Introduction to Language

- Lectures -

The Origins of Language

●​ Cultural Origin Stories:​

The Iwaidja people of Australia attribute language's origin to Warramurrungunji,
a mythical figure who assigned specific languages to children as she traversed the
land. Such stories highlight humanity’s quest to explain linguistic diversity,
though these myths remain speculative.​

●​ Scientific Understanding:​
While myths offer fascinating narratives, science lacks definitive answers
regarding the origin of language. Researchers suggest early spoken language
emerged 50,000 to 100,000 years ago, but no direct evidence or artifacts clarify
its evolution.​

The Divine Source

●​ Religious Theories:​
Many religions propose divine origins of language. In Christianity, Adam named
creatures in Eden, while Hinduism credits Sarasvati, wife of Brahma, with
language's gift. Ancient experiments, like Psammetichus's isolation of infants,
sought to identify the divine language but yielded dubious results.​

●​ Scientific Skepticism:​
Experiments isolating infants, such as those by Psammetichus and King James
IV, failed to prove the existence of a divine or "original" language. Instead, they
 underscored that language acquisition depends on exposure to speech.​

The Natural Sound Source

●​ "Bow-Wow" Theory:​
This theory suggests language arose from imitating natural sounds, like
"caw-caw" for birds. Such onomatopoeic origins are evident in words like "buzz"
and "hiss," though it’s insufficient to explain abstract concepts or silent objects.​

●​ "Pooh-Pooh" Theory:​
Emotional exclamations like "Ouch!" or "Wow!" might have contributed to early
speech development. However, their distinct production (intakes of breath)
contrasts with normal speech patterns, making them an unlikely source.​

The Musical and Social Interaction Sources

●​ Melodic Beginnings:​
Charles Darwin proposed that music preceded language as a means to "charm"
others. Observations of infants’ early melodic interactions support this theory,
but it’s unclear why humans moved beyond melody to complex language.​

●​ "Yo-He-Ho" Theory:​
Early humans may have used coordinated grunts and chants during collective
physical activities, embedding language within a social framework. However, this
theory doesn’t explain how specific sounds originated.​
The Physical Adaptation Source

●​ Anatomical Changes:​
Human evolution involved physiological changes aiding speech, such as:
○​ Upright posture allowing controlled breathing.
○​ Smaller, even teeth and intricate lips aiding sound production.
○​ A uniquely shaped tongue enabling varied sounds.
○​ A lower-positioned larynx and resonant pharynx enhancing vocal range.​
These adaptations highlight speech's evolutionary benefits, despite risks
like choking.

The Tool-Making Source

●​ Cognitive Overlap:​
Tool-making and speech likely share neural circuits, as both involve intricate
motor control. Studies on ancient stonecutting reveal brain activity patterns
similar to those involved in speech, suggesting a shared evolutionary pathway.

The Gesture Source

●​ Manual Communication:​
Gesture likely preceded vocal language, as evidenced by chimpanzee signals and
early human infants’ gestures. Over time, vocalization and gestures combined,
with humans developing articulated speech alongside expressive hand
movements.

The Genetic Source

●​ Innateness Hypothesis:​
Humans seem genetically predisposed to acquire language, supported by cases
like deaf children mastering sign language early. Mutations enabling brain
complexity and vocal control likely underpinned this capacity, potentially tied to
genes like FOXP2.
Animals and Human Language

●​ Talking Animals: Fact vs. Fantasy​

Stories about talking animals often stem from fiction or mimicry. A seal in the
Boston Aquarium, for instance, appeared to speak but was mimicking human
sounds. While animals can communicate within their species, using human
language is a more complex question. Exploring whether animals can
communicate using human-like language sheds light on the unique properties of
human communication.​

●​ Communicative vs. Informative Signals​

Animals can send signals unintentionally (e.g., sneezing indicates a cold) or
intentionally (e.g., a bird’s squawk signals danger). Human communication
involves deliberate use of language, while animal communication often relies on
instinctive, context-specific signals.​

Unique Properties of Human Language (Expanded Explanation)

Human language is distinct from all other forms of communication in the animal
kingdom due to a set of unique properties. These features allow humans to convey
complex, abstract, and infinite ideas. Below is a deeper dive into each property:

1. Reflexivity

●​ Definition: Reflexivity refers to the ability to use language to think, talk, and
analyze language itself. Humans can reflect on the structure, usage, and
effectiveness of their communication.
●​ Examples:
○​ We can discuss grammatical rules (e.g., "Should I use 'who' or 'whom'?").
 ○​ We critique language use (e.g., "I wish he wouldn't use so many technical
terms").
○​ We can even create new words to describe language phenomena (e.g.,
"texting" for sending messages via phone).
●​ Comparison with Animals: Other creatures do not reflect on their signals or
communication. A dog barking doesn’t analyze its bark or suggest modifications
to another dog’s bark to improve clarity or tone. Reflexivity is uniquely human
because it enables metalinguistic awareness—the ability to use language as a tool
for self-awareness and learning.

2. Displacement

●​ Definition: Displacement is the ability to refer to things that are not immediately
present in the here and now. This includes discussing past events, future plans,
hypothetical situations, or imaginary concepts.
●​ Examples:
○​ Humans can talk about historical events, like "The signing of the
Declaration of Independence," or plan for the future, like "Next year, I’ll
travel to Italy."
○​ Humans also discuss abstract or mythical entities like Santa Claus, fairies,
or heaven.
●​ Comparison with Animals:
○​ Animal communication is typically restricted to the immediate
environment. For example, when a dog growls, it indicates a present threat
("Stay away now").
○​ Bees exhibit a limited form of displacement by dancing to communicate
the location of a nectar source, but this displacement is restricted to
recently discovered nectar. They cannot communicate about past nectar
sources or potential future ones. Humans, however, can move freely across
time and space in their language.
3. Arbitrariness

●​ Definition: There is no natural or inherent connection between a linguistic form

(word) and its meaning. The relationship between the two is arbitrary and agreed
upon by a speech community.
●​ Examples:
○​ The word "dog" in English, "chien" in French, and "perro" in Spanish all
refer to the same animal. The sounds of these words bear no natural
resemblance to the creature they describe.
○​ Exceptions are onomatopoeic words (e.g., "buzz," "splash"), which mimic
sounds, but these are rare and culturally influenced.
●​ Comparison with Animals: In animal communication, signals often have a
direct connection to their meaning. For instance, a cat’s hiss directly conveys
aggression or warning. The finite set of signals used by animals is largely
instinctive and linked to survival needs.

