CHAPTER ONE

INTERNAL LAND FORMING PROCESSES

 Internal land forming processes are also referred to as endogenic/endogeneric
movements.
 Processes operating in the interior of the earth resulting in the formation of
natural physical features or landforms
 They are caused by tectonic forces which originate and operate in the interior of
the earth. The forces cause rocks of the earth’s crust to move
 . Examples of these processes are folding, faulting and Vulcanicity.
 Formation of land forms by internal land forming processes is determined by:

 Nature and age of earth materials

 Type of movement involved
 Intensity and scale of movement involved
Earth/rock movements

 Displacement of the earth’s crustal rocks.

 These are movements which occur within the rocks of the earth’s crust due to
tectonic forces. There are basically two types of earth movements

i. Horizontal/lateral/orogenic movements
ii. Vertical/epeirogenic movements

Horizontal Earth Movements

 Movements which act along a horizontal plane within crustal rocks.

 They are caused by tensional, compressional and shear forces.
 Horizontal earth movements has the following effects:

i. Strain and stretching of crustal rocks due to stretching caused by tensional forces
which cause formation of cracks or faults.
ii. Squeezing and shortening of crustal rocks by compressional forces rocks which
cause them which also cause formation of faults.
iii. Crustal rocks to shear by slipping past each other or by dividing into layers
which is caused by shear forces.
Vertical Earth Movements

 Movements which occur along the earth’s radius or towards the earth’s surface
or towards its centre.
 Vertical earth movements has the following effects:
i. Subsiding/sinking/downwarping or pulling of crustal rocks downwards.
ii. Uplifting/upwarping or pushing of crustal rocks upwards
iii. Tilting of crustal rocks or shearing in vertical direction due to greater uplift on
one side.

Causes of Earth Movements

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 a. Magma Movement within the Earth’s Crust
 When magma moves with force pushing crustal rocks horizontally or
vertically.
 When magma moves from reservoir and leaves empty spaces onto
which crustal rocks are pulled inwards.
b. Gravitational Force
 When the attractive force of the earth pulls crustal rocks into empty
spaces left after magma escaping from the reservoir.
c. Convectional Currents within Mantle

 When convectional currents in magma in mantle drug crustal rocks

by friction.
 Horizontal movement of currents cause horizontal movements while
vertical cause vertical movements.
d. Isostatic Adjustment
 Rising of continental masses to restore the upset state of balance
between sial and sima layers.
 Isostacy is the state of balance between sial and sima layers.
 It can be disturbed by erosion on continents and melting of
continental ice sheets.
 The reduced weight causes continental masses to rise.
Theories Explaining the Earths Movements
 A theory is reasoned ideas intended to explain facts or ideas.
 There are 2 theories which explain the earth’s movements namely the
Continental Drift Theory and the Plate tectonics theory.

Continental drift theory

 The theory was proposed by Alfred Wegner in his book, The origin of continents
in 1912.
 The theory suggested that initially the earth was one single landmass called
Pangaea surrounded by a great ocean called Panthalassa.
 Pangaea broke up to form two landmasses Laurasia and Gondwanaland
separated by an ocean called Tethys.
 Laurasia broke up into Laurentian shield that formed North America and
Fennoscandia that formed Europe and Asia which drifted northwards to their
present positions.
 Gondwanaland broke up into a series of continents, i.e. Africa, South America,
Australia, Eurasia, Antarctica and India.

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  Africa and India drifted northwards

Evidence to support the continental drift theory

i. The jig-saw-fit of the continental margins, i.e. the eastern coastlines of South
America continent can fit into western coastline of African continent though they
are separated by thousands of kilometers. This indicates that these continents
were once joined together but separated due continental movement.
ii. Geological structure, i.e. rocks of similar types, ages, formations and structure
occur in South- East Brazil and South Africa, an evidence of continental drift.
iii. The distribution of the ancient glacial deposits, i.e. they widely dispersed in
south Africa, Australia, south America, India and Antarctica. This indicates that
these landmasses were once one.
iv. Paleoclimates, i.e. the distribution of ancient climatic conditions as shown by
ancient glaciation in India, eastern and South America.
v. The mid-Atlantic ridge, i.e. there are continuous mountain ranges extending the
whole length of the Atlantic Ocean bed. This means that mountain building
processes is still taking place to fill the gap left when two continents moved
apart.
vi. Sea floor spreading, i.e. it has been noted that the newest rocks were in the
Centre of the ocean and were still being found in areas such as Iceland and the
oldest rocks were those nearest to the USA and Caribbean coast. This is an
evidence of continental drift.
vii. Paleomagnetic studies

Plate tectonic theory

 This is an advancement of the continental drift theory.
 The theory states that the lithosphere/crust is made of rigid blocks called
tectonic plates.
 Due to the convectional currents in the mantle, the outer shell of the earth has
been fractured into seven large and several smaller rigid blocks known as plates.
 The seven large plates include:
 The Eurasian plate.
 The Australian plate.
 The African plate.
 The Antarctic plate.
 The North American plate.
 The South American plate.
 The pacific plate.
 The smaller plates include:

 Indian
 Arabian

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  Caribbean
 Cocos
 Somali plates
 Juan de Fuca
 Nazca
 Philippine
 Scotia

 The plates are separated from one another by distinct boundaries.

 The convectional currents within the mantle cause tectonic plates to move. The
plates move in 3 ways as follows:
i. Move away from one another.
ii. Move towards one another.
iii. Move parallel past one another.
 There are 3 types of boundary associated with plate tectonic movements
a) Extension/constructive boundary, is a place where tectonic plates move
away from each other. As the plates separate, magma fills up the space.
when these plates pull apart several land forms develop on the sea floor. E.g.
rift valleys, submarine volcanoes, mid oceanic ridges.
b) Compressional/destructive boundary is the place where the tectonic
plates collide against each other.
i. Collision of an oceanic plate and a continental plate leads to
subduction of the oceanic plate and sediments in the sea floor are
compressed to form Fold Mountains on the land ward side and a
trench on the ocean floor.

ii. Collision of two continental plates makes the crustal rocks to fold into
mountains.

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 iii. Collision of two oceanic plates leads to subduction and formation of
trenches, e.g. java trench, Mariana trench and continued deposition of
sediments in the trench which are eventually compressed to form
Fold Mountains

c) Transform fault, two tectonic plates move past one another a long a
Transform fault. This is referred to as a conservative boundary e.g. san
Andrean fault.

Assignment: draw the map showing tectonic plates, KLB page 5

FOLDING
Definition:

 Folding is process of crustal distortion that causes rocks to bend upwards and
downwards. It is the bending and crumbling of rocks of the earth’s crust.
 Folding occurs in young sedimentary rocks subjected to compressional forces.
 The uplifted parts are called anticline/upfolds; the sunken parts are called
syncline/downfolds.
Parts of a fold

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  The top most part of a fold is called a crest.
 The bottom most part of a fold is called a trough.
 The axis is the central line in a fold.
 The limb of a fold is the layer of rocks on either side of the axis.

Types of folds

The amount of folding depends on:

a. The strength of compressional forces.

b. The elasticity of the rocks affected.
1. Simple symmetrical folds
 It is formed by compressional forces of equal magnitude.
 The rocks bend evenly.
 The folds have a line of symmetry about the axis of each fold.
 The limbs dip uniformly from the axis.

2. Asymmetrical folds
 They are also referred to as monoclonal folds.
 They result from unequal compressional forces acting on the crustal rocks.
 One of the forces is slightly stronger than the other.
 The folds have no symmetry about the axis.
 One limb is steeper than the other.

3. Overfolds
 These are asymmetrical folds that have been turned over.
 They are caused by very strong forces pushing against a resistant force.
 One limb is overturned by intense force and pushed over the limb of the next fold.

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 4. Isoclinal folds
 These are a series of close parallel overfolds.
 The folds dip in the same direction at the same angle.
 Vertical Isoclinal folds are formed by compressional forces of equal magnitude while
inclined Isoclinal folds are formed by forces of unequal magnitude.

5. Recumbent folds
 These are overfolds which have been completely pushed over one side.
 The lie in a horizontal manner.
 The axis of each fold is almost horizontal.
 Formed by two compressional forces one of which is very strong.

6. Over thrust/nappe folds

 Intense pushing may lead to fracturing along the axis.
 The surface of the fracture is the thrust plane.
 The upper limb is pushed over the lower limb along the thrust plane.
 This leads to horizontal displacement along the thrust plane.

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 7. Anticlinorium-synclinorium complex
 Initially the land may be subjected to minor folding resulting in the formation of
minor folds.
 The same land is subsequently subjected to greater compressional forces.
 The land folds up into bigger folds.
 Each of the new upfolds is called an anticlinorium while the downfolds is called a
synclinorium.
 Each has superimposed minor upfolds and downfolds.

Features resulting from folding

i. Fold mountains, e.g. Himalaya mountains(Asia), alps mountains(Europe), rocky

mountains(north America),Andes mountains(south America)and atlas
mountains(Africa).
ii. Escarpments.
iii. Depressions.
iv. Ridges and valleys
v. Rolling plains
vi. Intermontane plateaus, e.g. Bolivian, Tibetan.
vii. Intermontane basins, e.g. Nevada, Utah.
1. Fold mountains

Theories explaining the formation of fold mountains

a. Contraction theory
 The surface rocks cooled and contracted faster than the interior rocks.
 As the interior rocks cooled, the surface wrinkled in order to fit on the contracting
interior rocks leading to the formation of Fold Mountains.

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 b. Convection theory
 Convection currents within the molten rocks move in the mantle move in circular
motions towards the crust.
 These currents exert a frictional drag with the sima rock causing crustal rocks to
move horizontally thus leading in the formation of fold mountains.
c. Continental drift theory
 The continents drifted apart during the break up of Gondwanaland.
 India drifted towards a rather static India.
 The crust and sendiments between the continents were squeezed by Indian
subcontinent resulting into the formation of Himalaya Mountains.
d. Plate tectonic theory
 When an oceanic plate collides with a continental plate, the lighter continental plate
is compressed to form fold mountains e.g. Atlas mountains, Alps mountains

Stages of fold mountains formation

i. A large depression called a geosyncline is formed.

ii. The geosyncline fills up with sediments over a long period of after being covered
with water.
iii. The sentiments are later subjected to forces of compression which makes the
sediments to wrinkle/fold forming mountains.
iv. The compressional forces may be triggered by

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Fold mountain formation period (orogenies)

 Orogenesis refers to the process of fold mountain formation.

 Orogeny refers to a period/ time when folding occurred and led to formation of
Fold Mountains.
 Fold Mountains were formed at different periods/orogenies. Geogists recognize four
orogenies.
i. Charnian Orogeny
 It occurred in the late pre-cambrian period about 600 million years ago.
 The mountains no longer exist since erosion and weathering acted on them.
 The remnants are:-
 African block.
 Lauretian shield.
 Deccan plateau.
 Siberian platforms.
ii. Caledonian Orogeny
 It occurred about 440 million years ago during the late Silurian period.
 The mountains have been reduced to hills and plateaus by erosion and weathering.
 They include:
 Akwapim hills (Ghana).
 Scottish highlands.
 Highlands of western Scandinavia.
iii. Hercynian/Armorican Orogeny
 It occurred during the Upper Carboniferous period about 350 million years ago.
 The mountains formed during this period include:
 Cape ranges(RSA)
 Appalachian mountains (USA)
 Ural mountains(Europe)
iv. Alpine Orogeny
 It occurred during the tertray period about 70 million years ago.

 The mountains formed include:

 Atlas mountains(Africa)
 Andes mountains(south America)
 Himalaya mountains(Asia)
 Rocky mountains(north America

2. Escarpments

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  A relatively continuous line of steep slopes facing the same direction.
 Formed by compressional force causes folding resulting in one steep limp of the
anticline which forms the escarpment.

3. Depressions

 Formed when not very strong forces cause folding causing some parts of the earth’s
surface to form synclines forming basins.

4. Ridges and Valleys

 When folding occurs anticlines form uplands/ridges/hills while synclines form

valleys.

5. Rolling Plains

 Plains which appear to rise and roll.

 Formed when plains are acted upon by weak compressional forces resulting into
gently sloping anticlines and very wide synclines.

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 6. Inter-montane Plateaus

 A high fairly level land between mountains.

 Formed when rocks at the edges of a region become intensely folded and the middle
parts resist folding resulting into mountains which enclose a high fairly level land.

7. Inter-montane basins

 Formed when some parts of inter-montane plateau sink more to form

basins.
Significance of folding

Positive effects

i. Formation of relief rainfall/heavy rains on the windward side which encourages

agriculture.
ii. Growth of luxuriant forests on the windward slopes hence availability of timber for
construction etc.
iii. Heavy rains on the windward side give rise to rivers which are useful for irrigation,
domestic and industrial use.
iv. Minerals deposited within the syncline may be easier to extract/mine.
v. Mountainous landscape provides unique scenery for tourist attraction, e.g. Alps,
Himalayas.
vi. Mountains can act as protective barriers in times of war, e.g. Tora Bora
mountains(Afghanistan)
vii. Folding leads to metamorphism of rocks hence formation of valuable minerals, e.g.
gold, silver

Negative effects

i. Folding leads to the burying of valuable minerals.

ii. Fold Mountains act as barrier to transport and communication.
iii. Fold mountains act as climatic barrier,; no reception of rain on the leeward side
leading to arid conditions/deserts e.g. Gobi desert.
iv. Descending cold winds from the mountains may cause harm to crops due to the
formation of frost.

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Influence of Fold Mountains on climate

i. Formation of relief rainfall on the windward side/formation of desert

conditions/aridity on the leeward side.
ii. Temperature inversions occur on the mountain slopes especially at night.
iii. Formation of local winds, i.e. katabatic/mountain breeze, anabatic/ valley breeze.
iv. Altitudinal influence on atmosphere pressure, high atmospheric pressure at foot of
the mountains lower atmospheric pressure at the top of mountain.

FAULTING
 It is a process through which brittle crustal rocks fracture/break due to tectonic
forces.
 Faults are fractures or cracks that develop in the crust.
 Faulting is caused by forces of tension, compression and shear which may lead to
vertical and horizontal movement of the rocks.
 Faulting leads to displacement of parts of the land.

Parts of a Fault

i. Upthrow-part of the land displaced upwards.

ii. Down-throw-part of the land displaced downwards.
iii. Throw-vertical displacement.
iv. Heave-horizontal displacement
v. Hade-inclination of fault to vertical plane
vi. Fault line-fault path
vii. Fault plane-separation of land created by the fault

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 Types of faults
The type of fault depends on the movement and direction of rocks along the fault plane.

a. Normal fault
 It forms due to tensional force.
 A block of land slides downwards in relation to the other
 Rocks are subjected to tensional forces

 A normal fault develops

 One block slides downwards.

