passed by, owing to quarrels over bridge. To give
prizes that are very handsome and expensive is not considered to be
in the best taste. The hostess should take pains to secure articles
that are pretty and attractive, but not of great money value. It is
also thought best not to show them until the playing is over.
Some people find it interesting to play nominally, but not actually,
for money. A gentleman who took part in a series of games while
crossing the Atlantic was relieved when the voyage was over to find
that the ladies of the party construed all the financial obligations in a
purely Pickwickian sense. The score was made out, but no payments
were permitted. It need scarcely be said that a real debt at the
gaming-table is held to be one of honor, for the simple reason that
there is no legal obligation to pay it. To induce a young man or
woman to play, and perhaps lose a large sum of money, may be
thought a greater offense against honor.
Good form demands that all who take part in a game of cards
shall pay strict attention to it and follow the rules. Not every one can
win, but all should do their best. It is extremely annoying to
devotees of bridge to be interrupted by conversation while the hands
are being played. The great actress Charlotte Cushman once had her
patience severely taxed by a gentleman who persisted in talking to
her partner. Presently she said in her rich, deep voice, with great
emphasis:
“Remember, this is whist.”
The effect was startling, and the offender sinned no more, at least
on that occasion.
If a player does her best, more cannot be expected of her. To find
fault with one’s partner, asking her in an injured tone why she did
not return a certain lead, or why she played that ace of hearts
second hand, is decidedly bad form. We must always remember that
among ladies and gentlemen card-playing should be considered as
an amusement, serious if you will, but nevertheless a form of
diversion and not a matter of business. Hence the well-bred woman
loses neither her temper nor her philosophical spirit. She may wish
to win, but her desire must not be so overwhelming as to make
every one feel uncomfortable if she loses. If she destroys the
pleasure of her neighbors by sulking, by snubbing or scolding her
partner, she has only herself to thank if she is not invited to card
parties. The habitual late-comer is also likely to be left out. The
person who arrives after every one has begun to play, or who leaves
before the games are over, interferes seriously with the pleasure of
others. As we have said above, the hostess does not play when
many persons are present, in order that she may be free to receive
late-comers and to have a general supervision of the comfort and
pleasure of her guests.
Bridge parties may be arranged for the afternoon or evening, or
they may take place in connection with a luncheon or a dinner. In
either of the latter cases it suffices to have lemonade or some other
cooling drink handed to the guests as they sit at the card-table.
Some hostesses offer sandwiches also, or give ices in the evening;
others serve tea in the afternoon. Where guests are invited to the
card party only, a light supper is served in the evening. Hostesses
who expect to have bridge follow a dinner should either invite card-
players only or else arrange for the entertainment of those who do
not take part in the game. It is rather forlorn for a single couple to
be left out in the cold when the players retire to another room and
shut the doors to avoid being disturbed. The former, having no one
save their hosts to talk to, soon take their leave.
Card parties are often used as a means of raising money for a
charity, or for the work of a society. These may be given at a hotel, a
woman’s club-house, or a private house. In the case last mentioned,
the hostess throws open her rooms and provides the refreshments,
or a part of them, as may be preferred. The members of the society
may each bring a cake or some sandwiches, the lady of the house
furnishing tea and chocolate. It is usually arranged to have several
ladies buy a table apiece for a certain sum of money. If this is two
dollars, they sell the single seats to their friends for fifty cents each,
or invite the latter to come as their guests. They bring their own
outfit—cards, score, and the light, collapsible tables that are easily
carried; or these may be sent beforehand to the house of the
hostess. Occasionally an enterprising member of the society brings
some of her own handiwork and offers it for sale, thus netting an
additional sum for the charitable enterprise.
Evening receptions, unless enlivened by some special attraction,
are less popular now than in the earlier and simpler society of the
Victorian era. One of their obvious advantages is that men can
attend them, another is that they enable the hostess with limited
space at her command to invite a number of guests who would
overcrowd her rooms should she attempt to give a dance. The
evening reception is a favorite form of entertainment for introducing
a distinguished guest to a circle of friends. Certain hostesses in New
York still receive on one evening in the week, and succeed in
gathering in their drawing-rooms an interesting company of literary
and artistic folk—people who know how to talk and who enjoy doing
so. A bride and groom may conveniently issue cards for one or more
evening receptions when they are settled in their new home. They
thus make themselves known to new friends and renew
acquaintance with old ones.
A reception in the evening is gayer than an affair in the daytime,
yet it need not necessarily be formal. For a large and handsome
function, engraved invitations in the names of both husband and
wife are issued, the “At Home” form being ordinarily used. If it is in
honor of distinguished guests, the phrase, “To meet Mr. and Mrs.