4. Cultural Transmission

●​ Definition: Language is not inherited biologically but learned through social

interaction and exposure within a cultural context.
●​ Examples:
○​ A baby born to Korean parents but raised in an English-speaking
household will learn English, not Korean.
○​ This process emphasizes that language is passed down through
generations via cultural immersion, not genetic inheritance.
●​ Comparison with Animals: Animal communication is largely instinctive and
inherited. For example, a kitten raised in isolation will still produce meowing
sounds. Some animals, like birds, require exposure to learn their specific songs,
but their range of communication remains fixed.
5. Productivity

●​ Definition: Productivity refers to the ability to create and understand an infinite

number of novel expressions using a finite set of linguistic elements.
●​ Examples:
○​ Humans can generate new sentences that have never been spoken before,
such as “The robot baked a cake for the astronaut on Mars.”
○​ New words and phrases emerge regularly, like "selfie" or "climate crisis,"
to describe new concepts.
●​ Comparison with Animals:
○​ Animal communication is limited to a fixed set of signals with specific
meanings. For instance, vervet monkeys have distinct calls for "snake" and
"eagle," but they cannot combine these calls to create a new signal for
"flying snake."
○​ Experiments have shown that even advanced animal communication
systems, such as bee dances, fail to create new messages for unique
scenarios (e.g., vertical locations).

6. Duality (Double Articulation)

●​ Definition: Human language operates on two levels:

○​ Physical level: Individual sounds (phonemes) like /b/, /i/, and /n/.
○​ Meaningful level: These sounds are combined to form words (e.g., “bin”
vs. “nib”), which convey distinct meanings.
●​ Examples:
○​ The English language has about 40 phonemes, but these can be combined
to produce thousands of words and an infinite number of sentences.
○​ For instance, “cat,” “act,” and “tac” use the same phonemes but differ in
arrangement, creating distinct meanings.
 ●​ Comparison with Animals:
○​ Animal signals lack duality. Each signal is a fixed unit of meaning that
cannot be broken down into smaller parts. A dog’s bark or a bird’s chirp
cannot be recombined to create new meanings.

Why These Properties Make Language Unique

These six properties enable human language to be open-ended, infinitely creative, and
capable of expressing abstract, hypothetical, and complex ideas. While some animals
exhibit limited versions of these traits (e.g., displacement in bees), no animal
communication system possesses all these features to the extent seen in human
language. This unique combination makes language a cornerstone of human cognition,
culture, and social interaction.

●​ Animal Experiments with Language​

Studies on teaching language to animals highlight their limitations:​

○​ Chimpanzees: Gua (1930s) understood some words but couldn’t speak

them. Viki (1940s) mimicked a few words with poor articulation due to
physical vocal tract differences.
○​ Sign Language and Symbols: Washoe, a chimpanzee, learned over 100
American Sign Language (ASL) signs, combining them meaningfully (e.g.,
“water bird” for swan). Similarly, Sarah used plastic shapes to
communicate, and Lana used a keyboard-based Yerkish system.
●​ Criticisms and Skepticism​
Some argue that animals like Washoe or Lana mimic responses for rewards
rather than truly understanding language. Studies with Nim, a chimpanzee,
suggested his signing was conditioned behavior rather than spontaneous
communication.​
●​ Kanzi’s Unique Case​
A bonobo named Kanzi spontaneously learned to use symbols by observing his
mother’s training. He developed an understanding of spoken English and used
over 250 symbols meaningfully, demonstrating language acquisition by exposure
rather than direct teaching.​

●​ Human Language as a Unique Phenomenon​

While animals can use symbols to interact, their communication lacks the
complexity, creativity, and structure of human language. Language, in its full
sense, remains uniquely human due to its infinite expressiveness and
sophisticated grammar.
Grammar

Introduction to Grammar

Sentence diagramming, a method of visually breaking down and understanding the

structure of sentences, was once a fundamental skill taught in American public schools.
Introduced in the 1877 book Higher Lessons in English by Alonzo Reed and Brainerd
Kellogg, it was quickly embraced by educators as a tool to reform language skills.
Diagramming helped students understand the relationships between words and the
rules governing sentence structure. However, much like other older educational
practices, such as darning socks, it has largely fallen out of use in modern classrooms,
with few lamenting its absence.

Levels of Language Description

Language can be studied at multiple levels of description, allowing linguists to analyze it

in terms of its smallest components and their roles. At the phonetic level, linguistic
expressions are viewed as sequences of sounds, transcribed using tools like the phonetic
alphabet. For instance, the phrase the lucky boys can be represented with phonetic
segments such as /ðəlʌkibɔɪz/, which are described in terms of voiced or voiceless
features and diphthongs.​
Beyond sounds, language can also be studied at the morphological level, where
expressions are broken down into morphemes—the smallest units of meaning. These
analyses help us understand how words and phrases are built and how they interact
according to the rules of phonology and morphology.

Traditional Grammar

Traditional grammar, rooted in the study of Latin and Greek, provides a foundational
framework for understanding language structure. Early grammatical descriptions of
Latin, later applied to English, shaped how we classify words into grammatical
categories, or parts of speech. This tradition introduced terms like noun, verb, and
adjective.

●​ Nouns are words used to name people, places, objects, qualities, or abstract
ideas (e.g., boy, school, love). Proper nouns, like Cathy or Rome, are capitalized.
●​ Articles (a, an, the) classify or identify nouns. For example, a banana introduces
an item, while the banana refers to a known item.
●​ Adjectives describe nouns, adding details such as size or quality (e.g., large
objects, strange experiences).
●​ Verbs denote actions or states (e.g., go, talk, be). They also express relationships,
as in Jessica is ill.
●​ Adverbs provide additional context for actions or adjectives, describing how,
when, or to what degree (e.g., slowly, very, yesterday).
●​ Prepositions indicate relationships involving time, place, or manner (e.g., at
five o’clock, on the table).
●​ Pronouns stand in for nouns or noun phrases, making sentences less repetitive
(e.g., she, it, themselves).
●​ Conjunctions connect clauses or ideas, showing relationships between them
(e.g., and, because, when).