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 b. Reverse fault
 It is caused by compressional forces.
 Compressional forces push a block of land on one side of the fault upwards in
relation to another.
 Rocks are subjected to compressional forces.

 A reverse fault develops.

 One block is pushed over the other.

c. Shear/tear fault
 It is also referred to as slip/wrench fault.
 It is formed by shear forces in which adjacent blocks of land slide past one
 It results from two opposing forces operating parallel to each other.
 It leads to horizontal displacement without alteration in its vertical position.

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 d. Thrust fault
 Strong compressional forces in the earth’s crust leads to the formation of folds.
 Intense compressional forces continue to push leading to the formation of a crack
along the axial line.
 The upper limb is pushed over the lower limb along a fault.

e. Anticlinal fault
 Compressional forces cause the formation of massive anticlines.
 Further tension at the top of the anticline leads to faulting at the crest of the
anticline.
 Such faults are considered fissures if no displacement of the land occur.

FEATURES RESULTING FROM FAULTING

 A variety of landforms develop as a result of faulting depending on the strength of

the forces and the nature of the rocks involved.
a. Fault scarps
 They are also referred to as escarpment.
 This is the exposed part of a fault plane.
 It results when vertical displacement occurs along a fault.
 Examples include:
i. Nyandarua escarpment.
ii. Nandi escarpment.
iii. Mau escarpment.
iv. Nguruman, escarpment.

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 b. Fault steps
 A series of fairly parallel faults develop.
 The land between the faults is displaced to different levels.
 A landscape with a series of fault scarps is formed.
 Example of fault steps Keiyo escarpment and at Kijabe and Tambach
escarpment(Elgeyo-Marakwet)

c. Fault blocks
 They are referred to as horsts/block mts.
 These are blocks of land that are raised above the surrounding land.
 When land is subjected to compressional forces two reverse faults result.
 The land in the middle of the two reverse faults is lifted up/ and the side blocks
subside along the fault planes.

 Examples
i. Ruwenzori mts in Uganda.
ii. Usambara and Pare mts in Tanzania.

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 d. Tilt blocks
 Rocks of the earth crust may be subjected to compressional/tensional forces.
 Part of the block is raised more than the other due to uneven forces.
 It results in a landscape with tilted ridges.

e. Rift valleys
 A rift valley is a long trough/depression bounded by more/less parallel faults.
 The sides may be clean-cut/stepped.
 Example:
i. Great Rift Valley.
ii. Benue Rift valley.
iii. Rhine Rift valley.

Theories explaining the formation of rift valleys

Rift valleys can be formed in 3 ways as follows:

i. By tensional forces.
ii. By compressional forces.
iii. By Anticlinal arching.

Formation by tensional forces/Theory

 Layers of Rocks are subjected to tensional forces.

 Faults. Lines of weakness occur leading to the development of adjacent normal

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  Further tension pulls the side blocks of land to move apart while the middle block subside
/ sink gradually.

 The subsided / down warped middle block forms the floor of the rift valley.

Formation by compression forces/Theory

 Layers of rocks are subjected to compressional forces.

 Lines of weakness occur leading to the development of adjacent reverse faults.

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  The side blocks are pushed over the middle block leaving it to form the floor of the
rift valley.

 Overhanging blocks are worn out by denudation to form escarpments.

Formation by Anticlinal arching

 A rift valley may form as a result of regional upwarping.

 This is caused by forces pushing sedimentary rock strata upwards.
 The rocks bend into a big anticline.
 A gaping crack develops at the crest of the arch due to tension at the top forming the
valley.

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 The Great Rift Valley
 The world’s biggest rift valley.
 It starts in Syria and ends in Mozambique.
 It’s divided into 4 parts.
1. Ethiopian Rift system-starts from Afar in Ethiopia to the Kenyan border around L.
Stephanie.
2. Gregory Rift system-Starts from the northern border of Kenya with Ethiopia to
Tanzania. It has small N.E-S.W branches:
 Kano Rift valley in Kenya
 L. Eyasi Rift Valley in Tanzania
3. Western Rift valley-Starts at Sudan border to south of L. Rukwa. Features which are
here are Ruwenzori Mountain and Lakes Albert, Edward, Kivu, Tanganyika and
Rukwa.
4. Malawi Rift valley-a continuation of Gregory Rift system to Zambezi River in
Mozambique. It has a small N.E-S.W branch called Luangwa valley.

The Gregory rift valley system

 Named after a geologist called Gregory J.W who carried out extensive studies in this
area.
 It’s where the Rift Valley features are more pronounced.

Features associated with it

 Fault blocks-Aberdare range, Mau, Nandi and Cherangani hills.
 Step faults-Kijabe and Tambach
 Tilt blocks-Aberdare range uplifted and tilted eastwards and Mau escarpment
uplifted and tilted westwards.
 Lava flows and volcanic cones e.g. Menengai and Ngorongoro crater.
 Rift Valley lakes formed when unequal sinking created faults which were later filled
with water. The lakes are deep and elongated. Examples are Lakes Naivasha,
Nakuru, Elementaita, Baringo, Bogoria, Ol Bolossat and Turkana. Most of the lakes
are salty with exception of L. Naivasha which has fresh water.
Why Most Rift Valley Lakes Are Salty
i. Lack of outlets to drain away salts contained in them.
ii. Lack of enough water to dilute salinity due to little rainfall and lack of rivers flowing
in them.
iii. High rates of evaporation causing increased accumulation of salts.
iv. Lake’s water being in contact with rocks with mineral salts which it directly
dissolves.
v. Washing into the lake of mineral rich soils by surface runoff.

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 Why L. Naivasha Has Fresh Water
i. It has underground drainage to the Indian Ocean.
ii. There is inflow of fresh water from rivers and rain.
iii. The latest volcanic eruption covered the bed rock with lava.
Major Faulted Areas of the World
i. The Great Rift Valley from Syria to Mozambique.
ii. Northern England and the Great Glen Fault of Scotland.
iii. The Central Massif of Europe.
iv. The middle Rhine Rift Valley region.

Significance of faulting
To Human Activities

i. Rift valley lakes are important for fishing, irrigation and domestic use.
ii. The Rift Valley and associated features are a tourist attraction which earns foreign
exchange.
iii. Hot springs and geysers formed during faulting can be harnessed for geothermal
power.
iv. Block Mountains are water catchment areas and sources of rivers due to the heavy
rainfall they receive on the windward side.
v. Faulting results in the exposure of minerals such as diatomite in Gilgil and Fluorspar in
Kerio Valley.
vi. Fault scarps may expose underground water resulting in the formation of scarp springs.
vii. Unequal subsidence caused by faulting may cause formation of depressions which may
form lakes which useful for fishing, transport and mining e.g. L. Naivasha.

Negative

i. Faulting disrupts transport and communication by disjointing land.

ii. Faulting may lead to loss of life and property by causing land to sink.
iii. Faulting may cause a river to disappear or change its course and flow along the fault
line.
iv. Steep scarp slopes formed by faulting are prone to soil erosion.
v. Faulting has given rise to semi-desert conditions in some areas when Block
Mountains on the path of rain winds cause leeward sides to receive little rainfall.

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 VULCANICITY
 Vulcanicity is the process by which solid, liquid and gaseous materials are forced
out of the interior of the earth into the earth’s crust or out onto the surface of the
earth.
 Volcanicity is the process by which hot molten rock materials (magma) comes from
the interior of the earth onto the surface of the earth.

Magma and lava

 Magma refers to the molten rock materials while below the earth’s surface while
lava is the molten rock materials on the surface of the surface.

Types of magma/lava

i. Acid magma/lava. : -Has high silica content more than 65%with low oxides.
ii. Intermediate magma/lava. :- silica content is 55%, oxide is 45%
iii. Basic magma/lava.: - Has high oxide content with low silica content.
iv. Ultra basic magma/lava. : -Has high oxide content more than 65%.

Acid lava Basic lava

 High silica content.  Low silica content.
 Low oxide content.  High oxide content.
 Thick/viscous  Fluid/runny.
 Flows over a short distance, cools  Flows over a long distance. Cools
and solidifies quickly. and solidifies slowly.
 Comes out in small amounts,  Comes out in large amounts.
 Forms steep, high domed features.  Forms low, gentle relief features.
Types of vulcanicity

i. Intrusive vulcanicity.
ii. Extrusive vulcanicity.

INTRUSIVE VULCANICITY

 It is a volcanic process whereby the molten rock materials cool and solidify below
the earth’s surface resulting in the formation of intrusive volcanic features.

Features resulting from intrusive vulcanicity

i. Sills
ii. Dykes
iii. Laccoliths
iv. Batholiths
v. Lapoliths
vi. Phacoliths

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Sills

 A sill is an igneous intrusion which lies along a bending plane of rock strata.
 It forms when viscous /fluid magma intrudes into the crustal rock along the
bedding plane of the rock strata.
 The magma cools and solidifies to form a horizontal/slightly dipping intrusive mass
of igneous rock called a sill.
 If the sill is made of resistant rock it forms a ridge like escarpment when exposed by
erosion.
 Examples of sills: Top of “three sisters” in the RSA and Fouta Djalon highland of
Guinea.

Dykes

 A dyke is a mass of intrusive igneous rocks that cut across the bedding plane of
the crustal rocks.
 Viscous magma intrudes into vertical/slanting cracks within the crustal rocks.
 The magma cools and solidifies to form a mass of intrusive igneous rock cutting
across the bedding plane of the rocks called a dyke.
 A resistant dyke forms e ridge while a less resistant dyke forms a trench when
exposed by erosion processes

Laccolith

 It is also known as a laccolite.

 It is a mushroom/dome shaped igneous intrusion lying between bending planes of a
country rock.
 It forms when viscous magma intrudes in between the bedding plane of the rock
strata.
 The viscous magma cools and solidifies pushing the overlying rock strata upwards
into a dome shape.

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  Examples of laccoliths:
 In Tsavo near voi.
 Fonjay massif in Madagascar.
 El Koub Hill in Algeria.
 Henry Mountains in Utah U.S.A.

Batholiths

 It is the largest form of igneous intrusion.

 It is a large plutonic mass of magma which intrudes into the country rock.
 It forms when very hot magma heats up the country rock leading to metamorphism
and the formation of a metamorphic aureole
 Batholiths are associated with valuable minerals.
 Batholiths are made of granitic materials.
 When exposed by erosion, they form granitic tors.
 Examples :
 Granitic tors in Vihiga County.
 Chaila Massif in Gabon.
 Ikhonga-Murwe in Kakamega
 Largest is in British Columbia.

Lopoliths

 It is a large saucer-shaped mass of igneous intrusion.

 It forms when magma forces its way into the crustal rocks through cracks.
 It spreads out into the bedding plane of the surrounding rock strata.
 The magma cools and solidifies to form a basin-shaped intrusive mass of rock called
a lopolith. e.g. Bushveld complex in S. Africa and Duluth Gabbro mass in U.S.A.

Phacoliths

 It is also referred to as phacolite.

 It is a strip of lens shaped igneous intrusion.
 It forms in the crest of an anticline/in the trough of a syncline.
 The miners refer to it as shadow reef. e.g. Corndon Hill in England

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 EXTRUSIVE VULCANICITY
 It is a volcanic process whereby the molten rock materials, solid rock particles and
gaseous rock materials are forced out onto the surface of the earth.

Features resulting from extrusive vulcanicity

i. Acid lava domes.
ii. Plug dome.
iii. Composite volcano.
iv. Ash and cinder cones.
v. Volcanic plug.
vi. Basic lava domes.
vii. Lava plateau and lava plains.
viii. Volcanic depressions: craters and caldera.
ix. Hot springs and pools.
x. Geysers.
xi. Fumaroles, solfatara moffettes.

Acid lava dome/cone

 It is a dome shaped volcanic hill.
 It is made of acidic, intermediate lava.
 Magma comes out through a vent opening (hole in the ground) in the crustal rocks.
 The eruption is not violent hence there are no pyroclasts (solid materials of ash,
dust/rock particles)
 The viscous lava accumulates around the vent cooling and solidifying quickly;
subsequent eruptions pile layers of acid lava.
 It forms a steep-side dome with on depression/crater at the top
 Examples:
 Itasy massif (Madagascar).

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ZACHARY NYANGARESI
Plug dome
 It is a column of very viscous lava which sticks above the ground like a pillar.
 It forms when a mass of very viscous acid magma is forced out of the ground in the
shape of a rigid cylindrical column and cools and hardens rapidly as it rises
vertically
 The sides of the plug dome are steep/vertical.
 Subsequent eruption keeps pushing the plug up.
 Debris accumulates at the base due to weathering.
 Examples:
 Hyrax and Fischer’s tower at Hells gate (Naivasha).
 Devils tower (USA)
 Mont Pelee in West Indies,

Composite volcano
 It is also referred to as complex volcano/strato volcano.
 It is a volcanic hill/mountain made of alternating layers of pyroclasts (ash and
cinder) and acid/intermediate lava.
 The 1steruption emits solid materials of ash/ cinder/broken rock materials.
 The subsequent eruption emits a mass of acidic/intermediate lava which cools and
solidifies on the layer of pyroclasts.
 Successive and alternate eruptions of pyroclastic materials and lava occur piling up
to form a volcanic hill/mountain.
 Secondary vents leads to the formation of parasitic cones on the side of the main
volcano.
 Example of composite volcano:
 Mt. Kenya.
 Mt. Longonot.
 Mt. Kilimanjaro.
 Mt. Cameroon.
 Mt. Elgon.

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ZACHARY NYANGARESI
Characteristics of a composite volcano
 It has a vertical/main vent.
 It is made up of alternating layers of pyroclasts and lava.
 It is conical in shape.
 It has steep sides.
 It has side/secondary vents.
 It has parasitic cone/conelets on its sides.
 It may have a crater/ plug/secondary cone at its peak.

Ash & cinder cone

 It is a volcanic hill built from volcanic ash and cinders (pyroclasts).
 Violent eruptions break up rocks into dust particles throwing them up to great
heights.
 The materials sink into the vent and accumulate around the vent to form a hill with
smooth, concave slopes.
 Asymmetrical cones form when the wind blows materials to one side.
 Examples:
 Mt. Teleki (near lake. Turkana).
 Mt. Likaiyu (near lake. Turkana)
 Chyulu Hills (near lake. Turkana)

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ZACHARY NYANGARESI
Volcanic plug
 It is also referred to as volcanic neck/spine.
 It is column of magma that cooled and solidified inside the vent of a volcano.
 The cone is eroded exposing the solidified column in the vent.
 The plug is more resistant to erosion having cooled slowly.
 The plug protrudes as a jagged stumpy rock at the peak of the volcano.
 Examples of volcanic plugs:
 Peaks of Mt. Kenya
 Tororo rock (Uganda).