—— ——” is added.
According to strict rule, the “At Home” formula does not require an
answer. It is always polite, however, to send regrets if one is unable
to attend the entertainment. For one or more informal receptions,
the joint visiting-card of husband and wife may be used, with the
words “At Home” and the date written in, the hours also (“9 to 11”
in the city), if desired. The arrangements are the same as for any
evening occasion. The central part of the drawing-rooms is cleared
of furniture, and vases, small stands, or other articles liable to be
knocked over are removed to some other part of the house. If the
occasion is a large and stately one, potted plants or other floral
decorations may adorn the rooms, while an orchestra composed of a
few stringed instruments discourses sweet sounds behind a leafy
trellis. A handsome supper is served in the dining-room during the
greater part of the evening, since guests are supposed to come and
go rather than to stay through a reception.
It is in perfectly good form, however, to receive in a much more
simple fashion, in accordance with the customs of good society in
continental Europe. It is not necessary to provide either music,
elaborate floral decorations, or an expensive supper. In Italy, where
evening receptions are a favorite form of entertainment, ladies of
rank give their guests lemonade and biscuits, or sponge-cake and
wine, or nothing at all! At an occasion of this sort husband and wife
usually receive together, presenting all the company to the guest of
honor, who stands beside them.
At a formal affair the guests are usually announced by a man-
servant. He inquires their names and calls these out as they enter
the drawing-room. One does not leave cards at an evening
reception. All wear evening dress, as described in Chapter VII.
Ladies seldom wear hats, however, as they occasionally do at a
public reception.
 XI

HOTELS, RESTAURANTS, AND ROOF-GARDENS

How to Entertain a Guest at a Hotel in the City and in the Country—Etiquette for
the Guest in Hotels and Restaurants—Dress for Morning, Afternoon, and Evening.

I N these days of apartment-houses, the spare bedroom has been

necessarily eliminated from many households. This does not mean
that hospitality to friends from a distance has ceased to exist, but
only that it must be practised in a different way. If one has not
sufficient space to make a guest comfortable in one’s own dwelling,
one should arrange for her accommodation at a hotel. The room
must be engaged, and if possible visited beforehand. The hostess
should see with her own eyes, or with those of a trustworthy agent,
that the apartment is sufficiently large, well lighted and heated. A
pleasant outlook is desirable anywhere, but indispensable in the
country. A foreign gentleman of distinction attending a certain
congress in the United States a year or two ago was quartered in a
small, stuffy, inner room. So great was his dissatisfaction that the
president of the learned body was summoned. Fortunately, the latter
was of an ingenious turn of mind. Spying a fire-escape on the
outside of the window, he explained at some length to the foreigner
the extreme desirability of the room—on account of the proximity of
this important mode of exit. The guest was entirely satisfied with the
explanation, and peace once more reigned among the philosophers.
If the host’s means will permit, he should engage for his friend a
room with a bath. He should also instruct the clerk at the desk to
have the bill for room, meals, and service presented to him and not
to the guest. The latter will have no expense except fees to the
servants. These vary with the length of the stay and with the
character of the hotel. A woman is not expected to spend so much
on tips as a man. It is usually best for a transient guest to fee the
waiter at each meal, since another man will probably be in
attendance at the next one. The usual rule is to give ten per cent. of
the sum paid for lunch or dinner—ten cents being the minimum—
except at a restaurant of humble pretensions, where five will be
gladly accepted by the waitress.
In addition to feeing the waiter, a lady gives a small sum to the
chambermaid—twenty-five cents for a stay of a day or two. Ten
cents should be sufficient for the porter when he brings up a trunk,
and again when he takes it away. The ubiquitous hall-boy strongly
resembles the daughter of the horse-leech. Here again, as in the
case of the waiter, the safest way seems to be to hand him ten
cents, I will not say whenever he appears, but whenever he
performs any service for the guest—such as escorting the latter to
her room on her arrival, or bringing a glass of ice-water. Women of
frugal mind endeavor to call on these functionaries as little as they
can, because the cents readily mount into dollars. The elevator-boy
receives fewer tips than his peripatetic brother, and need not be feed
after a short stay.
It is always courteous to send exact information about trains to a
person coming from a distance. A man is usually able to take care of
himself, but for a woman it is not altogether pleasant to arrive alone
in a strange place. The hostess should meet her friend at the
station, or send some one else to do so and to bring her to the
hotel. Here the hostess should show her guest where to register and
see her comfortably established. If unable to meet the traveler at
the train, the hostess should call soon afterward in order to welcome
her guest and to see that the latter has everything that she needs.