The parts of speech framework from traditional grammar remains central to linguistic
studies and language education today.

Grammatical Agreement

Languages operate with rules ensuring that components of a sentence match or "agree"
with each other. This agreement involves several grammatical categories:

●​ Number: Verbs and pronouns adjust to reflect singular or plural subjects (e.g.,
she runs vs. they run).
 ●​ Person: Pronouns and verbs reflect distinctions between the speaker (first
person), the listener (second person), and others (third person). For example, I
am (first person singular) contrasts with he is (third person singular).
●​ Tense: Verbs are modified to indicate when an action occurs, such as present
(loves) versus past (loved).
●​ Gender: English relies on natural gender, distinguishing male (he), female
(she), and neutral (it). Other languages, like Spanish, follow grammatical
gender, classifying nouns as masculine or feminine, even when unrelated to
biological sex.

For instance, in the sentence Cathy loves her dog, we see agreement between the
singular noun Cathy and the verb loves. The pronoun her also reflects gender-based
agreement with Cathy. These rules ensure clarity and coherence in communication.

Natural vs. Grammatical Gender

English employs natural gender, basing distinctions on biological sex. Pronouns like
he, she, and they are used to reflect male, female, or neutral references, respectively.
However, other languages, such as Spanish, utilize grammatical gender, classifying
nouns into categories like masculine (el sol, “the sun”) or feminine (la luna, “the
moon”), regardless of the noun’s actual characteristics. German goes further,
incorporating a neuter category (das Feuer, “the fire”). These gender classifications
influence the forms of accompanying words, such as articles and adjectives, to maintain
grammatical agreement. Importantly, grammatical gender does not imply biological sex;
for instance, the French noun le livre (“the book”) is masculine despite having no
inherent gender.

Prescriptive vs. Descriptive Grammar

The study of grammar can be divided into two main approaches:

 ●​ Prescriptive Grammar: Focuses on rules for “proper” usage, often influenced
by Latin grammar. For example, traditional rules include avoiding split infinitives
(e.g., to boldly go should be to go boldly) or ending sentences with prepositions
(e.g., Whom did you give the book to? instead of Who did you give the book to?).
●​ Descriptive Grammar: Examines how language is naturally used, without
imposing rules. It recognizes structures like to boldly go as valid in English, even
though they deviate from Latin norms.

The prescriptive approach emphasizes correctness, while the descriptive approach

values real-world usage and adaptability across languages.

Descriptive Analysis Techniques

1.​ Structural Analysis: Investigates the roles and distributions of words in

sentences by using “test frames.” For example, in the frame The ___ makes
noise, possible fillers like dog or radio suggest the missing word is a noun.
2.​ Constituent Analysis: Breaks sentences into smaller components
(constituents) to understand their structure. For instance, in The old woman
brought a snake, constituents include the old woman (noun phrase) and brought
(verb). Diagramming these structures clarifies relationships between
components.

These approaches prioritize understanding how languages function over enforcing

external grammatical rules.

Word Order and Language Typology

Languages differ in how they arrange subjects (S), verbs (V), and objects (O) in
sentences. English follows a Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) pattern, as in The cat chased
the mouse. However, other languages use alternative orders:
 ●​ SOV: Common in Japanese (e.g., The cat the mouse chased).
●​ VSO: Found in Scottish Gaelic (e.g., Chased the cat the mouse).
●​ VOS: Seen in Malagasy, spoken in Madagascar.

These word-order patterns form the basis of language typology, the study of
grammatical similarities and classifications among languages. Understanding these
patterns is crucial for second-language learners, especially when their native language
uses different structures.

Why Study Grammar?

Grammar helps us comprehend the rules underlying language use and the differences
between languages. For instance, English places adjectives before nouns (red wine),
while other languages reverse this order (wine red). Such insights are essential for
teaching and learning languages effectively.​
Moreover, grammar reveals the hierarchical structures underlying sentences, extending
beyond their linear arrangement. These abstract structures, explored further in
advanced studies, highlight the complexity and universality of human language.

Parts of Speech

The parts of speech categorize words based on their roles in a sentence. Below are the
main categories:

1.​ Nouns: Words that name people, places, things, or ideas (e.g., boy, school, love).
2.​ Articles: Words that introduce nouns (e.g., a, an, the).
3.​ Adjectives: Words that describe nouns (e.g., large, strange).
4.​ Verbs: Words that denote actions or states (e.g., go, talk, be).
5.​ Adverbs: Words that modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs (e.g., slowly,
very).
 6.​ Prepositions: Words that show relationships between nouns and other words,
often regarding time or place (e.g., at, on, with).
7.​ Pronouns: Words that replace nouns (e.g., he, it, you).
8.​ Conjunctions: Words that connect clauses or phrases (e.g., and, but, because).

These elements form the building blocks of sentences.

Basic Sentence Analysis

To analyze sentences, consider their structure and how the parts of speech function
together:

1.​ Linear Order: English follows a Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) word order. For
example:​

○​ The boy (subject) ate (verb) the apple (object).

2.​ Grammatical Functions:​

○​ Subject: The noun phrase (NP) performing the action or being described.
○​ Verb: The action or state.
○​ Object: The noun phrase receiving the action.
○​ Adjuncts: Additional information about time, place, or manner (often
prepositional phrases).
3.​ Constituents: Sentences are made up of smaller units (constituents) that
combine hierarchically. For example:​

○​ The old woman brought a snake from Brazil.

○​ Constituents include:
■​ The old woman (NP)
■​ brought (verb)
■​ a snake (NP)
 ■​ from Brazil (prepositional phrase).

These constituents can be substituted or rearranged to analyze their roles.