Basic lava dome

 It is known as shield volcano. A
 It is a large low-lying volcanic hill which has a broad base and gentle slopes.
 Magma flows out through a vent/a series of vents in a less explosive eruption.
 Successive eruption pile up layers of basic lava which cools and solidifies to form a
low-lying volcanic hill with gentle slopes called a basic lava dome/shield volcano.
 Example of basic lava domes:
 Mt. Marsabit ( Kenya)
 Shira peak ( on mt. Kilimanjaro in Tanzania)
 Mauna loa (Hawaii)

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ZACHARY NYANGARESI
Lava plateaus/lava plains
 Lava plateau is an extensive fairly level upland area elevated to above 500m in
altitude.
 A lava plain is like a plateau but the altitude is less than 500m above sea level
 A lava plateau forms due to a fissure eruption which is quiet/non-explosive.
 Basic/ultra basic lava flows over a long distance before solidifying.
 The lava fills up depressions and valleys covering low hills hence leveling the
landscape.
 Subsequent eruptions pile up layers of lava to form a plateau.
 Examples of lava plateaus:
 Yatta plateau (Kenya)
 Laikipia plateau (Kenya)
 Uasin Gishu plateau (Kenya)
 Ethiopian plateau (Ethiopia)
 Deccan plateau (India)
 Example of lava plains:
 Kapiti plains,
 Mwea plains

Volcanic depressions
a. Craters
 A crater is funnel-shaped volcanic depression.
 During a volcanic eruption lava is emitted.
 The lava accumulates around the vent to form a volcano.
 The lava cools at the top of the volcano and contracts withdrawing into the vent to
form a depression on top of the volcano. L. Paradise on Mt. Marsabit, L. Magadi on
Ngorongoro Crater and L. Chala on Kenyan Tanzanian border.

 A big explosion due to high pressure below blows a big hole in the ground.
 This is referred to as an explosion crater/ring crater.
 Water may accumulate in the crater forming a lake referred to as maar, e.g. lake.
Katwe, Nyungu in Uganda

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ZACHARY NYANGARESI
 b. Caldera
 It is also referred to as a basal wreck.
 It is a very large basin-shaped depression surrounded by steep sides/cliffs.
 Ways in which calderas may form:
i. By violent explosion.
ii. By cauldron/block subsidence.
iii. By outward collapsing.

Caldera formation by violent explosion

 Volcanic eruption leads to the formation of a volcano.
 Magma solidifies in the vent of the volcano sealing the vent.
 The gases and steam beneath the volcano accumulate and build up pressure.
 When pressure gets too much, the volcano explodes violently blowing off the upper
part.
 A new larger depression known as a caldera forms on top of the volcano.
 Examples:
 Mt. Suswa and Longonot.
 Nyarigongo (Congo)
 Sabiro Caldera in Uganda.

By cauldron/block subsidence
 After the formation of a volcano, the magma reservoir below the crust is left partly
empty.
 A cavity/cauldron/void id created.
 The rock above exerts pressure and the middle portion of the volcano
subsides/sinks into the cauldron beneath.
 A large depression is left on top of the volcano.
 The depression is known as a collapse caldera.

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ZACHARY NYANGARESI
  Examples:
 Menengai (Kenya).
 Krakato (Indonesia)
 Ngorogoro (Tanzania)

Caldera formation by outward collapsing

 In some cases a volcano built of ash and other pyroclasts grow quite high.
 The mass of the volcano becomes unstable.
 The materials on top exert a lot of pressure on the materials below.
 The materials at the base begin to spread outwards as the top of the volcano
collapses inwards.
 This creates a large depression called a caldera.
 Examples: Napak caldera in N. eastern Uganda.
 Calderas can be filled with water to form lakes. Example:
 Lake Magadi in the Ngorogoro crater (TZ)
 Lake Shala in Ethiopia
 Lake Asosan in Japan.
 Crater in USA

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ZACHARY NYANGARESI
Other volcanic features
i. Fumaroles: is a vent/hole/opening in the ground that emits gases. E.g.at Eburru,
Olkaria.
ii. Solfatara: is an opening in the ground that emits gases of sulphurous compounds.
iii. Moffete: Is an opening in the ground emitting carbon (iv) oxide.e.g. Kereita( near
uplands)

Hot springs
 It is also known as thermal springs.
 It is a place where hot water is emitted from the ground quietly.
 Rain water/surface water enters crustal rocks through cracks/holes/pores.
 Water percolates through the rocks to the region with hot rocks that are in contact
with magma.
 The ground water that is hot and under pressure flows out quietly in form of hot
springs. E.g. at the shores of Lakes Magadi and Bogoria.

Geysers and steam jets

 A geyser is an opening in the ground which shoots out boiling hot water
accompanied by steam.
 Rain water percolates through the rocks to a region of hot rocks
 It is heated up by the hot rocks/magma.
 Some of the water turns into steam.
 Some of the water collects in chamber/sumps within the hot rocks.
 Continued pressure causes the water to become super-heated.
 The water expands and rises to the surface through holes and cracks.
 Sudden reduction in pressure causes the water to boil and shoot out of the ground
through a constricted opening as a geyser.e.g. at Olkaria and western shores of L.
Bogoria.
 A steam jet is hole that emits hot steam only.

Differences hot springs and geysers

Hot spring Geyser

-Water comes out quietly. -Water and steam come out

violently.

-water is accompanied by steam.

-only water comes out.
-water is very hot.
-water may just be warm.

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ZACHARY NYANGARESI
Categories of volcanoes
i. Active volcanoes
 They are known to have erupted in the recent times.
 Examples :
 Nyamlagira (2002)
 Oldonyo Lengai (2010)
ii. Dormant volcanoes
 They have not erupted in the recent times but shows signs of life, i.e.
fumaroles and hot springs.
 Examples :
 Mt. Kilimanjaro.
 Mt. Longonot.
 Mt. Suswa.
 Menengai.
iii. Extinct volcanoes
 They do not show any signs of possible future eruption.
 Original structure reduced by denudation.
 Example:
 Mt. Kenya.
 Mt. Elgon.

Distribution of volcanoes and volcanic features

 Regions of faulting e.g. the Great Rift Valley of E. Africa.
 Mid-Atlantic ocean ridge.
 The western coast of America.
 Zones of recent mountain building e.g. fold mountains of S.E Asia.

Significance of volcanicity
Positive influence
i. Volcanic rocks especially basalt form fertile soils after undergoing weathering
hence favouring agricultural practices, e.g. volcanic soils in the Kenya highlands.
ii. Volcanicity may result in the formation of valuable minerals through
contact/thermal metamorphism, e.g. diamonds(TZ), gold(Kakamega)
iii. Geysers and steam jets are sources of geothermal electricity, e.g. at Olkaria near
Naivasha.
iv. Hot water from hot springs is used for warming/heating during winter.e.g. in
Iceland and New Zealand.
v. Volcanic features such as craters, geysers, etc. are tourist attractions earning the
country foreign exchange.

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ZACHARY NYANGARESI
 vi. Volcanic mts leads to the formation of orographic rainfall hence encouraging
agriculture and formation of rivers on the windward side, e.g. slopes of mt.
Elgon.
vii. Volcanic rocks such as phonolite, trachyte, granite and gabbro are useful in
building and construction of industries.
viii. Fishing is carried out in some crater lakes e.g. lake Katwe.
ix. Hot springs and pools are regarded as spas having ability to treat some ailments,
e.g. Rheumatism.

Negative influence
i. Volcanic eruptions can result into the loss of life from the flowing hot lava, hot
ashes, and poisonous gases.
ii. Volcanic eruptions can destroy property.
iii. Some of the recent volcanic materials result in infertile soils.
iv. Volcanic features such as plateaus and mts are a barrier to transport and
communication, making construction difficult and expensive.
v. The rugged landscape discourages settlement and agriculture, e.g. the slopes of
mt. Longonot.
vi. Volcanic mts act as a climatic barrier, creating a rain shadow effect on the
leeward side causing aridity, e.g. the NaroMoru- Nanyuki region (mt. Kenya) and
Uganda side of mt. Elgon.

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ZACHARY NYANGARESI
 EARTHQUAKES
Definition of terms
 An earthquake is a sudden and rapid movement/tremor of the rocks of the earth’s
crust.
 Seismology is the study of earthquakes.
 Seismic focus is point inside the earth’s which the origin of earthquakes shocks.
 Epicentre is a point on the earth’s surface that is vertically above the seismic focus.
 Seismic zones are areas prone to earthquakes
 A seismic zones are areas which are prone to earthquakes.

Types of earthquakes
Earthquakes are classified according to the depth of the seismic focus.

a. Shallow focus earthquakes +0 - 70km deep.

b. Intermediate focus earthquakes +70 – 300mk deep
c. Deep focus earthquakes +300 – 700km deep ( more disastrous because of higher
magnitude)

CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES
Natural causes
a. Movement of tectonic plates
 The tectonic plates are in motion on the fluid mantle.
 Stress is build up at the edges/boundaries causing the rocks to shake.
b. Vulcanicity
 The violent movement of magma within the earth’s crust causes tremors in the
rocks.
 This is due to the crustal rocks being displaced suddenly.
c. Gravitative pressure
 The voids left underground after volcanic eruptions precipitate earthquakes.

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ZACHARY NYANGARESI
  The rocks lying over the chamber are under great pressure from the force of gravity.
The rocks are pulled inwards and subside/sink setting off vibrations.
d. Energy release in the mantle
 Natural radioactivity in the interior of the earth/mantle.
 This result in excessive energy release which is explosive that sends shock waves
through the rocks causing them to shake.
e. Isostatic adjustment
 When the continental masses rise to restore the upset state of balance between sial
and sima layers.
 Areas having addition of weight (sediments) move downwards while areas under
severe erosion/weight being removed are lifted up. This trigger off earthquakes.

Human causes
a. Underground nuclear tests: Exploding nuclear bombs underground causes shock
waves which spread outwards and are felt in the neighbourhood.
b. Movement of trains: When a train rolls on its rails it causes the ground to vibrate.
c. Use of explosives during quarrying/mining: Explosion of explosives used in
mining and quarrying causes vibrations to be felt in the neighbourhood.
d. Construction of large reservoirs: When large reservoirs are constructed, the
heavy weight of water reactivates dormant faults causing tremors.

Types of earthquakes waves

 They are also known as seismic waves.
 There are 3 types of seismic waves.
a. Primary waves
 They are the fastest and the vibrations are recorded 1st on the seismograph.
 The rock particles move in push and pull manner in the direction that the wave is
travelling.
 They can pass through gases, liquids and solids.

b. Secondary waves
 They are recorded on the seismography after the primary waves.
 They are also known as shake/shear waves.
 They cause rocks to vibrate at right angles to the direction of propagation/wave
movement.
 They move like loops in a rope.

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ZACHARY NYANGARESI
  They only pass through solids.

c. Surface Longitudinal waves

 These are surface/horizontal movement waves.
 They cause most of the damage that results from earthquakes since they cause the
surface rocks to shake.
 There are two types of surface longitudinal waves.
i. Rayleigh waves
 Predicted by Lord Rayleigh 3 in 1887.
 They cause the surface rocks particles to move in elliptical orbits.

ii. Love waves

 First recognized by an oxford mathematician AEH. Love.
 They cause the surface rock particles to move in a horizontal and right angle
manner to the direction of the waves.

Measurement of earthquakes
 Seismograph is a pendulum based instrument for recording seismic waves.
 Seismometer is a delicate instrument attached to a seismograph intended to
receive seismic impulses.
 Seismogram is a graph-like record on which impulses are recorded. Reading and
interpretation of seismic waves are made from seismogram.
 The strength of an earthquake is measured by:
i. Its intensity.
ii. Its magnitude.

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ZACHARY NYANGARESI
 Intensity
 Intensity of an earthquake is a measure of how strong or how hard the earthquake
shakes the ground.
 It’s seen from the effects the earthquake has on people, buildings and other
structures.
 Intensity of an earthquake is measured on:
i. Mercalli scale.
 Mercalli Scale uses a scale running from Roman i-xiii e.g.

 I- description -imperceptible
 V-rather strong-sleepers are awakened and there is swinging of objects.
 VIII-destructive-gaping cracks in walls some brought down.
 XII- major catastrophe-every building destroyed.

ii. Rossi feral scale

Magnitude
 Magnitude is measure of the amount of energy given off by an earthquake.
 It is measured on a logarithmic scale called Richter scale which ranges from 0-8.9.

World distribution of earthquakes

 Seismic zone are areas that are frequently affected by earthquakes.

 Aseismic zones are areas that are not prone to earthquakes.

Seismic zones

i. Circum-pacific belt (japan, Philippines, East Indies and west coast of north and
South America). These are areas associated with ocean trenches, volcanic islands
and young fold mts; and rift valley.
ii. A belt across southern Europe, southern Asia including Himalayas.
iii. Along all the boundaries of tectonic plates.

Effects of earthquake on the human environment.

i. It leads to destruction of property and loss of human life.

ii. The tsunami triggered off by earthquakes on the ocean floor that floods the
coasts destroying property and life.
iii. The vertical and lateral displacement of land cause damage to transport and
communication lines, gas, oil, and water pipes, etc.
iv. Fire outbreak due to broken gas pipes destroys life and property.
v. Earthquakes can spark off landslides which in turn damage property and leads
to loss of life.

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ZACHARY NYANGARESI
Effects of earthquakes on the physical environment

i. Earthquakes trigger off faulting and volcanism as they cause lines of weakness to
develop in the crustal rocks.
ii. Earthquakes can cause tsunamis which can submerge coastal region.
iii. Earthquakes can lead to the shearing of rocks resulting in horizontal
displacement of rocks.
iv. Earthquakes can trigger off landslides which in turn can block rivers resulting in
change of drainage.
v. It can cause the raising or lowering of the sea floor.
vi. It can also lead to the uplifting or subsidence of the land.

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ZACHARY NYANGARESI
 UNIT TWO
MAPWORK
Direction and bearing
 Direction is a line or course upon which something is facing, pointing or moving.
Direction is the description of a place in relation to another.
 Bearing is the expression of direction using degrees of an angle.

Traditional methods of showing direction

i. Use of heavenly bodies, e.g. E.g. use of groups of stars called plough to find
northern direction by locating the pole star and use of Southern Cross by using
the brightest star which is over South Pole to find northern direction.

i. Use of shadows. E.g. morning, shadow of flag pole cast to your left you are facing
north

ii. Dead reckoning: It entails recording the direction of movement, the speed and
time of travel from a known position. The distance travelled is obtained by
multiplying speed by the time used in travel.
iii. Use of land marks: Involves the use of conspicuous features, e.g. hills, trees,
buildings, etc.