Where the friend from a distance has come for a special occasion,
such as a luncheon or a reception, the hostess calls to take her to it
and brings her back afterward, or sends a carriage or car. The
hostess should invite the guest to a meal at her own house, or if this
is not possible she usually arranges to lunch or dine with her friend
at the hotel. When the time comes for departure, she pays the hotel
bill before her guest appears on the scene or after the latter has left,
escorts her to the train, and sees her off. If a lady comes on the
invitation of a club, the secretary or chairman of entertainment acts
as hostess and fulfils all the duties named above, except that it is
not obligatory to invite the visitor to her house, although it is always
kind to do so. There is often some member of the society living in
the hotel who will invite the lecturer to take one or more meals at
her table, and will see in a general way after her comfort. Some
speakers, however, prefer to remain alone, finding it an extra fatigue
to be entertained.
When a hostess invites a friend for a stay of several days or a
week, she endeavors to select a hotel in her own neighborhood. She
often arranges to have the latter take all meals at her house, and
plans for her amusement as she would for a visitor under her own
roof. Should the distance, or some other circumstance, make it more
convenient for the friend to use the hotel dining-room, the hostess
should call every morning, or ring up on the telephone, to inquire
how the visitor is and make arrangements for the day’s programme,
unless this has been agreed upon on the previous evening. In the
city, a guest from out of town usually enjoys sight-seeing, the
theater, opera, and concerts. A woman of serious tastes likes to go
to lectures and meetings; her more light-minded sister enjoys
shopping. In the country, motoring, boating, bathing, and the
various athletic sports in their season offer a variety of attractions. If
one can arrange a number of social entertainments for a friend, and
have her asked out to lunch or dine at other houses as well as at
that of the hostess, this is paying her a special compliment.
The best way to entertain a party of friends at a restaurant is to
engage the table and choose the bill of fare beforehand. Where the
luncheon or supper is an impromptu affair, this is not always
possible. The host may then consult his guests about the dishes, or
he may make out the menu and hand it to the waiter. If the service
is à la carte, it is rather awkward to pass the bill of fare to the
guests, since the prices will stare them in the face. Those who have
delicacy of feeling will hesitate to order costly dishes at the expense
of another person. Those who have no such scruples may make the
bill too heavy for the purse of the host. Therefore the latter does
well to keep the bill of fare in his own hands and give the order
himself, consulting his guests first, if he pleases. It is generally safer
to avoid novel or very elaborate dishes, unless one knows something
about them. They are less apt to be satisfactory, and are liked by
fewer people than the plain, ordinary articles of food.
The party may go together to the restaurant, after an evening at
the theater for instance, or they may meet there for dinner or
luncheon. If the affair takes place at a hotel, the guests assemble in
a public parlor. Where the host is a man, a young woman should go
under the charge of her mother or other chaperon. It is bad form for
a young girl to take any meal at a restaurant with a young man
alone. When a woman has reached the age of thirty and is still
unmarried, the strictness of this rule is slightly relaxed in her favor.
Custom permits her to lunch or take afternoon tea with a young man
who is her relative, or a friend whom she knows well. But she must
neither dine nor sup with him. At some restaurants ladies are not
admitted after a certain hour without a male escort. Quiet, middle-
aged women wishing to dine at some establishment of good
reputation in New York have been justly indignant when refused
permission to do so. The existence of this regulation shows us how
careful young women must be about the places where they dine.
There are quiet restaurants connected with family hotels where they
can get their dinner without exciting any remark.
At a ladies’ lunch the hostess leads the way to the dining-room,
taking with her the oldest or the most distinguished woman present.
The entry is without formality, as in the case of a luncheon in a
private house. At a dinner or supper the host goes in advance of his
guests. If the party consists of young people under the charge of a
chaperon, he asks her to sit at his right hand or opposite to him. If it
consists of married couples, he requests the eldest or the most
distinguished lady to take the place at his right. A woman does not
stay alone at a hotel unless she is no longer young, or unless she is
in some business which makes this necessary. She should endeavor
to choose a quiet hostelry, and to so dress and act as to avoid
attracting attention. At some hotels, ladies traveling without trunks
are not received. The clerk at the desk is usually a man of good
judgment and experience. He “sizes up” the persons asking for
rooms, and if they seem to him undesirable inmates for the hotel,
they will be informed that everything is engaged. The feminine
guest, when traveling alone for the first time, may feel some
trepidation as she approaches a country inn or city hotel. She will be
reassured when she remembers that it is the business of the
landlord to entertain strangers, and that the living of every one in
the establishment depends upon his giving good service to the
traveling public. In a city hotel, there are hall-boys at every turn to
show her just where to go.