Roles of Constituents

Each constituent serves a function in the sentence:

1.​ Subjects: Often the "doer" of the verb (e.g., She sings).
2.​ Objects: Receive the action (e.g., He saw her).
3.​ Adjuncts: Provide context like where, when, or how (e.g., He sings beautifully).
4.​ Modifiers: Describe or limit the meaning of other constituents (e.g., A big
house).

Sentence diagrams or tree structures (e.g., Yule’s constituent analysis) visually represent
how constituents combine to form sentences.

Sure! Let’s break down each sentence into its constituents, showing their parts of
speech, grammatical roles (subject, verb, object, adjunct, etc.), and overall structure.

1. She saw that film last night.

●​ Parts of Speech:​

○​ She (pronoun, subject)

○​ saw (verb, past tense)
○​ that (determiner, modifies "film")
○​ film (noun, object)
○​ last night (adverbial phrase, adjunct of time)
 ●​ Structure:​

○​ Subject: She
○​ Verb: saw
○​ Object: that film
○​ Adjunct: last night
●​ Constituents:​

○​ [S [NP She] [VP [V saw] [NP [Det that] [N film]] [PP [AdvP last
night]]]

2. I went to the faculty yesterday, and I got a ten at the exam.

●​ Parts of Speech:​

○​ I (pronoun, subject)
○​ went (verb, past tense)
○​ to (preposition)
○​ the (article)
○​ faculty (noun, object of the preposition)
○​ yesterday (adverb, adjunct of time)
○​ and (conjunction)
○​ got (verb, past tense)
○​ a (article)
○​ ten (noun, object)
○​ at (preposition)
○​ the (article)
○​ exam (noun, object of the preposition)
●​ Structure:​
 ○​ Clause 1:
■​ Subject: I
■​ Verb: went
■​ Prepositional Phrase: to the faculty
■​ Adjunct: yesterday
○​ Clause 2:
■​ Subject: I
■​ Verb: got
■​ Object: a ten
■​ Prepositional Phrase: at the exam
●​ Constituents:​

○​ [S [NP I] [VP [V went] [PP [P to] [NP [Det the] [N faculty]]]

[AdvP yesterday]]]
○​ [S [NP I] [VP [V got] [NP [Det a] [N ten]] [PP [P at] [NP [Det
the] [N exam]]]]]

3. My dad thinks we are lazy.

●​ Parts of Speech:​

○​ My (possessive pronoun, determiner)

○​ dad (noun, subject)
○​ thinks (verb, present tense)
○​ we (pronoun, subject of embedded clause)
○​ are (verb, linking verb)
○​ lazy (adjective, subject complement)
●​ Structure:​

○​ Main Clause:
 ■​ Subject: My dad
■​ Verb: thinks
■​ Object (embedded clause): we are lazy
○​ Embedded Clause:
■​ Subject: we
■​ Verb: are
■​ Subject Complement: lazy
●​ Constituents:​

○​ [S [NP [Det My] [N dad]] [VP [V thinks] [S [NP we] [VP [V are]
[AdjP lazy]]]]]

4. My aunt does not want to share the brownie recipe.

●​ Parts of Speech:​

○​ My (possessive pronoun, determiner)

○​ aunt (noun, subject)
○​ does not (auxiliary verb + negation)
○​ want (verb, main verb)
○​ to share (infinitive verb phrase)
○​ the (article)
○​ brownie (adjective, modifies "recipe")
○​ recipe (noun, object)
●​ Structure:​

○​ Subject: My aunt
○​ Verb: does not want
○​ Object (infinitive clause): to share the brownie recipe
○​ Embedded Clause:
 ■​ Verb: to share
■​ Object: the brownie recipe
●​ Constituents:​

○​ [S [NP [Det My] [N aunt]] [VP [Aux does not] [V want] [S [VP [V
to share] [NP [Det the] [Adj brownie] [N recipe]]]]]]

5. I believe my dog ate my homework.

●​ Parts of Speech:​

○​ I (pronoun, subject)
○​ believe (verb, main verb)
○​ my (possessive pronoun, determiner)
○​ dog (noun, subject of embedded clause)
○​ ate (verb, past tense)
○​ my (possessive pronoun, determiner)
○​ homework (noun, object of embedded clause)
●​ Structure:​

○​ Main Clause:
■​ Subject: I
■​ Verb: believe
■​ Object (embedded clause): my dog ate my homework
○​ Embedded Clause:
■​ Subject: my dog
■​ Verb: ate
■​ Object: my homework
●​ Constituents:​
○​ [S [NP I] [VP [V believe] [S [NP [Det My] [N dog]] [VP [V ate]
[NP [Det my] [N homework]]]]]]
Pragmatics

Pragmatics: Understanding Speaker Meaning

Key Point:​
Pragmatics is the study of how meaning is shaped by context and speaker intention,
rather than just the dictionary definitions of words. It examines how people use
language in real-world situations and how listeners infer meaning beyond the literal
interpretation of words.

Explanation:​
When we communicate, we often rely on context to convey meaning effectively.
Pragmatics helps us understand not just what words mean but what speakers intend to
communicate with those words. For example, in a conversation about "war," different
interpretations may arise based on the historical or cultural background of the listener
and speaker. In the story mentioned in the book, American tourists misunderstood a
Scottish boy’s reference to "the war" because they assumed he meant World War II,
while he was actually referring to a much older conflict. This highlights how
communication relies on shared understanding and context.

Invisible Meaning: More is Communicated Than Said

Key Point:​
Pragmatics involves understanding "invisible meaning," where much of what we
communicate is not explicitly stated but is inferred based on shared assumptions and
context.

Explanation:​
Often, we understand messages that are not directly conveyed in words. For instance,
consider a sign that reads "Heated Attendant." A literal interpretation might suggest
that the attendant is heated, but through pragmatics, we understand that the sign likely
means a parking lot with an attendant who operates in a heated area. This ability to
extract meaning beyond what is written demonstrates how communication depends on
context and common knowledge shared between speaker and listener. Without such
shared understanding, misunderstandings can arise.