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ZACHARY NYANGARESI
Modern methods of showing direction
i. Use of landmarks.
ii. Use of compass points/magnetic compass.
 A compass is an instrument that is used to find direction.
 It has a free-swinging magnetized needle that points north when it is at
rest.
 There are 32 points on a compass. The basic/cardinal points are north,
south, east and west.
 The commonly used points are 16.
iii. Bearing
 It is the direction of a place from another expresses in terms of degrees.
 Step 1. Identify the two places on the map.
 Step 2. Draw a north line through the observation point. It should be
parallel to the eastings.
 Step 3. Join the two points with a pencil line.
 Step 4. Using a protractor measure the angle in a clockwise direction
starting north. Note that bearing is given in 3 figures.

Types of bearing/norths
 There are 3 types of bearing.
 They are based on the positions of the three types of north.
 Topographical maps show the relative positions of the 3 types of north.
 The diagram is called a declination diagram.
 The diagram is not uniform for all maps.
i. True north
 It is also known as geographical north.
 It is the direction of the geographical north pole where all longitudes meet in the
northern hemisphere.
 It is a fixed position.

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ZACHARY NYANGARESI
  A bearing calculated from the true north is called a true/geographical bearing.

ii. Magnetic north

 This is the direction of the earth’s magnetic pole.
 The earth has a magnetic field that has a north pole and south pole.
 The needle of a compass points to the magnetic north.
 The magnetic north is not fixed; it changes as the earth’s magnetic north pole shifts
its position.
 A bearing measured from the magnetic north is known as the magnetic bearing.
 The difference in angle between the magnetic north and true north is known as the
magnetic declination/variation.
iii. Grid north
 It is a northerly direction based on the vertical lines of the national grid system of
the map.
 The grid lines that run from north-south of the map meet at an imaginary
point/north pole which marks the grid north.

Location of places on a map

i. Use of place names.
 Locating a feature by using the name of the place it’s at e.g. a river in Kisumu,
Nakuru, etc or if it isn’t at a named place locate by the nearest name place e.g. a
meander near Garissa town.
ii. Use of direction, bearing and distance.
 This is from a stated position e.g. Locate Nakuru from Nairobi. Nakuru is 157km
N.W of Nairobi.
iii. Use latitudes and longitudes
 Latitudes are imaginary lines drawn on the globe/map to show distance from the
equator. They indicate how far north or south a place is from the equator (00
latitude).

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ZACHARY NYANGARESI
  Longitudes are imaginary lines drawn on the globe/map to show angular distance
from the prime meridian (00longitude). They indicate how far east or west a place is
from the prime-meridian (00longitude).
 Latitudes and longitudes are measured in degrees. Any distance less than a degree is
sub-divided into minutes (1) and seconds (11).
 Lines representing latitudes and longitudes are marked on the margin of
topographical maps in degrees and minutes.
 When giving the position of a place on a topographical map, the latitude should be
given 1st followed by longitudes.
 Step 1. Trace the latitude on which the place is found. In case the place is not on a
numbered latitude line, estimate the extra distance in minutes and seconds, indicate
whether north or south.
 Step 2. Trace the longitude on which the place is found and read the degrees
marked, estimate in minutes and seconds additional distance if it is not on a number
longitude.
 Step 3. The location of a place is found where the two lines of latitude and longitude.
iv. Use of grid references
 The grid is a network of parallel, vertical and horizontal lines drawn on a
topographical map.
 They intersect at various points at right angles forming equal squares.
 The grid lines drawn from north to south are called eastings because their value
increases eastwards.
 The grid lines drawn from east to west are called northings because their value
increases northwards.
 Each grid line is given in two bold digits/numbers and small ones.
 The smaller ones are the series number of the grid lines.
 The larger numbers are 2 digits in a series from 00 to 99. Then the series change,
e.g. 398, 399, 400, 401, etc.
 On some topographical maps only the larger numbers are shown.
 The grid lines are numbered from the south west corner of the map which is the grid
origin.
 It is only the bold larger numbers that are used to give location using grid reference.
 The grid reference of a point/feature on a map is quoted using the intersection of
two grid line, i.e. the easting and the northing.
 The easting is stated 1st followed by the northing.
 There are two ways of giving grid reference on a map.
i. Use of four figure grid reference.
ii. Use of six figure grid reference.

Use of four figure grid reference.

 It is also known as grid square.
 It has four digits, the 1st 2 digits represent the easting and the next 2 digits represent
northing.
 It is used for a feature/point that is at the intersection of two grid lines.

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ZACHARY NYANGARESI
  If the point is within a square, look at the line to the west of the point to obtain the
easting value and then the line to the south of the point to get the northing value
 Examples of four figure grid reference:

 A-6856
 B-6856
 C-6857
Use of six figure grid reference
 It gives a precise position of a place/feature.
 Many features are not located at intersection of grid lines but within grid squares.
 If a point is at the intersection, then the 3rd and 6th value is 0.
 If the point is within the square the following steps are to be taken.
 Step 1. Subdivide the distance between the concerned easting into ten equal parts
(use the side of a ruler calibrated in centimeters)
 Step 2. Subdivide the distance between the concerned northing into ten equal parts.

 Examples of four figure grid reference:

 A-675555
 B-680560
 C-682568
Methods of representing relief on topographical maps
i. Spot heights.
 A spot height is a point on a map whose position and height have been determined
by surveyors.
 Its position is shown by a dot and figure indicating the height, e.g. .1200, .1320, etc.
 They help determine the high points of an area.
 They are an important guide in contour construction.
 They are used alongside other methods of showing relief.

Advantage
 They show actual heights on the ground

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Disadvantages of spot heights
 They give no visual impression of the relief.
 They are not helpful in identifying landforms.
 They only show high points making it difficult to determine the trend of the relief.
 They need to be used with contours to show trend of relief features.
ii. Trigonometrical stations
 They are also referred to as Trigonometrical points.
 They form the intersections of carefully measured triangles in the field.
 They form the basis of surveying the area.
 Their heights are accurately determined.
 They are commonly located on hill tops, mountain peaks, etc.
 They are commonly the highest points in any locality.
 On the actual ground, they are marked by a concrete pillar, slab, or stone on which
the station number and height are indicated.

Advantages of Trigonometrical stations

 Give accurate height of a point on a map.
 They easily visible on maps because they are boldly printed.
 They provide a summary of relief information on a map.

Disadvantages

 Similar to spot heights

iii. Contours and form lines
 A contour is a line on a map joining points that have the same height above sea
level.
 A form line is a line on a map which joins points of approximately the same height
above sea level.
 Contours and form lines are the main methods of showing relief on topographical
maps.
 On most topographical maps they are drawn in brown colour.
 Contours are shown as thick/dark brown lines while form lines are thin/light brown
lines.

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ZACHARY NYANGARESI
  For practical reasons, form lines are also regarded as contours.

Advantages of contour lines

 It is easy to understand and interpret the visual impression of various relief

features that they show, e.g. steep slopes indicated by very close contours.
 Give a quick summary of the general height of relief features.
 It is possible to add other details, e.g. place names, colours for other features.
 It is possible to estimate heights of various places using contours.

Disadvantages of contour lines

 It is difficult to establish the value of different contours on steep slopes indicated

by a mass of contour lines.
 They are difficult to follow on a map where relief features keep changing in
different direction.
 Contours do not show some important features which fall between contours, e.g.
cliffs, dunes, depressions, tors/rock outcrops.
iv. Rock and cliff drawing and depression symbols
 These are symbols drawn to show relief of certain features on topographical maps.

Other methods of representing relief on maps

Pictorials
 Pictures of landforms are drawn.
 They are drawn on a map in the approximate location where they are found.

Advantages
 Easy to interpret.
 Gives a clear impression of the earth.

Disadvantages
 Inaccurate because it does not show height of the features.
 Details behind the features are obscured.
 Only a limited variety of landforms can be shown.
 It is time consuming where there are many features to be drawn.

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Hachures
 Hachures are short lines drawn on maps to show steepness and direction of the
slope.
 Closer lines show steep slopes.
 Thin and wide apart lines show gentle slopes.
 No lines where the land is flat.

Advantages of hachures
 Presents a good visual impression of relief in a mountainous area.
 They show minute details of relief slopes.

Disadvantages
 It does not show the actual height of the land above the sea level
 It takes a lot of time to draw.
 It is difficult to insert additional information where hachures have been drawn.
 It is difficult to determine the steepness of the land

Hill shading
 It uses light to illustrate parts of map and shadows on relief.
 The steepest slopes are least lit while hill tops, surfaces of plateaus are well lit.
 The least lit areas have a darker shade while the well-lit areas have a lighter shade.

Advantages
 Effectively portray relief when used with other relief methods such as spot heights
and contours.

Disadvantages
 It is difficult to insert more details in the darkly shaded areas.
 It is not possible to determine the actual heights of the land.
 It is difficult to determine the type of landform and direction of slope.
 It does not distinguish plateau from plain.
 It is only suitable for a region with great contrast in relief.

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Layer tinting
 Also known as layer colouring.
 It is commonly used in atlas maps.
 Involves the use of different colours/tints/shades of one colour to show different
zones of land that are within the same range of altitude.
 Hypsometric shading entails the use of lines. The intensity of lines increases with
altitude.

Advantages
 Give a clear visual impression of relief.

Disadvantages
 Dark colours can obscure some details making it impossible for insertion of
additional information.
 It is only useful where landscape has varied relief.
 One colour gives an impression of the same height, yet the land is steadily rising.
 A colour used to tint a layer, cannot be used to show other details.
 It is impossible to estimate actual heights of specific areas.
 It is hard to interpret because people associate different colours with certain things

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 UNIT THREE
PHOTOGRAPH WORK
 A photograph is an image/a picture of an object, a person or scenery scene recorded
by a camera on a light sensitive film or paper.
 A picture may be in a still/motion state.

Types of photographs
 Photographs are classified on the basis of the position they are taken from.
 The position of the camera determines the type of photograph.
 There are two types of photograph namely:
i. Ground photographs
ii. Aerial photographs.

Ground photographs
 These are photographs that are from the ground.
 The photographer stands on the surface of the earth.
 Ground photographs are classified into 3 types as follows:
i. Ground close-ups
 The camera is horizontally focused on a particular object/scene.
 Objects in the background tend to be obscured by the object of interest.
ii. Ground general view
 The camera is horizontally focused on a wide area.
 Focus is not on a single object.
 Several objects are clearly seen in the photograph.
iii. Ground oblique
 The camera is held at angle from an elevated/raised point on the ground.
 The camera is held in a slanting position to take the picture of the scenery in a
valley below or from the top of a tall building.

Aerial photographs
 These are photographs taken from the air/high in the sky.
 There are two main types of aerial photographs as follows:
i. Aerial oblique
 These are photographs taken from an aero plane with the camera tilted at an
angle.
ii. Vertical aerial photographs
 These are photographs taken from directly above the ground.
 The camera points vertically to the ground focusing on a given area.
 Outline of objects are seen

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ZACHARY NYANGARESI
 Parts of a photograph
Horizontal division
foreground
Middleground
Background

Vertical division

left centre right

Left Centre Right

background background background

Left Centre Right

Middleground Middleground Middleground

Left Centre Right

foreground foreground foreground

Uses of photographs

i. It is a suitable technique for accurately recording information.

ii. It makes geography real by bringing unfamiliar features to the classroom
situation.
iii. Photographs taken at different times show the different aspects of different
features and activities.
iv. A photograph can be used for different purposes and to gather a variety of
information.
v. Aerial photographs are used by cartographers to draw maps.

Limitations of photographs

i. The processing of photographs is generally expensive.

ii. The black and white photographs are not real and obscure information.
iii. Photographs do not give exact sizes or distance.
iv. Vertical aerial photographs are difficult to interpret since they only show outlines of
features.

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 Interpretation of photographs
 Photograph interpretation entails to explain the meaning of the objects or features
on a photograph.
 It involves the following:
i. Determining the title
 It is determined on the basis of the information in the photograph.
 Photographs show human activities, physical features, natural catastrophes etc e.g.
nomadic pastoralism, drought, flooding, etc.
 When determining the title examine the photograph carefully and apply the
knowledge you have learnt in geography.
ii. Estimating time
 Observe the shadows cast by objects in the photograph.
 In the tropics the shadows are short at noon and longest in the morning and
afternoon.
 If the camera is facing south and the shadow is cast to the right it’s in the morning
and if cast to the left it’s in the afternoon.
iii. Estimating Season
 Light clothes e.g. shirts and T-shirts indicate that temperature is high
 Cloudy skies imply rainy season,
 cloudless imply dry season.
 Luxuriant, dense vegetation, young crops on the farm may imply a rainy season, etc.
 People wearing heavy clothing may indicate cold weather/winter season.
 People dressed lightly with broad rimmed hats may imply warm weather.
iv. Determining Direction
 It it’s in the morning and the shadow of flag pole is cast to the left the
photographer is facing north and if cast to the right he was facing south.
 It it’s in the morning and the shadow is facing towards you the photographer
was facing east and it taken in the afternoon and the shadow is facing towards
you the photographer was facing west.

v. Estimating sizes of features

 It is difficult to measure actual sizes and distances on a photograph however, in the
ground close up photographs, it is possible to work out approximate sizes of objects
using familiar objects in the photograph.

vi. Interpretation of physical features

 The physical features identified include the following:
i. Relief.
ii. Drainage.
iii. Natural vegetation.
iv. Soil.
v. Climate.

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 Relief

a. Flat landscape may be indicated by the following:

 Low-lying plain/plateau.
 Presence of a meandering river.
 Presence of a rice crop.
 Presence of oxbow lakes
 swamps
b. Hilly/ landscape may be indicated by the following:
 Ridges.
 Escarpments.
 Conical hills.
 Dissected plateaus.
 Crop grown, e.g. tea, wheat crops which grow at high altitude
 Rapids
 Water falls
c. Mountainous landscape may be indicated by the following:
 Relief of more than 2000m above the sea level.
 Steep slopes.
 Animals such as dairy cattle and Merino sheep which are generally reared in
cool areas at high altitude.

Drainage

 Swamps are indicated by poorly drained area.

 Rivers are indicated by wet area, impermeable rocks.
 Reservoirs indicated by irrigation, water storage, dry area, HEP generation.
 Ponds
 Waterfalls and rapids are indicated by steep slopes/terrain.
 Meandering river are indicated by gentle/flat terrain.

Vegetation

 Identify type of vegetation, e.g. forests, thickets, grasslands and swamp plants.
 Describe the plant details, i.e. height, shape appearance of leaves.
 If there are identifiable species of trees and other plants. These should be named,
e.g. acacia trees, eucalyptus trees, cactuses.
 Relate the vegetation type to climatic conditions, e.g. forests indicate heavy rainfall.
 Distinguish planted vegetation from natural vegetation by its characteristics.

Climate

 By looking at the sky in the photograph: the presence/absence of clouds in the sky.
 The type of clothing worn by people in the photograph.
 The type of vegetation. The presence of numerous cacti, short acacia trees may
indicate semi-desert or desert climate.