She enters the hotel by the ladies’ door, if there is one, and
proceeds at once to the desk. Here she inquires about rooms and
prices, mentions how long her stay is likely to be, and registers her
name in the hotel book. If she is a young woman, she receives any
gentleman that may call on her in the public parlor or reception-
room, and avoids being out late in the evening as much as possible.
While all guests have a right to complain of imperfections in service,
etc., it is bad form to find fault constantly about trivial matters.
Some persons fancy that behavior of this sort gives them an air of
importance, whereas in reality it shows that they are either selfish
and querulous or lacking in experience. The courteous traveler is a
bit philosophical. He knows that delays will sometimes occur and
that every one cannot be waited upon first. He will not allow himself
to be imposed upon without making a remonstrance, but he will not
continually assert his rights. A lady traveling alone needs to be
especially careful about the manner in which she makes complaints
at a hotel. To hear a woman scold is unpleasant even in the family
circle, but in a public place it is lamentable. There voice and temper
alike must be kept under strict control.
 Young girls do not, of course, stay at a hotel in the city or country
unless accompanied by mother or chaperon. At summer resorts they
are sometimes thoughtless about loud talk and laughter in the
corridors and lobbies of a hotel, and about sitting on the veranda in
the company of an agreeable youth until an unduly late hour. They
are so carried away by their high spirits, and are having such a
delightful time, that they forget how censorious the world is. They
forget that in a public place it is necessary to be quieter and more
reserved in manner than in a private house, and thus show that one
understands and respects the laws of good-breeding.
When staying at a hotel, one should be dressed well but not in a
conspicuous way. Ladies may wear their hats or not, as they find
convenient. Thus, if one were going out immediately after breakfast,
one would come down in a simply made street costume. Matinées
and tea-gowns are very charming in the privacy of home, but their
informality makes them inappropriate at a hotel. In summer, pretty
tub dresses, which please the beholder by their freshness and
simplicity, are especially becoming to young women. Older ladies
wear gowns of the same material made in a style suitable to their
years, or appear in foulards, voiles, or other thin stuffs. Elaborate
costumes are not appropriate for the morning. In winter a lady may
come down to breakfast at a hotel in a morning dress made all in
one piece, or in a skirt of woolen stuff with waist of silk, chiffon, or
other thin material either white or of the same color as the skirt.
For the afternoon a lady may retain her street suit, or she may put
on a handsomer one. If she is not going out she may prefer to wear
a house dress of more expensive material, and made in a more
elaborate style, than would be suitable in the morning. According to
the present fashion, such a gown would be cut down at the throat,
with half-length sleeves. Whether the sojourner at a hotel changes
or does not change her gown in the afternoon, she should do so for
late dinner, since morning costume would not then be appropriate.
As we have already seen, a variety of dress is permissible at these
public places of entertainment, because guests are arriving,
departing, or going out for engagements of all sorts. The general
rule, however, to which there are some exceptions, prescribes
evening dress for the evening. At large and fashionable hotels in
New York, many of the women wear décolleté gowns. A lady invited
to a dinner party at one of these places would dress as she would at
a private house. In smaller cities, and at quieter hotels, low-necked
dresses are not so often seen.
If a lady intends to take an evening train she may, if she pleases,
appear at dinner in traveling hat and dress. If she is going to the
theater, opera-house, or concert-hall, she will wear the kind of
costume described in Chapter XII.
Correspondents sometimes ask what the proper dress is for
Sunday evening at a hotel. Opinions on this subject vary in
accordance with people’s religious views or inherited traditions.
While the old-fashioned strict observance of the Sabbath has been
much relaxed both in England and in America, the Puritan view of
the day still strongly influences the manners and customs of the
country at large. Those who hold to it prefer to dress quietly and to
eschew low-necked gowns on Sunday evening. They appear in
costumes suitable to wear at church, even if they have no intention
of going there. There are many other people, especially in a
cosmopolitan city like New York, who hold no such view of the
observance of Sunday, and dress then as they would on any other
day of the week.
Ladies always retain their hats in the daytime at a restaurant or
roof-garden. They remove their gloves on sitting down to table, and
throw back or take off their outer wraps. It is usually possible to
check these, but many people object to the delay involved. Women
of good taste prefer to dress quietly if they attend a dancing-tea at
one of these places, and thus avoid attracting special attention. At
certain restaurants an effort is made to compel all guests to wear
evening dress. This is merely copying an English fashion ill-suited to
a democratic country. At the Hotel Savoy in London they enforce
such a rule. An American lady who had reached the half-century
limit, and did not care to appear in public in a low-necked dress,
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