Context and Co-Text: The Role of Surrounding Information

Key Point:​
Understanding language involves both physical context (where and when the
communication happens) and linguistic context (the surrounding words or phrases that
provide meaning).

Explanation:​
When interpreting language, context plays a crucial role in shaping meaning. Physical
context refers to the immediate environment in which communication takes place, such
as a sign outside a building that reads "Bank," which in that location suggests a financial
institution. However, if the same word is found in the phrase "a steep bank by the river,"
the linguistic context helps us understand that it refers to a geographical feature instead.
The surrounding words, known as co-text, guide our interpretation by narrowing down
the possible meanings of a word or phrase based on how it is used.

Deixis: Words That Depend on Context

Key Point:​
Deictic expressions, such as "this," "that," "here," "there," "now," and "then," rely
entirely on context to convey meaning, making them difficult to interpret without
knowing the specific situation in which they are used.

Explanation:​
Deixis comes from the Greek word for "pointing," and it refers to words that direct
attention to specific people, places, or times. For example, if someone says, "You'll have
to bring it back tomorrow because she isn’t here today," the meaning of "it,"
"tomorrow," "she," and "here" cannot be understood without knowing the context in
which the sentence is spoken. Deictic expressions help in conversation by anchoring the
meaning to the time, place, and people involved in the discussion, but their
interpretation heavily depends on the listener's familiarity with the situation.

Reference and Inference: How We Identify Meaning

Key Point:​
Reference is the act of using language to identify something, while inference is the
listener’s ability to connect what is said with what is meant.

Explanation:​
Speakers use various linguistic expressions—such as proper nouns (e.g., "Jennifer"),
descriptive phrases (e.g., "my friend"), or pronouns (e.g., "she")—to refer to people or
things. However, these words alone do not carry fixed meanings; their interpretation
depends on inference. Listeners must use their knowledge and context to connect the
spoken words to real-world entities. For instance, if a waiter says, "The ham sandwich
left without paying," it is understood that the phrase "ham sandwich" refers to a
customer who ordered that dish. This process of making connections beyond literal
meaning is crucial for effective communication.

Anaphora and Cataphora: Referring Back and Forward

Key Point:​
Anaphora refers to the use of expressions that refer back to something already
mentioned, while cataphora introduces a reference before specifying what it refers to.

Explanation:​
When telling a story or providing information, we often introduce new subjects and
then refer back to them later using pronouns or descriptive phrases. For example, in the
sentence, "We saw a funny home video about a boy washing a puppy in a small bath.
The puppy started struggling," the phrase "the puppy" refers back to the previously
mentioned "a puppy," making it an example of anaphora.​
In contrast, cataphora introduces a reference using a pronoun before providing the
actual subject. For example, "It was staring at me from the bushes. A large dog had
escaped from the yard." Here, "It" refers to "a large dog," which is introduced later in the
sentence.

Presupposition: What We Assume is True

Key Point:​
Presuppositions are assumptions that speakers make about what their listeners already
know or believe to be true.

Explanation:​
Every conversation carries underlying assumptions that speakers and listeners take for
granted. For example, the statement "Your clock isn’t working" presupposes that the
listener owns a clock. Similarly, asking "When did you stop smoking?" presupposes that
the person used to smoke. A key feature of presuppositions is that they remain constant
even if the statement is negated; whether you say "My car is a wreck" or "My car is not a
wreck," the presupposition that you have a car remains unchanged.

Pragmatic Markers: Managing Conversations

Key Point:​
Pragmatic markers are short expressions such as "you know," "well," and "I mean" that
help manage the flow of conversation and express attitudes.

Explanation:​
Speakers often use certain phrases to indicate their stance, manage conversation, or
clarify what they are saying. For instance, saying "I mean" can signal a clarification or
correction, while "well" may indicate a pause or a shift in thought. These markers help
to create smoother conversations and provide subtle cues to the listener about how the
speaker wants their message to be interpreted.

The Cooperative Principle and Gricean Maxims

Key Point:​
Effective communication follows principles of cooperation, including being informative,
truthful, relevant, and clear, as outlined by philosopher Paul Grice.

Explanation:​
Grice proposed four maxims that guide conversations:

1.​ Quantity: Provide the right amount of information.

2.​ Quality: Be truthful.
3.​ Relation: Stay relevant.
4.​ Manner: Be clear and concise.

If someone is asked about their sandwich and replies, "A sandwich is a sandwich," they
are implicitly indicating that they have no strong opinion about it, rather than just
stating an obvious fact.

Politeness and Face: Maintaining Social Harmony

Key Point:​
Politeness strategies help speakers maintain social harmony by addressing others'
needs for independence (negative face) and inclusion (positive face).

Explanation:​
"Face" refers to a person’s social self-image, which politeness strategies aim to protect.
Negative face respects an individual's autonomy (e.g., "I know you're busy, but..."), while
positive face emphasizes camaraderie and belonging (e.g., "Let’s do this together").
Different cultures prioritize these aspects differently, affecting communication styles.
Here's an expanded explanation of the key topics you mentioned from the provided text:

Deixis

Deixis refers to words and phrases that cannot be fully understood without contextual
information. Derived from the Greek word meaning "pointing," deixis is used to direct
attention to people, places, or times. Deictic expressions include:

●​ Person deixis: Words like "I," "you," "he," "she," and "they," which identify
specific individuals based on context.
●​ Spatial deixis: Words such as "here," "there," "this," and "that," pointing to
locations relative to the speaker or listener.
●​ Temporal deixis: Words like "now," "then," "yesterday," and "tomorrow,"
indicating points in time.

Deictic expressions rely entirely on context. For example, "You’ll have to bring it back
tomorrow because she isn’t here today" contains several deictic terms (e.g., "you," "it,"
"tomorrow") that make no sense without knowing who is speaking, where, or when.

Certainly! Deixis refers to expressions whose meaning relies on the context of the
utterance. Here’s a comprehensive list of the main types of deixis:

1. Person Deixis

Refers to participants in the conversation.

●​ First person: I, we, me, us, my, our (speaker or group including the speaker).
●​ Second person: you, your (addressee or listener).
●​ Third person: he, she, it, they, his, her, their (others, not directly involved in
the conversation).
2. Spatial Deixis

Refers to locations relative to the speaker or listener.