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  Type of crops in the photograph. Sugar can indicate high temp and high rainfall.
Sisal indicates high temperature and low rainfall. Coffee and tea indicate cool
temperature and high rainfall.
 Type of domestic animal .Dairy cattle and merino sheep indicate cool temperature
and high rainfall.
 Goats and many traditional cattle indicate low rainfall and high temperature

Soil

 Observe the crops grown.

 Coffee-acidic and volcanic soils.
 Rice and cotton-clay soils.
 Coconut, cashew nuts, sisal-sandy soils.
 Horticultural crops –loamy soils.
vi. Interpretation of human activities
Farming/Agriculture

 Entails crop cultivation and livestock rearing.

 Both are practiced at subsistence and commercial levels.

Type of farming evidence

1. Subsistence  Some permanent and temporary houses.
farming  Land divided into small portions.
 Mixed cropping.
 Simple farm implements, e.g. panga, jembe.
 Local and few exotic breeds of animals.
 Fields separated by hedges.
2. Livestock farming Traditional/ Nomadic Pastoralism
livestock farming
 Animals grazing in grassland/semi-arid region.
 Large herds of traditional cattle and goats.
Ranching
 Large field divided into paddocks.
 Presence of cattle sheds.
 Windmills for water supply
 Presence of water tanks, ponds, dams.
 Cattle dips on the farms.
Dairy farming
 Exotic breeds of cows with big udders.
 Milk processing plant.
 Zero grazing.

3. Commercial crop  Presence of cash crops on extensive land.

farming  Modern farming equipments.
 Collection facilities.

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ZACHARY NYANGARESI
  Presence of feeder routes within the farm.
4. Plantation  Single crop covering extensive stretches of land.
farming  Processing factories.
 Presence of storage facility, e.g. silo.
 Many labourers in the field.
 Nucleated settlements within the farm.

Apart from identifying types of farming other aspects include:

i. Identifying the main characteristics of a particular type of farming.

ii. Identifying the areas where such a type of farming is found.
iii. Identifying the advantages and limitations of the type of farming.
iv. Identifying the effects of each type of farming on the environment.
v. Identify the government policy on each type of farming.

Industrial and mining activities

 Industrial activities are indicated by the following:

 Factory building with tall chimneys that might be emitting smoke.
 Nucleated settlements nearly for workers.
 Large ware houses next to buildings.
 Tall chimneys with large tanks at a distance could indicate an oil refinery.
 A vast area with derricks (oil rigs) could point to an oil field where oil is mined.
 Large open pits, large excavators or Lorries carrying loads of rocks could indicate
open cast mining.
 Lumbering activity could be indicated by the following:
i. People cutting trees with power saws.
ii. People loading timber onto Lorries.
iii. Logs floating down a river.
iv. Logs piled near a saw mill.
v. Large forest clearings with tree stumps and piles of logs.

Transport and communication

 It is however easy to interpret the mode, means and units of transport.

 The following are some of the indicators of transport.
i. Motor vehicles and roads.
ii. A railway line with/without a train.
iii. A large tarmacked/murram ground area with buildings on one side may be a
control tower; aero planes may be seen.
iv. Presence of boats, ships and large water vessel.
v. Presence of a telephone lines, booths, satellite dishes for communication
purposes.

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Settlement

 A settlement is a group of buildings in an area where people live and carry out social
and economic activities.
 Some settlements are made of institutional, industrial or commercial buildings or
commercial buildings.
 Settlements can be divided into two main groups as follows:
i. Rural settlements.
ii. Urban settlements.

Rural settlements

 They may be indicated in photographs by:

a. Simple semi-permanent and permanent buildings such as grass thatched
houses/iron sheet roofed houses with mud/brick walls.
b. Evidence of farming, grazing or fishing activities.
c. Unplanned/unevenly distributed dwellings or presence of villages.

Urban settlements

 They may be identified by the following.

a. Permanent buildings are predominant.
b. Regular street patterns.
c. Buildings with several storeys.
d. Many large buildings and warehouses indicating an industrial area.
e. High number of people (if shown).
f. A lot of motor vehicles.
g. Port facilities such as docks, cranes warehouses and containers.

Sketching diagrams from photographs

 Sometimes you are required to come up with a sketch of a photograph.

 To draw a sketch diagram from a given photograph the following steps should be
followed:
i. Draw a rectangle/square as per the instructions.
ii. Using a pencil draw faint horizontal lines across the photograph, then
draw faint vertical pencil lines.
iii. Divide up the frame drawn into similar divisions.
iv. Fill in the features as per the instructions using the divisions for accuracy.
v. Label the features and provide
vi. Give a suitable title to the sketch.

Assignment: draw 10 X 5 cm to represent the photograph. On the sketch mark the

following: Tea farm, Feeder road, Buildings, Donkeys

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 UNIT FOUR
STATISTICAL METHODS
COMPARATIVE LINE GRAPHS

 They are also referred to as group line graphs/multiple line graphs.

 They consist a series of line graphs drawn on the same chart, using the same
horizontal and vertical axes.
 A maximum of five items can be presented.
 Use different lines to distinguish the different items.

Construction steps
 Step 1. Choose suitable vertical and horizontal scales.
 Step 2. Draw vertical and horizontal axes on a graph paper,
 Step 3. Sub-divide the axes according to specific scales and label their respective
values.
 Step 4. Choose different types of lines to use for each item.
 Step 5. Plot values for each dependent variable and join the dots.
 Step 6. Label the lines or provide a key.
 Step 7. Provide a suitable title.

The table below shows foreign exchange earned from export of commodities from country
B between 1975- 1979 in Million dollars.

Commodity/year 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

Tourism 6o 66 68 70 73
Minerals 10 12 13 10 7
Fish 3 2 5 6 8
Horticulture 10 13 14 18 28
Advantages of comparative line graphs

i. They are simple to construct.

ii. They are suitable for making comparison between different items.
iii. The trend of each variable can be traced easily through the period.
iv. They are easy to read and interpret.
v. They give a clear visual impression.

Disadvantages of comparative line graphs.

i. Only a Limited number of items can be presented, i.e. too many cause confusion.
ii. Crossing of lines/ overlapping of lines is inevitable in some cases. This makes
interpretation and comparison difficult.

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ZACHARY NYANGARESI
 iii. The total amount of variable of the group cannot be known at a glance.

Analysis and interpretation of data

 Observe the trend of the lines, i.e. the rise and fall of the value of the variable
throughout the period.
 Comparison of the different items can be done by looking at the values and
determining the greater and the lesser values.
 The average can be obtained by dividing the total value by the number of years
whose data has been provided.
 The percentage increase can be calculated to show the degree of increase between
any two periods.

Comparative Bar Graph

 They are also referred to as group/multiple bar graphs.

Characteristics

 Bar representing variables within the same period are drawn touching each other
for easy comparison.
 Space is left between groups of bars.
 Bars are drawn vertically/horizontally.
 The bars representing ‘others’ is always drawn last.
 About five bars can be drawn in one group.
Construction steps.
 Step 1.Choose suitable scales for both vertical and horizontal axes.
 Step 2. Decide on the width of the bars and space between the groups of bars.
 Step 3. Draw X and Y axes.
 Step 4. Plot the values with small faint but visible dots at the top end of each bar
 Step 5. Neatly draw the outline of the bars.
 Step 6. Choose different shading techniques for different variables in the groups
 Step 7. Provide a key and a suitable title.

Leading imports by value in Kenya in ‘ooo’ million shillings.

Item/ year 2002 2003 2004

Machinery 80 75 60
Petroleum 50 70 40
Fertilizers 30 40 45
others 45 30 25

Advantages of comparative bar groups

i. The individual contribution made by variables in each group is easily identified.

ii. Values in the same group can be compared easily.
iii. It gives a good visual impression.

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ZACHARY NYANGARESI
 iv. They are easy to construct.
v. They are easy to read and interpret.

Disadvantages of a comparative bar graph.

i. The total contribution of similar components throughout the period cannot be seen
at a glance.
ii. It is difficult to follow the general trend of any particular component within the
given period.

Divided rectangles

 They are also referred to as divided bars.

 They refer to one long bar/rectangle drawn horizontally/vertically to present total
value of many items.
 The bar is sub-divided into portions each representing an item.
 The bars can use figures in absolute form/percentage form.
 There are two types of divided rectangles:
i. Simple divided rectangle.
ii. Compound divided rectangles.

Simple divided rectangles

Construction steps.

 Step 1. Draw a rectangle whose length is proportional to the total value of the data.
 Step 2. Choose a suitable scale to represent the total amount of data, i.e. the
rectangle should not be too long/too short.
 Step 3. Calculate the length of each component by dividing the specific value of each
component by the total value of the data and multiplying by the length of the
rectangle.
 Step 4. Starting from the left sub-divide the rectangle into constituent parts using
values calculated in step 3
 Step 4. The portions in descending order; starting with the largest to the smallest.
N/b: data for others should come last. The portions may be shaded differently.
 Step 5.provide a key and a title.

Agricultural production in Kenya

ITEM VALUE IN ‘000’ POUNDS

Cash crops 550
Livestock 200
Subsistence crops 150
Others 100
Total value 1000
Draw a rectangle 10cm length to represent the data above.

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 i. Cash crops - 550/1000x10 = 5.5 cm.
ii. Livestock – 200/1000x10 = 2 cm.
iii. Subsistence crops – 150/1000x10 = 1.5 cm.
iv. Others – 100/1000x10 = 1cm.

Compound divided Rectangle

 It is used in the event of greater/more details.

 The divisions of the rectangle are further sub-divided.
 The length of the rectangle/horizontal axis shows the total quantities.
 The vertical axis shows the sub-divisions.
 The upper end of the rectangle is used to label the divisions.
 Provide the key.

Province Area km Land in % Land in % Land in % Land in %

Pasture Arable forest Wasteland
A 166,000 55 32 7 6
B 14,000 2 62 34 2
C 30,000 38 30 12 20
Total 210,000
Draw a rectangle 14 cm to represent the total

Province

A – 166/210 x 14 = 11cm.

B – 14/210 x 14 = 1cm.

C – 30/210 x 14 = 2 cm.

Advantages of divided rectangles

i. It is easy to construct.
ii. It is easy to read and interpret.
iii. It gives a clear visual impression of individual components.
iv. It allows for comparison.
v. Can be used to represent a wide range of data.

Disadvantages

i. It consumes time because of the calculations involved.

ii. Only one unit of measurement can be used.
iii. It lacks the appeal of a circle.

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 UNIT FIVE
CLIMATE
DISTINCTION BETWEEN WEATHER AND CLIMATE

 Weather is the atmospheric condition of a given place at a specific time/over a short

period of time.
 Climate is the average weather conditions of a given place observed over a long
period of time usually 30-35 years.

FACTORS INFLUENCING CLIMATE

i. Latitude
 Temperature decreases with increase in latitude.
 It influences rainfall seasons, e.g. the tropical area in the north receive
rainfall from March to July when the sun is in the northern hemisphere
while the tropical area in the southern hemisphere receive rainfall from
October to February when the sun is in the southern hemisphere.
ii. Altitude
 This is the height above the sea level.
 Temperature decreases with increase in altitude.
 It also influences rainfall, e.g. the Kenya highlands receive more rainfall as
compared to the lowlands.
iii. Distance from the sea/continentality.
 Regions near the sea have maritime climate.
 The regions far from the sea have a continental climate.
 It influences the amount of rainfall, i.e. on shore wind bring rain.
iv. Ocean current
 Warm ocean currents bring warming effect during winter time on the
coastal lands.
 Cold ocean currents bring cooling effect, formation of foggy conditions
and desert formation.
v. aspect
 The slopes of high areas which do not receive direct sunrays have lower
temperatures.
 Wind and leeward slopes influences the rainfall amount.
vi. Winds and air masses.
 Dry winds bring dryness.
 Moist winds bring rain.
 Warm winds raise temperatures.
 Cold winds lower temperatures.
 Katabatic winds/mountain breezes lower night temperatures.

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  Anabatic winds/valley breezes cause the formation of cumulus clouds
which cause afternoon showers in highland areas.
vii. Configuration of the coastline
 Refers to the alignment of the coastline in relation to the prevailing
winds.
 On-shore winds leads to more rainfall reception.
 Parallel coast and wind direction lowers rainfall amount.
viii. Inter-tropical convergence zone (ITCZ)
 It’s a low pressure belt around equator where trade winds converge.
 It influences rainfall in the following ways:

 Places further from equator experience one rainy season when the sun is overhead
and a long dry season when the sun is in the S. hemisphere.
 Regions near equator have 2 seasons of heavy rainfall because they experience
passage of ITCZ twice.

ix. Forests
 Forests lower temperature/reduce solar radiation.
 Forests raise humidity due to evapo-transpiration.
 Forests raise rainfall due to evaporation.
 Trees acts as wind breakers reducing the speed.
 Forests create micro-climate.
x. Human activities
 Agriculture, afforestation, construction of dams affects local climates.
 Agriculture involves the clearance vegetation which reduces the amount
of rainfall.
 Afforestation increases the amount of moisture in the atmosphere.
 Dams increase the amount of moisture in the atmosphere through
evaporation.
 Deforestation causes aridity and desertification.
 Emission gases leads to global warming.

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 CLIMATIC REGIONS OF KENYA

1. Modified equatorial climate of the coast

 This climate covers the coastal belt of Kenya.
 Modification is due to the presence of the Indian Ocean.

Characteristics

 Rainfall throughout the year/no distinct dry season.

 Has a double maxima rainfall regime (May and October).
 Mean annual rainfall range from 874-1500 mm.
 High humidity throughout the year due to nearness to water body.
 High temperatures throughout the year; average of about 270 C.
 Has small temperature range of about 40 C.
 Hottest months are December and January.

2. Modified equatorial climate of the Lake Victoria basin.

 Covers Nyanza and western Kenya regions
 Modification is due to the varied relief and the influence of Lake Victoria.

Characteristics

 Rainfall received is heavy ranging from 1000-1600 mm.

 Moderate temperature ranging from 200 C – 260 C.
 Has double maxima rainfall regime.
 It receives convectional rainfall.

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  Relative humidity is high due to the influence of the lake.
 Rainfall throughout the year/no distinct dry months.
 Mean annual temperatures range between 22- 320 C.
 Thick cloud cover.
3. Modified tropical climate of the highlands
 Covers the highlands east and west of the rift valley.
 Modification is due to relief.

Characteristics

 Rainfall throughout the year ranging from 1000-2000 mm.

 Has double maxima rainfall regime.
 Receives relief rainfall.
 The long rains are received between March and May and the short between
September and December.
 Rainfall is caused mainly by the south-east trade winds.
 The average temperature range between 17- 240 C.
 Moderate humidity.
 Mean annual range of temperature is 3-50 C.
 Coolest months are June-august.
4. Modified equatorial climate of the north western borders
 Covers Karasuk areas.
 Is a continuation of the climate of eastern and northern Uganda.

Characteristics

 Low rainfall average of 850 mm per year.

 Most months are dry.
 High temperature throughout the year.
 Receives convectional rainfall between June-September.
5. Tropical climate of Narok and southern Taita/Kwale areas.
 Located in areas around the Loita hills, Taita hills, and Shimba hills.
 It is a continuation of the tropical climate of central Tanzania.

Characteristics

 Rainfall comes in March to May and October to December.

 High temperatures.
 Low rainfall of about 672 mm.
 Has distinct dry season.
6. Tropical continental/semi desert climate of eastern Kenya.
 Found mainly in eastern Kenya in Isiolo, Garissa, Tana River and in southern Kenya
in Kitui, Machakos, kajiado and parts of northern Kenya in Mandera, Moyale and
parts of Turkana.

Characteristics

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  Low unreliable rainfall of about 500 mm per year.
 Skies are generally clear.
 High temperature with a mean of between 22-270 C.
 Annual range of temperature is 50 C.
 Low humidity.
7. Desert climate of central northern area
 Covers a considerable stretch of northern Kenya.
 Wajir and Lodwar are in this climate region.

Characteristics

 Has very low rainfall of less than 250 mm per year.

 Very high temperatures throughout the year of 300 C.
 Night temperatures are extremely low.
 Cloudless skies.
 Low humidity.
 Sandstorms are common occurrences.
 There are occasional floods caused by scarce and sporadic rains.

WORLD CLIMATIC REGIONS

Draw the world map and indicate the following climatic regions

i. Equatorial climate.
ii. Tropical monsoon climate.
iii. Savanna/tropical continental climate.
iv. Tropical desert and temperate deserts.
v. Mediterranean climate.
vi. Arctic, polar and Tundra climate.

Equatorial climate

 In Africa is located west coast of Africa from Guinea through Cote d’ivoire, sw and
central Ghana, southern Nigeria, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Gabon, Congo
and Democratic Republic Congo.
 In South America in the Amazon Basin, west coast of Equador and Colombia.
 In south East Asia in Malaysia and Indonesia.

Characteristics

 High temperatures throughout the year ranging between 24-270 C with a small
annual range of about 30 C.
 Diurnal mean temperature of about 260 C with diurnal range of temperature of
below 80 C.
 High rainfall of between 1500-2000 mm.
 Double maxima rainfall regime.
 Convectional rainfall is common due to ITCZ influence.

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  High humidity due to high rainfall.
 Major winds are the South-East and north-East trade winds.
 Thick cloud all the year round.
 Low atmospheric pressure throughout the year.
 Plenty of sunshine because the sun is overhead almost throughout the year.

Tropical monsoon climate

 Covers Indian subcontinent, South-East Asia, southern China, northern Australia,

southern Senegal, Guinea Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone and Liberia.

Characteristics

 Temperature range from 150C in the cool season to 320C in the hottest season.
 Has a moderate temperature range between 90C and 180C.
 High rainfall during summer.
 Dry season during winter.
 Low pressure during summer hence winds blow onshore bringing heavy rains.
 High pressure on the land during winter hence winds blow offshore.
 Cloudy skies in summer and clear skies in winter.
 Seasonal reversal of winds.

Tropical Maritime climate

 Found in southern Mexico, Nicaragua, Guatemala, Venezuela, Caribbean islands such

as Cuba, Haiti, and Jamaica, coastlands of eastern Africa such as Kenya, Tanzania,
Mozambique and Malagasy.

Characteristics

 High temperatures during summer of about 300C.

 Winters are cool.
 High rainfall especially during summer because the winds blow onshore.
 The annual temperature range is about 80C.
 Winds blow offshore in winter hence winters are dry.
 Pressure is low in summer and high in winter
 Humidity in summer but low in winter.
 Relief and convectional rainfall are common in summer.

Tropical continental climate/savanna/Sudan type

 The largest natural climatic region in Africa.

 In Africa it extends from Senegal through E. Africa to the northern part of s. Africa
Western Madagascar, A broad belt in N. Australia, N.W and S.E of Amazon Basin
called Llanos and Campos.

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Characteristics

 High temperatures of about 320C in the hot season.

 Cool temperature of about 210C in the cool season.
 Annual range of temperature is about 110C.
 Large diurnal ranges especially in the dry season.
 Rainfall is seasonal.
 Annual rainfall of about 765-1000 mm.
 High humidity in rainy season and low humidity in dry season.
 Winds are mainly the trade winds.

Tropical desert climate

 Found in Sahara, Kalahari, Namib, Iranian, Mexican, the great Austrian, Arabian,
Atacama and Thar deserts.

Characteristics

 Low unreliable rainfall of about 250 mm per year.

 Very high mean monthly temperature in hot season of about 290C and low in the
cold season of about 100C.
 Large diurnal ranges that can go beyond 200C in some areas.
 Night temperatures fall below 00C.
 Large annual range of temperatures of about 260C in some areas.
 Solar radiation is intense.
 Low humidity.
 Flash floods and thunderstorm are common when it rains.
 Cloudless skies.
 Warm and dry winds.
 No real defined rainy season.

Mediterranean climate/warm temperate western margin

 Located I the following areas:

 Lands bordering the Mediterranean sea, i.e. southern Europe, and northern Africa.
 South west tip of Africa around Cape Town.
 Central coast of California in North America.
 South west Australia around Perth and Adelaide.

Characteristics

 Temperature varies from about 210C in summer about 100C in winter.

 Hot summers and mild winters.
 Moderate annual range of temperature of about 110C
 Offshore winds in simmer hence no rain.
 Cloudless skies and low humidity in summer.
 Cyclonic rainfall in winter brought by the onshore westerly winds.

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  Mean annual rainfall varies between 500-900 mm.
 Hot and cold local winds are common.

Mountain climate

 Located in the following areas:

i. Mt Kenya.
ii. Mt. Elgon.
iii. Mt. Ruwenzori.
iv. Ethiopian highlands.
v. Drakensberg mts
vi. Cameroon mts
vii. Atlas mts
viii. Rocky mts

Characteristics

 Temperature decreases with increase in altitude.

 Temperatures range from cool to very cold.
 Diurnal range of temperature is small.
 Relief rainfall is received.
 Local winds are common, e.g. fohn and Chinook.
 Rainfall increases with height.
 Atmospheric pressure decreases with increase in altitude.

Polar climates/Tundra and Ice Cap (very cold climates)

 Located in the following areas:

i. Northern parts of America from Alaska through northern Canada to
Greenland.
ii. Eurasia from northern Norway, Finland, Greenland and northern former
U.S.S.R.

Characteristics

 Short and cool summers with average temperatures of about 100C.

 Long and cold winters with ranging from -580C-00C.
 Large annual range of temperatures
 There is permanent cover of snow and ice.
 Low rainfall ranging from 100-250 mm per year.
 Precipitation mainly occurs in summer.

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Micro-climate (local climate)

 A micro-climate is the climate of the immediate surroundings of some phenomena

on the earth’s surface. Climate experienced within a small area which is slightly
different compared to the general climate of the area.
 It may be the climate around a plant or group of plants built up areas, industrial
plants and water masses.

Factors causing micro-climates

 Aspect.
 Slope.
 Nature of the surface.
 Colour and texture of the soil.
 Vegetation cover.
 Human activities such as building of dams, cities, and industrial plants

Examples of areas experiencing micro-climate

i. Dammed areas such as Aswan high dam of Egypt, Kariba Dam in Zambia and
Zimbabwe and Masinga dam in Kenya. Experience high convectional rainfall due to
high moisture content.
ii. Heavily built up areas such as Nairobi, New York, and Johannesburg.
iii. Forested areas such as Kakamega and the Aberdares forests.

Aridity and desertification

 Aridity refers to state of insufficient moisture leading to scanty vegetation or lack of

vegetation.
 Desertification is the slow and steady/gradual encroachment of desert like
conditions onto formerly agricultural productive land.

Causes of Aridity and Desertification

i. Insufficient rainfall:-Areas characterized by low amounts of rainfall which is

unreliable will hinder growth of plants.
ii. Extreme high temperatures:-This leads to high evaporation rates. In areas where
evaporation rates exceed precipitation rates, drought-like conditions develop.
iii. Cold ocean currents: - Where on-shore winds blow over cold currents; the
moisture in the wind condenses over the water to form fog. The winds therefore
proceed as dry winds towards the land hence causing aridity/desertification
iv. Relief barriers: - Presence of high hills/mts causes rain shadow on the leeward
side leading to aridity and desertification. E.g. Kalahari and Namib on the rain
shadow of Drakensberg Mountains.
v. Continentality: - Location in the continental interior may cause aridity, e.g. the Gobi
desert if far from winds that derive their moisture content from the sea.

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 vi. Wind system: - Prevailing dry winds blowing constantly over an area bring a drying
effect.
vii. Pressure systems: - The existence of stable high pressure systems; such areas are
characterized by low humidity and descending air currents thus rainfall formation is
unlikely.
viii. Human activities:-
 Deforestation
 Overgrazing.
 Over cultivation.
 Industrialization.
 Population pressure

Effects of aridity and desertification

i. Lowers the fertility of the soil, hence lowering the productivity of the land.
ii. It hinders agricultural practices leading to low food production and increased
occurrence of famine.
iii. It leads to the destruction of water catchment areas.
iv. The land is exposed to severe soil erosion.
v. People migrate to well watered areas leading to population pressure and resultant
conflicts.
vi. It can result in the extinction of plant and animal species and therefore contribute to
the loss of biodiversity.
vii. It isolates the areas making them to be economically underdeveloped.

Possible solutions

i. Afforestation and re-afforestation programmes.

ii. Application of soil conservation measures.
iii. Controlled grazing.
iv. Introduction of appropriate farming methods.
v. Irrigation of dry lands.
vi. Stabilizing sand dunes in desert areas.
vii. Introduction of energy saving stoves to reduce demand for wood fuel which will
reduce deforestation.
viii. Use of alternative sources of energy which don’t pollute the environment e.g. solar
and water. Introducing drought resistant crops in the arid areas.
ix. Controlling industrialization by setting laws governing pollution.

Climate change

 Refers to the establishment of a new climatic state or continuous changes in climatic

states such as temperature and precipitation over time.

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Causes of climate change

Natural causes
i. Variations in the Earths Orbital Characteristics
 Changing or earths orbital characteristics within 1000 years from elliptical
(aphelion) to nearly circular (perihelion) when the earth is nearest to the sun and
receives maximum solar energy and back to elliptical when the earth is farthest
from the sun and receives least solar energy.
ii. Variation in the Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide
 When natural rise in temperature cause carbon dioxide held up in cold ocean waters
to be released to the atmosphere after oceans warmed.
iii. Volcanic Eruptions
 When large quantities of volcanic ash and dust thrown out of the ground block some
of the solar insolation from reaching the earth’s surface causing temperatures on
the earth’s surface to drop for a short period.
 When sulphur dioxide given off during volcanic eruptions reacts with water vapour
forming a bright layer within stratosphere reducing the amount of solar radiation
reaching the surface by reflecting some of it back which also lowers temperatures
on the surface.
iv. Variation in Solar Output
 Changes in the amount of solar energy given off by the sun whereby at times its less
causing drop of temperature on the earth’s surface and at others its gives off more
causing rise in temperature on the surface.

Human causes
i. Burning of fossil fuels in industries, transportation, electricity generation etc. which
contributes 65% of additional co2 in the atmosphere which is the main green house
gas.
ii. Burning of vegetation e.g. in shifting cultivation and forest fires which also adds co2
in the atmosphere.
iii. Clearing large tracts of forests foe agriculture, settlement etc. which reduces the
main deposal system for co2 from the atmosphere by photosynthesis.
iv. industrial developments which add gases like methane, nitrous oxide and those
containing chlorine and chlorofluorocarbons which damages ozone layer which
filters a greater percentage of ultra violet radiation given off by the sun which
causes the average temperatures on the earth to rise.
Greenhouse effect (global warming)

 This is a condition where the incoming solar radiation passes through the
atmosphere while the outgoing terrestrial is blocked by gases, e.g. carbon iv oxide.
This makes the lower atmosphere to retain most of the terrestrial heat thus raising
the global temperature.
 Other greenhouse effect gases are chlorofluorocarbons, methane, and nitrous oxide.
 Increased carbon (IV) oxide in the atmosphere is associated with the following
human activities:
 Burning of fossil fuels, e.g. coal, petroleum oil, etc.

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  Forest and grassland fires.
 Deforestation and land use changes: plants use up a lot of carbon
(IV) oxide during photosynthesis; thus clearing of plants leads to
build-up of excess carbon (IV) oxide.
 Gases like methane, nitrous oxide into the atmosphere.
 Increased emission of chlorofluorocarbons which has led to the
depletion of the ozone layer that acts as a filter of ultraviolet
radiation. The holes in the ozone layer have allowed infiltration
of more ultra-violet rays.

Consequences of climate change

i. Increased rainfall: Rise in temperatures implies higher rates of evaporation

ii. Effects on agriculture: Shifting in the crop growing areas. Agriculture in marginal
areas will be affected.
iii. Disruption of natural ecosystems: organism that adapt will exist as those that fail
become extinct and shifting of climatic and vegetation zones.
iv. City environment becoming hotter with increased carbon (IV) oxide levels.
v. Water uses and long term planning: drying up of reservoir in case of drier climate
while a wetter climate will make irrigation reservoirs redundant.
vi. Abnormal fast growth of plants: advantageous in terms of crops and
disadvantageous in terms of weeds.
vii. In occurrence of floods due to rising sea levels as ice-sheets and glaciers melt
because of the rising global temperatures.
viii. Increased ultra-violet radiation which results into increased sunburn, snow
blindness, increased eye disease (cataracts), increased cases of skin cancer, rapid
ageing and wrinkling, lower fish population.

Solution to Climate Change

i. Afforestation and reafforestation.
ii. Use of energy saving stoves to reduce the rate of deforestation.
iii. Use of alternative sources of energy which are environmentally friendly e.g. solar
and water instead of fossil fuels.
iv. Proper maintenance of vehicle to reduce emissions from their exhausts.
v. Use of public transport to reduce the amount of fossil fuel used and hence the
amount of co2 added into the atmosphere.

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 UNIT SIX
VEGETATION
Definition of vegetation

 Vegetation is defined as the collective plant cover growing in a particular area.

 All plants that grow together in any area form its vegetation.
 Plants that grow together in a particular habitat are known as a plant community.
Types of vegetation
a. Natural vegetation/primary vegetation
 This refers to vegetation that exists naturally without interference of external
factors.
b. Derived/semi-natural/secondary vegetation
 This is the type of vegetation that is in the process of recovering from man’s
disturbance but has yet to reach a new climax.
 It also refers to plant existing naturally in a place but have been interfered with
people. For instance, cultivated areas may be abandoned to be re-colonized by
natural plants but unlike the original natural cover.
c. Planted/cultivated vegetation
 This is a type of vegetation planted by people, e.g. Some forests in the Kenya
highlands.