●​ Examples: here, there, this, that, these, those, near, far, above, below, in front of,
behind.
●​ Here refers to the speaker’s location, while there refers to a place farther from the
speaker.

3. Temporal Deixis

Refers to points or durations of time relative to the speaker’s current time.

●​ Examples: now, then, soon, later, today, tomorrow, yesterday, ago, last week,
next month.

4. Discourse Deixis

Refers to parts of the discourse itself (prior or upcoming parts of the conversation/text).

●​ Examples: this, that, the following, the former, aforementioned.

●​ This often refers to what is being said, while that might refer to what has already
been mentioned.

5. Social Deixis

Refers to social relationships, status, or roles between speakers and addressees.

●​ Examples: Sir, Madam, Your Honor, Doctor, Professor.

●​ Also includes the use of formal vs. informal pronouns (e.g., tu vs. vous in French,
or du vs. Sie in German).
6. Quantitative/Proximal Deixis (Optional Subcategory)

Refers to quantity or proximity, often considered part of spatial or discourse deixis.

●​ Examples: some, any, all, many, few, several, much.

Antecedents

Antecedents are linguistic elements (e.g., nouns or noun phrases) that introduce a
referent in a discourse, to which later expressions (anaphoric references) refer back.​
For example:

●​ Introduction of antecedent: "A boy was washing a puppy in a bath."

●​ Anaphoric reference: "The puppy started struggling, and the boy got wet."

The relationship between antecedent and anaphoric expressions is vital for maintaining
coherence in discourse. For example:

●​ Pronouns like "he," "she," or "it" often refer back to antecedents.

●​ Phrases like "the puppy" specify the antecedent in a different way.

Occasionally, a cataphoric structure occurs, where the pronoun precedes the antecedent.
Example: "It appeared out of nowhere, a large black bear glaring in my direction."

Presupposition

Presupposition refers to assumptions speakers make about what the listener already
knows or believes. These are implied and persist even when the statement is negated, a
property known as constancy under negation.

●​ Examples:
 ○​ "Your clock isn’t working" presupposes that you have a clock.
○​ "Where did he find the money?" presupposes that he found money.
○​ "We regret buying that car" presupposes that we bought a car.
●​ Test for presuppositions: Negating a statement (e.g., "Your clock is working")
still leaves the presupposition ("You have a clock") intact.

Presuppositions are critical for effective communication, as they shape the shared
knowledge that underpins interaction.

Speech Acts and Searle’s Classification

Speech acts refer to the actions performed through utterances, such as requesting,
promising, commanding, or questioning. John Searle categorized speech acts into five
types:

1.​ Assertives: Statements that describe the world or state facts (e.g., "It’s
raining.").
2.​ Directives: Attempts to get the listener to do something (e.g., "Close the door.").
3.​ Commissives: Commit the speaker to a future action (e.g., "I’ll call you
tomorrow.").
4.​ Expressives: Express emotions or attitudes (e.g., "I’m sorry.").
5.​ Declarations: Bring about a change in the world by the act of saying something
(e.g., "You’re fired.").

Speech acts can be direct (matching their literal meaning) or indirect (requiring
inference). For example:

●​ Direct: "Can you ride a bicycle?" (seeks information).

●​ Indirect: "Can you pass the salt?" (a request disguised as a question).

Positive and Negative Politeness

Politeness strategies help maintain the "face" or public self-image of participants in
communication. Brown and Levinson distinguish between:

1.​ Positive politeness: Shows solidarity, friendliness, and inclusiveness,

emphasizing a desire to connect or belong.
○​ Examples:
■​ "Let’s do this together."
■​ "The same thing happened to me."
○​ It appeals to shared goals and mutual respect.
2.​ Negative politeness: Respects independence and avoids imposing on others.
○​ Examples:
■​ "I’m sorry to bother you..."
■​ "I know you’re busy, but..."
○​ This minimizes imposition and allows the listener to retain freedom of
choice.

The choice of strategy depends on the social dynamics, cultural norms, and the speaker’s
intent.

Speech Maxims

Paul Grice’s Cooperative Principle explains how participants in conversations

collaborate to make communication effective. This principle is supported by four
conversational maxims:

1.​ Quality: Be truthful; do not say what you believe to be false or lack evidence for.
2.​ Quantity: Provide the right amount of information—not too much, not too little.
3.​ Relation: Be relevant to the conversation.
4.​ Manner: Be clear, brief, and orderly; avoid ambiguity.

Speakers often intentionally flout these maxims to generate implicatures, conveying

indirect meanings. For example:
●​ Flouting Quality: "Oh, great. Another traffic jam." (sarcasm implying
frustration).
●​ Flouting Relation: Responding to "Are you coming tonight?" with "I have an
exam tomorrow," implying "No."
Gestures and Sign Languages

Gestures and Sign Language Overview

●​ Language Acquisition:
○​ Most children acquire spoken language naturally, but deaf children of deaf
parents acquire sign language in a similar way.
○​ American Sign Language (ASL) is widely used in the U.S. despite past
discouragement in educational institutions.
○​ ASL was historically considered "mere gestures" rather than a real
language.

Expanded:​
Children acquire their first language naturally based on their environment. While
spoken language is common, deaf children naturally learn sign language from their deaf
parents. ASL, which serves a large community in the U.S., was once dismissed in
educational settings, limiting its recognition as a legitimate language.

Gestures vs. Sign Language

●​ Differences:
○​ Sign language functions as a replacement for speech.
○​ Gestures are used alongside speech to aid communication.
○​ Examples of gestures include hand motions while explaining actions.

Expanded:​
While gestures and sign language both involve hand movements, they serve different
purposes. Gestures typically accompany spoken words to provide additional meaning,
such as mimicking an action, while sign language is an independent communication
system with its own grammar and vocabulary.
Types of Gestures

1.​ Emblems:
○​ Independent, conventional signals (e.g., thumbs up for approval).
○​ Socially dependent and culturally specific.

Expanded:​
Emblems are fixed gestures that convey meaning without speech, such as the "thumbs
up" gesture indicating positivity. However, their meanings vary across cultures, making
it essential to understand cultural differences.

2.​ Iconics:
○​ Gestures that visually represent speech content.
○​ Example: Tracing a square in the air while talking about a box.

Expanded:​
Iconic gestures visually reinforce what is spoken, creating a direct link between the
gesture and the concept being discussed, such as mimicking an umbrella while talking
about rain.

3.​ Deictics:
○​ Pointing gestures used for reference.
○​ Example: Pointing to a cake while asking if someone wants some.

Expanded:​
Deictic gestures help reference objects or spaces either present or remembered, making
communication more efficient and contextual.

4.​ Beats:
○​ Rhythmic hand movements emphasizing speech elements.
○​ Used for structuring narratives.

Expanded:​
Beat gestures do not carry specific meaning but help emphasize certain parts of speech
or indicate a transition in storytelling.
Types of Sign Languages

●​ Alternate Sign Languages:

○​ Used in specific settings where speech isn't practical (e.g., monasteries,
trading).
○​ Examples include religious orders and workplace codes.

Expanded:​
Alternate sign languages serve temporary communication needs in settings where
speech is restricted, like silent religious vows or workplace signals.

●​ Primary Sign Languages:

○​ First language of a community (e.g., ASL, BSL).
○​ Not mutually intelligible across different countries.

Expanded:​
Primary sign languages are fully developed languages with complex grammar and are
native to specific communities, differing significantly across regions.

Oralism vs. Sign Language Education

●​ Oralism:
○​ Promoted speech and lip-reading skills.
○​ Had low success rates and was widely implemented until the 1960s.

Expanded:​
Oralism was based on the belief that sign language hindered learning spoken language,
but it often failed to help deaf students acquire intelligible speech or lip-reading
abilities.

●​ Signed English:
○​ Uses signs in English word order for easier learning.
 ○​ Aimed to facilitate communication between deaf and hearing people.

Expanded:​
Signed English was developed to bridge communication gaps, making it easier for
hearing parents and teachers to interact with deaf individuals by aligning with English
grammar.

Structure of ASL

●​ Four Articulatory Parameters:

1.​ Shape: Configuration of the hand.
2.​ Orientation: Position of the hand relative to the body.
3.​ Location: Placement in relation to the body.
4.​ Movement: Direction and speed of the sign.

Expanded:​
Each ASL sign involves specific hand shapes, orientation, movement, and location,
contributing to its meaning. Misinterpretation of these elements can lead to
communication errors.

●​ Facial Expressions:
○​ Essential for meaning in ASL.
○​ Can indicate emotional tone or grammatical features.

Expanded:​
Facial expressions play a crucial role in ASL by conveying emotion, emphasis, or
grammatical markers, making them integral to sign communication.

Origins and Development of ASL

●​ Historical Background:
○​ Influenced by French Sign Language (LSF).
 ○​ Evolved in the U.S. through interactions between deaf communities.

Expanded:​
ASL originated from French Sign Language brought to the U.S. by educators, blending
with local signing practices to form a unique linguistic system.

●​ Nicaraguan Sign Language (NSL):

○​ Emerged in the 1980s among deaf students.
○​ Developed naturally despite initial educational barriers.

Expanded:​
NSL serves as an example of how a sign language can naturally evolve when deaf
children are brought together, highlighting the innate human ability to create language.

Sign Language as a Natural Language

●​ Linguistic Features:
○​ ASL includes syntax, morphology, and phonology.
○​ Comparable to spoken languages in structure.

Expanded:​
ASL is a fully developed language with rules governing word formation and sentence
structure, challenging misconceptions that it is merely a collection of gestures.
Exam:

1. Language Origin Theories

You need to choose one theory and provide arguments supporting it. Here are the major
theories discussed in the book:

●​ The Divine Source​

○​ The belief that language was given to humans by a divine being (e.g.,
biblical story of Adam naming animals).
○​ Argument against: No scientific evidence, failed experiments (e.g.,
Psammetichus' experiment).
●​ The Natural Sound Source ("Bow-Wow" Theory)​

○​ Early humans imitated natural sounds (e.g., animal sounds like cuckoo).
○​ Argument against: Many abstract words have no natural sound
connection.
●​ The Social Interaction Source ("Yo-He-Ho" Theory)​

○​ Language developed from social interactions during cooperative tasks

(e.g., lifting heavy objects).
○​ Argument against: Doesn't explain abstract language development.
●​ The Tool-Making Source (Recommended)​

○​ Language evolved alongside tool-making, as both require complex brain

function.
○​ Supported by evidence of similar neural patterns in tool use and speech
production.
 ●​ The Genetic Source (Innateness Hypothesis)​

○​ Humans have a biological predisposition to acquire language (e.g., FOXP2

gene linked to speech).
○​ Argument in favor: Universality of language development in children.

Example Answer:​
"The Tool-Making Source is the most convincing theory because tool-making and
language both require advanced cognitive functions, such as planning and
coordination, which are controlled by the same areas of the brain. Studies of early
humans suggest that tool-making might have stimulated the development of
structured communication."

2. Displacement

Definition:

●​ Displacement is the property of human language that allows us to talk about

things that are not present in the immediate time and space.

Example:

●​ Humans can discuss the past (What I did yesterday), the future (Next year, I’ll
travel), and even imaginary concepts (Unicorns are magical creatures).

Significance:

●​ This sets human language apart from animal communication, which typically
focuses on the here and now.

3. Informative Signals
Definition:

●​ Signals that unintentionally provide information about a person or thing.

Who Can Send Them?

●​ Humans and animals.

Examples:

●​ A person sneezing (shows they might have a cold).

●​ A dog wagging its tail (indicates excitement).

Difference from Communicative Signals:

●​ Communicative signals are intentional (e.g., saying “I am sick”), while

informative signals are unintentional (e.g., looking pale when sick).