Factors influencing the distribution of vegetation

a. Topographical factors
i. Altitude
 Coniferous trees are found at high altitudes because they are adapted to cool
conditions.
 There is no vegetation on mountain tops because there are very low temperatures
which inhibit plant growth.
ii. Terrain
 Gentle slopes which have deep and well drained soils are best suited for plant
growth than steep slopes which have thin soils due to severe erosion and less soil
water to sustain plant growth due to high runoff.
 Flat areas have poor drainage hence are swampy and can only support swamp
plants.
iii. Aspect
 There are a wide range of plants on the slope facing the sun and in the direction of
rain bearing winds as they are warm and wetter.
 Grass lands are dominant on the leeward side because they are drier.

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 iv. Drainage
 There is a large variety of plants on well drained soils while water logged soils have
swamp plants such as reeds and papyrus.

b. Climatic factors
i. Temperature
 Warm places have a larger variety of plants/luxuriant growth while cold places have
a limited variety with stunted plants.
ii. Precipitation
 There is a luxuriant growth of vegetation where there is abundant precipitation and
stunted growth where there is little precipitation.

iii. Sunlight
 Plenty of sunshine facilitates photosynthesis and increases growth rate; hence in the
tropical areas there is more growth while in the temperate lands the growth is
stunted.
iv. Winds
 Used for seed dispersal and pollination.
 No tall trees in areas of strong winds.
 There is heavy rainfall in areas where warm moist blow to and hence a large
number of plants which may be broad leaved to increase the surface area for
transpiration.

c. Edaphic factors
i. Soil fertility fertile soils have a larger number of plants while infertile soils have
scanty vegetation.
ii. Soil pollution e.g. oil spillage cause drying up of plants.
iii. Soil depth Deep soils have deep rooted plants such as trees while shallow rooted
soils have shallow rooted plants such as grasses and shrubs.
iv. Soil ph
v. Soil texture.

d. Biological/biotic factors
i. Living Organisms
 Bacteria, earth warms and burrowing animals improve soil fertility resulting into
more vegetation growth.
 Insect and birds pollinate plants enhancing their propagation.
 Bacteria and insects cause plant diseases of plants resulting in death of some e.g.
aphids which affected cypress in late 80s.
 Large herds of wild animals can destroy vegetation through overgrazing and can
turn grasslands into deserts.

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 iii. Human Activities
 Clearing of natural vegetation for settlement, agriculture etc. can lead to
desertification.
 Bush fires such as burning grasslands for the grass to sprout can cause extinction of
some plant species.
 Overstocking can lead to overgrazing turning grasslands into deserts.
 Rehabilitation of deforested areas can stop the spread of deserts.

Characteristics of major vegetation regions of Kenya.

a. Forests vegetation
 The area under forest is less than 7%.
 The bulk is found in Central Highlands
i. Plateau forests
 It used to cover extensive areas around L. Victoria but today there are few patches
around the lake in Maragoli, Kakamega, Kaimosi, Malava, Turbo and Tinderet
forests.
 They are tropical rain forests with tall trees standing among shorter trees
intertwined with creepers.

ii. lowland forests

 Found along the Kenyan coast.
 The main types are: Mangrove forests which grow in shallow waters and Tropical
rain forests in Shimba hills in Kwale District and Arabuko Sokoke in Kilifi.

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 iii. Mountains/highland forests
 Found on the mountainous and highland areas of the country such as Nairobi,
Kijabe, Aberdares, Mt. Kenya, Loita hills, Nguruman scarp, Mau scarp, Kaptaget,
Cherng’ani, Mt. Elgon, and Mt. Marsabit.
 They are characterized by indigenous trees such as podo, cedar, camphor, olive,
Elgon teak and Meru oak.
 They have been planted with exotic hard wood trees e.g. eucalyptus and silver oak
and exotic softwoods such as pines, cypress, fir and wattle.

b. Savanna vegetation
 Most widespread vegetation covering about 65% of the total area.
 There are 3 types of savanna vegetation as follows:
i. Bush land and thicket
 Covers about 48% of savannah.
 Found between coastal land and Machakos and extends into Kitui, Mwingi, Garissa,
Wajir and Mandera districts.
 Consists of thorny bushes and shrubs.
 It has scattered variety of grasses.
 A few scattered baobabs and acacia trees.
ii. Grasslands
 It is found on the undulating slopes of the highlands.
 Clover grows along kikuyu grass where rainfall is over 1000mm.
 Consists of Kikuyu grass, Manyatta grass red oat grass and wire grass where forests
have been cleared.
iii. Wooded Grasslands
 It is sometimes regarded as tree grassland.
 It is composed of grasses with varied height. About 1m in drier areas to 4m in
wetter areas.
 The grass is mixed with thorny acacia trees that vary in height depending on the
rainfall amount.
 More and taller are found along water courses and they are referred to as
riverine/galleric forests.

c. Semi-desert and desert vegetation

 It covers about 27% of Kenya.
 It is predominant in north-eastern Kenya, northern Kenya and parts of rift valley
and coast.
 The semi-desert region is characterized by shrub and bushes, short acacia trees,
stunted Euphorbia and commiphora.
 The true desert areas have bare ground.
d. Heath and moorland vegetation
 Found on mts a altitudes of above 3500m, e.g. Mt. Elgon, Mt. Kenya, and Aberdares
ranges.
 Characterized by tussock grasses, flowering shrubs, alchemilla shrubs, groundsel,
lobelia and heather.

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 e. Swamp vegetation
 Found in areas characterized by poor drainage due to flat relief or areas that
experience periodic flooding.
 Major swamps include Lorian swamp in Isiolo, Wajir and Garissa districts. Lotagipi
swamps in northern Kenya. Yala swamps and along Tana River from Bura to delta.

Draw the map of Kenya on 153 certificate book 1 showing Kenya vegetation zones

Major vegetation regions of the world

a. Forests
 A forest is a continuous growth of trees and undergrowths covering large tracts of
land.
i. The equatorial forests
 Also known as tropical rainforests
 Found in areas experiencing an equatorial climate and equatorial monsoon climate
as follows: D.R.C, Congo Brazzaville, Cameroon, Gabon, Coastal Nigeria, Coastal
Cote’d ivore. Liberia, Sierra Leone, Central Africa Republic, Amazon basin.
 Areas experiencing a tropical marine climate as follows: East coast of Africa, Coastal
Madagascar, Papua New Guinea, Malaysia, etc.

Characteristics

 Trees grow closely packed together/dense vegetation.

 It has 3 distinct layers, i.e. bottom layer-ferns, epiphytes, middle layer-medium
height trees, top layer-crowns of very tall trees and lianas.
 The very tall trees attain a height of 50 m; they have buttress roots for extra
support.
 Most of the trees have straight and smooth trunks.
 The vegetation is evergreen due to the evenly distributed rainfall.
 Most trees have broad leaves for efficient transpiration.
 The tall tree crowns form a continuous canopy limiting the penetration of sunlight
to lower parts of the forest this has led to little undergrowth.
 The damp, cold forest floor is covered by ferns and other epiphytes (fungi, mosses,
lichens, etc.)
 Lianas/climbing plants grow round the trunks of trees upwards towards the sunlit
tops
 Trees take very long time to mature between 70-100years.
 The main trees species are:
 Mahogany.
 Ebony.
 Ironwood
 Rosewood
 Makore
 Guarea
 Sapele

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ZACHARY NYANGARESI
  camphor
 Okuome.
ii. Tropical monsoon forests
 Found in the following areas: Burma, Vietnam, Indonesia, and Thailand, south china,
India and northern parts of Australia.

Characteristics

 Most trees are deciduous (lose their leaves at one time). The leaves are shed during
the hot dry season to Minimise loss of water through transpiration.
 Rapid growth takes place during the hot-wet season as the trees grow new leaves.
 The trees are tall about 30m high; however they are not closely packed together.
 The lack of continuous canopy allows the penetration of light hence facilitating the
thick undergrowth of which bamboo thicket predominates and woody shrubs.
 There is a smaller number of plant species.
 Stands of one type of trees are common.
 Dominant tree species are as follows:
 Teak
 Acacia
 Ebony
 Camphor
 Eucalyptus.
 Sal.
iii. Coniferous forests
 Also known as the boreal forest/taiga in Russia.
 In Eurasia, it forms a belt across Eurasia and northern America within latitude 45-
750 N.
 In Eurasia it extends from Norway across northern Europe, through Siberia to the
Pacific coast.
 In America it extends from Alaska to Newfoundland.

Characteristics

 Most trees are evergreen

 Trees occur in pure stands, i.e. trees of one type covers an extensive area.
 There is very little undergrowth because the leaves make the soil very acidic.
 Lichens and mosses cover the ground/forest floor.
 The variety of trees is small.
 The trees on the pole ward side are stunted and those on the equator ward side are
partly coniferous and partly deciduous.
 Trees mature after a long period of time (50-70 years) due to the cold conditions
especially in winter
 The tree are well adapted to the climatic conditions in the following ways:
 They have small needle-like leaves to reduce loss of moisture through
transpiration.
 The leaves have tough waxy skin to protect them from the winter cold.

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  The trees have a conical shape and flexible branches for snow to slide of
easily to avoid damaging the trees.
 The tree trunks are flexible enabling them to sway without breaking
during the strong winter winds.
 The trees have widely spread out, shallow root system for utilization of
the moisture in the top soil since the subsoil is permanently frozen.
 Most of the trees are evergreen to minimize utilization of sunlight during
the short summer season.
 Main tree species are:
 Pines.
 Spruce.
 Cypress.
 Fir.
 Larch.
iv. Deciduous forests
 Found in areas experiencing cool temperate western marginal climate.

Location

 C. and W. Europe.
 Most of E. states of U.S.A.
 Chile in S. America.
Characteristics

 Trees are deciduous and shed leaves in autumn and become green in summer
 Individual species of trees are scattered and their density per unit area is small.
 Trees are smaller in size.
 Trees are broad leaved.
 Most of the trees are hardwoods.
 There is rich undergrowth because of being fairly open.
 Trees grow in pure stands in some regions and at others they are mixed.
 Trees are easier to exploit than tropical hardwoods.
 Main tree species are ash, oak, chestnut, elm, beech, maple, etc.
 The trees are mostly deciduous shedding their leaves during the cold season.
 The forests are fairly open in some places undergrowth of broken, bluebells, mosses,
holly ivy and hazel.
 Most of the deciduous trees hardwood.

N/B large areas of the forest have been cleared.

v. Mediterranean vegetation
 Located in areas experiencing a mediterrean climate such as:
 S. Europe and N. Africa areas bordering Mediterranean Sea.
 Around Cape Town on S.W end of Africa.
 Central coast of California.
 Around Perth in S.W Australia.

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Characteristics

 It consists mainly of open forests/woodlands.

 The trees are adapted to long, hot dry summers.
 Most of the plants have long tap roots to reach the deep underground water.
 Most of the trees and bush species are deciduous shedding leaves to minimize loss
of water during summer.
 Many trees are deciduous.
 Drier areas have hardy bushes/scrub vegetation.
 Most of the bushy plants are xerophytic, i.e. have special adaptations to survive the
long dry season/drought as follows:
 Some store water in thick fleshy leaves/stems.
 Some have waxy leaves to reduce the transpiration rate.
 Some have small spiny leaves to reduce transpiration.
 Some have thick waxy barks to reduce transpiration rate.
 Some have long to tap underground moisture.
 The main tree species are: Olive, beech, cedar, pine, Eucalyptus.
 The bush species are: Lavender, rosemary, thyme and oleander.
 Main tree species are:
 Main tree species are:
 Main tree species are:
 olive
 sweet
 chestnut
 beech
 cedar
 cypress
 sequoia
 eucalyptus

vi. Mangrove Forests

 Found in low lying muddy coasts of tropical seas with shallow salty waters.

Areas

 Along the east coast of Africa.

 Near the estuary of Amazon River in S. America.
Characteristics

 Dominated by mangrove trees and 30 other species of trees.

 Mangrove trees have special roots which are partly aerial to aid breathing. Some
grow horizontally and then vertically downwards into mud while some grow
horizontally in mud and bend upwards to aid breathing and others have net work of
roots resembling

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 vii. Temperate Evergreen Forests
 Found in areas experiencing warm temperate eastern margin or China Climate.

Areas

 Along Natal coast in S. Africa

 S. china and S. Japan
 S.E Australia
 S.E and S. states of U.S.A.
Characteristics

 Evergreen because of abundant rainfall throughout the year.

 Most trees have broad leaves to increase the surface are for efficient transpiration.
 Many evergreen trees are hardwoods.
viii. Mixed Forests
 Found at the zone of transition between temperate deciduous and coniferous
forests.
 These are a mixture of deciduous and coniferous forests.
 They occur in south East Asia, China, Japan, South Brazil and Uruguay.

Location

 Saskatchewan and Alberta provinces of Canada

 Scottish regions in Europe
 low lying Mediterranean regions
Characteristics

 A mixture of broadleaved deciduous and coniferous trees.

 The forests are evergreen.
 Vegetation is less luxuriant then the equatorial rain forest.
b. Grasslands
i. Tropical savanna grasslands
 found in areas experiencing a tropical continental/savanna climate as follows:
 West Africa: Senegal, southern Mali, Burkina Faso, southern Niger,
northern Nigeria.
 Central Africa: Southern Chad, Sudan.
 East Africa: Southern Ethiopia, Somalia, Kenya, eastern Uganda,
Tanzania.
 Southern Africa: Zambia, Zimbabwe, Botswana, southern Angola.
 South America: Brazilian highlands, lowlands of Venezuela and Colombia.
 North East of the Australian desert.

Characteristics

 Grasses of varied height with scattered tress.

 Tall grasses of up to 2m with scattered tress near the water courses (savanna
parkland) dry season about 6 months.

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  More trees in the region bordering the equatorial forests because of the dry season
is short about 3 months (savanna woodland).
 Thorn bushes, low shrubs in areas bordering the tropical desert (savanna scrub)
 Most of the grasses wither and turn brown in the dry season; the roots remain
dormant and sprout when the rainy season comes.
 The trees have special adaptations to survive the dry season as follows:
 Some store water in their trunks, e.g. baobab.
 Some shed their leaves to prevent loss of water through transpiration.
 Most have long roots to tap water in the deep layers of soil.
 Some trees develop an umbrella-shaped crown to provide shade
around the trunk and roots to help conserve soil moisture, e.g. acacia.
 High temperature and heavy rainfall in the summer result in rapid and luxuriant
plant growth.
 Main trees species are: acacia, baobab, and bottlebrush.
 Maim grass species is elephant grass.
ii. Temperate grasslands
 These are also known as mid-latitude grasslands
 Found in continental interiors of temperate grasslands where rainfall isn’t sufficient
to sustain forests.
 Five main zones of temperate grasslands recognized in the world are as follows:
 The prairies of North America.
 The steppes.
 The pampas of Argentina.
 The veld of South Africa.
 Downs of Australia and New Zealand.