5. Sentence Analysis

Analyze sentences based on three aspects:

1.​ Parts of Speech:​

○​ Noun (N), Verb (V), Adjective (Adj), Adverb (Adv), Pronoun (Pro),
Preposition (Prep), Conjunction (Conj), Article (Art).
2.​ Basic Sentence Analysis:​

○​ Identify the subject, verb, and object.

○​ Example:
■​ She saw that film last night.
■​ Subject: She
■​ Verb: saw
 ■​ Object: that film
■​ Adverbial phrase: last night
3.​ Roles of Constituents:​

○​ Agent (who performs the action), Theme (what is affected), Goal (where
action is directed).

6. Deictic Expressions

Definition:

●​ Words that rely on context to be understood (e.g., here, there, now, you).

Types:

1.​ Person deixis: Refers to people (e.g., I, you, he, she).

2.​ Place deixis: Refers to location (e.g., here, there).
3.​ Time deixis: Refers to time (e.g., now, yesterday).

Examples and Analysis:

●​ I wish you’d been there. (Person deixis: I, you; Place deixis: there)

Here’s the analysis of presuppositions in the given examples. A presupposition is an

implicit assumption that must be true for the statement to make sense or be meaningful.

a. My cat loves playing in the garden.

Presupposition:

●​ The speaker has a cat.

●​ The cat plays in the garden.
b. Boris Johnson was a Prime Minister of the UK.

Presupposition:

●​ Boris Johnson existed.

●​ Boris Johnson held the position of UK Prime Minister at some point.

c. Paris, the capital of France, has a lot of museums.

Presupposition:

●​ Paris exists.
●​ Paris is the capital of France.
●​ Paris has a lot of museums.

d. John drove home last night.

Presupposition:

●​ John exists.
●​ John has a home.
●​ John drove somewhere last night.

e. Nobody knows if Donald Trump will again be elected US president.

Presupposition:

●​ Donald Trump has been elected as US president in the past.

●​ It is uncertain whether Donald Trump will be elected US president in the future.
7. Anaphora and Cataphora

Definitions:

●​ Anaphora: Refers back to an earlier word (e.g., Laura went to the store. She
bought milk. She refers to Laura).
●​ Cataphora: Refers forward to something later in the sentence (e.g., When he
arrived, John was surprised – he refers to John).

Example Analysis:

●​ Laura went to see the new bookstore downtown. She had a lot of fun.
○​ Antecedent: Laura
○​ Anaphora: She

8. Presupposition

Definition:

●​ Assumptions implied by a statement that must be accepted as true.

Examples and Presuppositions:

●​ Boris Johnson was a Prime Minister of the UK. → (Presupposes Boris Johnson
held the position.)
●​ John drove home last night. → (Presupposes John has a home.)

9. Speech Acts (Direct/Indirect)

Direct Speech Acts:

●​ Commands, questions, or statements directly expressing intent.

○​ Example: "Give me that book!" → Direct request (Directive).

Indirect Speech Acts:

●​ Implying something instead of stating it directly.

○​ Example: "This soup needs more salt." → Indirect request (Expressive).

Searle’s Classification:

1.​ Declaratives: Change the situation (e.g., "You're fired.")

2.​ Representatives: State facts (e.g., "The Earth is round.")
3.​ Directives: Request actions (e.g., "Open the window.")
4.​ Commissives: Commit to future actions (e.g., "I'll call you.")
5.​ Expressives: Express feelings (e.g., "I love chocolate.")

Here’s the analysis of the speech acts based on whether they are direct or indirect,
along with their classification using Searle's taxonomy of speech acts:

a. Give me that book!

●​ Direct Speech Act: The speaker explicitly commands the listener to give the
book.
●​ Searle's Classification: Directive (an attempt to get the listener to do
something).

b. This soup needs more salt.

●​ Indirect Speech Act: While it’s phrased as a statement, it implicitly

suggests/request that the listener add more salt.
 ●​ Searle's Classification: Directive (implicitly asking for action, i.e., adding
salt).

c. When was the last time you did your homework?

●​ Indirect Speech Act: It’s phrased as a question, but it could function as a

critique or reminder about the listener’s homework.
●​ Searle's Classification: Directive (indirectly prompting the listener to reflect
on or possibly complete their homework).

d. I will go to the cinema tonight.

●​ Direct Speech Act: A straightforward declaration of intent to go to the cinema.

●​ Searle's Classification: Commissive (committing to a future action).

e. I really love chocolate.

●​ Direct Speech Act: A direct expression of the speaker's feelings about

chocolate.
●​ Searle's Classification: Expressive (expressing a psychological state or
emotion).

10. Politeness Strategies

Types:

●​ Positive politeness: Shows friendliness and camaraderie.

 ○​ Example: "Would you like another cup of coffee?"
●​ Negative politeness: Shows respect and avoids imposing.
○​ Example: "Would you mind taking the dog for a walk?"

Here’s the analysis of whether the speakers use positive or negative politeness in
the examples:

a. Move!

●​ Politeness Strategy: None (or impolite).

●​ This is a bald-on-record directive without any attempt at politeness. It doesn’t
involve positive or negative politeness and may come across as rude.

b. Would you like another cup of coffee?

●​ Politeness Strategy: Positive politeness.

●​ The speaker appeals to the listener’s preferences and offers something that
enhances the relationship by showing friendliness and interest.

c. Would you mind taking the dog out for a walk?

●​ Politeness Strategy: Negative politeness.

●​ The speaker uses an indirect and tentative phrasing (Would you mind...) to
minimize imposition and respect the listener’s autonomy.

d. Don’t tell me what to do!

●​ Politeness Strategy: None (or impolite).

 ●​ This is a confrontational and impolite utterance that does not reflect positive or
negative politeness.

e. I love you!

●​ Politeness Strategy: Positive politeness.

●​ The speaker expresses affection and emotional closeness, reinforcing solidarity
and a positive relationship.

11. Grice's Maxims (Flouting)

Maxims:

1.​ Quantity: Give the right amount of information.

2.​ Quality: Be truthful.
3.​ Relation: Be relevant.
4.​ Manner: Be clear.

Example Flouting:

●​ A: "Did you bring your homework?"​

B: "My dog ate it." → Flouting Quality, as it’s likely not true.