The Prairies

Areas

 Canadian provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba and neighbouring states of

U.S.A.

Characteristics

 Continuous tuft grass

 Grasses are nutritious.
 Grass is short
 Grass is interspersed with bulbons and leguminous plants.
 Grass is mixed in some areas with species such as stipa, buffalo and gamma grasses.
 Tall grasses in areas with rainfall of over 500mm.

The Steppes

 Found in Eurasia- temperate interiors of Europe and Asia.

Characteristics

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  True Steppes-rich carpet of grass and some flowering plants.
 Desert steppes-Coarse grass growing in tufts
 Grass doesn’t form a continuous cove on the
 Short grass which grows very close to the ground.

The Pampas

 Found in Argentina.

Characteristics

 Feather-like grass
 Grass forms individual tussocks with patches of bare soil.
 Forests are present in some areas due to increased moisture.
 Xerophytic or drought resistant plants are present in some areas.

The Veld

 Found in S. Africa.

Characteristics

 Grasses are extensively spread.

 There is little or no mixture of trees or shrubs.
 There is a uniform cover of grass on high plateaus.

The Downs

 Found in Australia and New Zealand.

Characteristics

 Tall grass mixed with trees.

 Semi desert areas have patches of dominant grass.
 Mixture of temperate and tropical grass species.
 Grass is nutritious and nutritious for livestock.
 Natural grasses of Argentina have been replaced by Alfalfa and in New Zealand
British meadow grasses now dominate.
c. Desert vegetation
i. Tropical Desert Vegetation (hot deserts)
 Located in areas experiencing tropical deserts as follows:
 In Africa: Sahara, Kalahari and Namib deserts.
 In S.W Asia: Jordan, Syria, Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia and Israel
 Thar Desert in India.
 Atacama Desert in South America.
 Great Australian desert in Australia.

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Characteristics

 Vegetation is present except in bare rock and sand covered areas.

 There are more plants on oasis e.g. date palms and a variety of shrubs.
 Some plants are succulent to have high water storage capacity.
 Some have spines to protect them from animals.
 Some have thorn-like leaves to reduce rate of transpiration.
 Some have long roots to enable them to tap water from deeper parts of rocks.
 Some shed leaves during dry season and grow new leaves during wet periods
to reduce water loss.
 Some are salt tolerant (halophytic) by having many water storing cells to
counter soil salinity or alkalinity
 Some are evergreen hard leaved plants, e.g. Euphorbia.
iii. Temperate and Arctic desert vegetation (cold desert)
 Located in Utah (USA), Potagania (Argentina), Gobi (china and Mongolia)

Characteristics

i. Composed of grasses and woody plants.

ii. Most plants are drought resistant having needle-like leaves.
iii. Woody plants are xerophytic and halophytic.
iv. Shrubs have shallow roots due to permafrost.
v. Plants flower and produce fruits within short wet season.
vi. There is scarce vegetation in Tundra.
vii. Plants present in arctic deserts are such as lichens, mosses and flowering plants
such as anemones and marsh marigold.
viii. Stunted birch, willow trees.
ix. The tundra vegetation is a barren land because of the following:
 It is excessively cold.
 The sub-soil is permanently frozen.
 The top soil is frozen most of the year.
 The soil is thin.
 Short growing season.
 Long periods of darkness.
 Strong winds.
 Presence of bogs/wet spongy ground.

Mountain vegetation

 Vegetation found towards the top of the mountain and highlands. E.g. the Himalayas,
Rockies, Andes, and Alps.
 It is characterized by sharp and noticeable differences in plant types as one ascents
the mountain
 Vegetation on the mountains is zoned based on the following:
i. Altitude.
ii. Aspect.
iii. Slope/gradient of slope.

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 iv. Temperature.
v. Moisture availability.

Significance of vegetation

i. Vegetation is of aesthetic value, i.e. it beautifies the environment.

ii. Trees act as windbreakers.
iii. Dead plant materials add up humus content in the soil.
iv. Forests and grasslands act as a habitat to wildlife.
v. Vegetation acts as a purifier of the atmosphere by using up carbon (IV) oxide in the
photosynthesis process hence regulating the co2 content.
vi. Some plants have medicinal value, i.e. the roots/leaves are used as herbal
medicine/in the manufacture of medicine, e.g. chichona tree, muarubaini.
vii. Trees provide raw material for the pulp and paper industry.
viii. Forests regulate/modify the climate of a place, i.e. rainfall amount and temperature.
ix. Trees provide timber for construction and furniture.
x. Grass id used for thatching houses.
xi. Fruits from trees and grasses are food for animals.
xii. Some trees can be propagated as cash crops, e.g. rubber cocoa and palm oil trees.

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 UNIT SEVEN
FORESTRY
Definition of forest and forestry

 A forest is continuous growth of trees and undergrowth covering a large tract of

land.
 Forestry is the science of developing and managing forests.

Factors influencing the distribution and type of natural forests.

a. Climate
 Very cold conditions such as those experienced on the upper slopes of mts or in
Polar Regions discourage the growth of forests.
 Forests require heavy precipitation and warm climate throughout the year.
b. Altitude
 Altitude affects temperature and rainfall.
 Low temperature leads in slower forest growth and smaller size while high
temperatures produce more luxuriant growth.
c. Soils
 Deep soils support greater tree growth while thin soils do not.
d. Topography
 Forests do well on gentle slope while not on steep mts
 Windward sides of high mts like Kilimanjaro and Kenya usually receive higher
rainfall sand therefore are forested.
e. Human activities
 People clear forests to give room to farming and settlement.
 Some trees have been cut to provide timber for fuel and building materials.
 This has led to destruction of many forested areas.

Types of natural forests and their distribution

a. Tropical hardwood forests
 It refers to the equatorial forests and tropical monsoon forests.
 Located in the African equatorial lands from Guinea to the Democratic Republic
of Congo, Amazon basin and south East Asia lowlands.
 The tropical hardwood forests have the following characteristics:
i. The forests are evergreen.
ii. Some trees are deciduous.
iii. The trees do not occur in pure stands.
iv. The trees are tall with straight trunks.
v. The trees have large trunks with buttress roots making it difficult to exploit.
vi. The trees are heavy and cannot float on water.

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 vii. The trees take a long time to mature about 65-100 years.
viii. The main tree species are: Teak, Ebony, Mahogany, Oak, Okuome, Muule, etc.
b. Temperate hardwood forests
 Located in areas like eastern part of north America, western, southern and
central Europe, northern china, Japan, northern and eastern Australia
 Temperate hardwood forests have the following characteristics:
i. Trees are mainly deciduous, i.e. they shed their leaves in autumn.
ii. Trees have broad leaves.
iii. Individual tree species are scattered.
iv. Trees are smaller in size than those of the tropical hardwood forests.
v. Trees are easier to exploit because they have on buttress roots.
vi. The main tree species are: Silver oak, beech, olive, elm, birch maple, etc.
c. Coniferous forests
 They are classified as temperate softwoods.
 Located in most of Scandinavian countries, northern part of former U.S.S.R.
especially Siberia and the western, central and eastern parts of North America.
 Coniferous forests have the following characteristics:
i. Trees are evergreen.
ii. The trees occur in pure stands.
iii. The trees are softwoods and are light in weight.
iv. They have little undergrowth hence easy to exploit.
v. Trees are tall about 30m in height and have straight trunks.
vi. The trees have conical shape, which prevents accumulation of snowupon the
branches thus allowing snow to slide off easily to the ground.
vii. The trees have thick barks, which have a lot of resin which prevents the
trunks and branches from frost.
viii. They have hard needle-like leaves which help reduce evapotranspiration
during summer.
ix. The trees take a long time to mature about 50-70 years in temperate region
but about 10 years in the tropics.
x. Major tree species of commercial value are pine, spruce, cypress, fir larch,
etc.

Importance of forests and forest products in Kenya.

i. Forests are source of utility products, e.g. timber, wood fuel, fruits, etc.
ii. Forests are water catchment areas.
iii. Forests are habitat for wildlife and other organism.
iv. Forests purify the air by regulating the CO2 in the atmosphere.
v. Forests regulate the climate of an area, i.e. provide wet and cool conditions as seen
in Kakamega forest.
vi. Forests provide employment opportunities, e.g. forest guards /rangers.
vii. Forests acts as a reservoir for research.
viii. Forests provide beautiful scenery which attracts tourists.
ix. Forests acts as hiding ground during wars.
x. Forests are used for the extraction tannin.

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 xi. They act as a major source of income.

Problems facing forests in Kenya

i. Forests are cleared to provide land for farming and settlement.

ii. High demand for timber products.
iii. Illegal lodging.
iv. Occurrence of forest fires.
v. Forest vegetation damaged by wild animals, e.g. elephant.
vi. Drug growing in forests.
vii. Damage by pests and diseases, e.g. aphids.
viii. Prolonged droughts.
ix. The degazettement of state forests.
x. Poor management of forests.

Conservation of forests in Kenya.

 Conservation of forests refers to the protection of natural forests and forest

plantations against interference and destruction by people.
 Conservation measures are as follows:
i. Afforestation and reafforestation programmes.
 Afforestation is the process of planting trees where none existed before
while reafforestation is the establishment of forests where the original forest
cover was destroyed.
ii. Legislation: involves forest bill, environment co-ordination and management act.
iii. Community participation, e.g. shamba system.
iv. Creation of forest reserves to protect indigenous forests from extinction e.g. Mt.
Kenya forest, Shimba Hills and Arabuko Sokoke.
v. Setting Nyayo Tea Zones to act as protective belts to prevent people from
trespassing into the forests
vi. Encouraging Agroforestry: this involves land use system which deals with the
growing of trees and crops on the same piece of land at the same time.

Importance of agroforestry

 To ensure a continuous supply of wood fuel, timber, herbal medicines and

raw materials for paper-making.
 To reduce importation of forest products, hence save foreign exchange.
 To create employment opportunities.
 To protect soil from erosion.
 To protect and improve water catchment areas.
 To maintain the hydrological cycle of water.
 To enhance scenic beauty.
 To provide fruits for human consumption.

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Management of forests

 This refers to the effective planning and control of forests and forest resources.
 Forest management measures in Kenya are as follows:
i. Carrying out public campaigns on the value of forests through mass media
ii. Carrying out research on suitability of soils and the effects of pests and diseases on
forests.
iii. Encouraging the use of alternative source of fuel, e.g. biomass.
iv. Establishment of training and research institutes, e.g. Londiani forestry training
college, Kenya forestry research institute, etc.
v. Recycling the wastes to produce other useful products.
vi. Employment of forest guards to guard against destruction of forests.
vii. Enacting laws to govern the management of forest.
viii. Creation of forest reserves, e.g. Aberdares, Mau, etc.

Importance of forest management and conservation

i. To ensure continued supply of fuel, building and construction materials, etc.

ii. To help conserve the natural habitat of flora and fauna.
iii. Maintaining water catchment areas.
iv. Controlling soil erosion.
v. To maintain supply of raw materials to paper making industries.
vi. Forests are important centres for scientific research.

Soft wood forests in Kenya

 In Kenya most of the soft wood forests are planted

 They located in highland areas;
 These areas include: Londiani, Turbo, Kipkabus, Timboroa, Kaptagat, Elburgon,
Lugari, Nyahururu, Burnt Forest, etc.
 The main trees species are pine and cypress which are exotic while the indigenous
species are podo and cedar
 The soft wood has more uses than hard wood and this has led to their growth being
encouraged.

Forestry in Canada

 In Canada, forestry is an important extractive industry.

 Sixty percent of Canada is covered by forests starting from the Atlantic coast in the
East to the Pacific coast in the west.

Factors favouring the development of softwood forests in Canada and Kenya.

Canada

i. The low temperatures experienced discourage settlement and other forms of land
use, leaving forestry as the alternative economic land use.

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 ii. The rugged landscapes in British Colombia do not favour agriculture hence forests
dominate.
iii. High rainfall throughout the year in these areas has promoted forest growth.
iv. Valley bottoms along the coast provide good sites for paper mills.
v. The coastal location also favours the exploitation of the timber products from the
mills.
vi. There are many rivers with water falls, for instance, River Ottawa which provides
constant volume of water used to generate HEP for use in industries.
vii. The Rivers provide plenty of water for processing purposes.
viii. Rivers such as Ottawa and Frazer provide cheap means of water transport.
ix. There is ready market in Canada and the neighbouring U.S.A.

Kenya

i. The highlands have cool climate favouring the growth.

ii. Highlands receive heavy rainfall over 1000 mm favouring the growth of forests.
iii. Rugged landscape cannot favour agriculture hence the best option is forestry.
iv. High demands for forest products.

Comparison of softwood forests in Kenya and Canada

Types of species

 In Kenya there are both exotic and indigenous trees species. Exotic species include:
pine, cypress, fir, and wattle trees. Indigenous species include: podo and African
pencil.
 In Canada all species are indigenous, e.g. pine, spruce, and forg.

Cutting, transportation and processing of the forest products

KENYA CANADA
 Workers are transported daily to the  Camps for settlement are set up in
logging sites. areas to harvest.
 Use of power saws and other simple  Exclusive use of power saws.
tools, e.g. axes.  Rivers are widely used to transport
 Transportation of logs by tractors logs, tractors and Lorries are also
and Lorries. used.
 Logging is systematic done in blocks.  Logging is systematic done in blocks.
 A cleared block is planted with  Barks are removed before logs are
seedlings. taken to the saw mills.
 Barks are removed in the saw mills.

Marketing of products

Kenya Canada

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  Most products are sold locally but are  Most products have ready markets in
exported to Arabian countries, USA Canada, USA, Britain and the rest of
and Europe. Europe.

Economic significance

Kenya Canada
 Employment opportunities to a few  Very many people are employed in
people. related industries.
 Very few pulp and paper industries,  Very many pulp and paper industries
e.g. Webuye. established.
 It has led to the improvement of  Improvement of entire infrastructure
roads. and HEP provision.
 It earns foreign exchange.  Earns foreign exchange.

Problems facing Forestry

Kenya Canada
 Fire caused by honey harvesters,  Fires caused lightening, campers, etc.
hunter and charcoal burners.  Pests and diseases.
 Pest and diseases.  Over exploitation.
 Over exploitation  Severe winters make trees to take
 Conflicts in land use. long to mature (50-60 years)
 Forest in northern are inaccessible.

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