FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING #DrBantayanBryanV

PART II

MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL DISTANCES

MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCE

• The accurate determination of the distance between two points on any surface is one of

the basic operations of plane surveying. Such linear measurements are understood to

mean the horizontal distance. If the points are at different elevations, the distance is the

horizontal length between plumb lines at the points. In many instances, measurements

are taken along an inclined line. These distances, however, are subsequently reduced to

their equivalent on the horizontal projection for use.

DISTANCE BY PACING

Pacing consists of counting the number of steps or paces in a required distance. A

pace is defined as the length of step in walking. It may be measured from heel to heel or

from toe to toe.

LINK OF FIELDWORK NO. 1: PACING

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To pace a distance it is necessary to first determine the length of one’s pace. This is

referred to as the pace factor. There are two methods that can calibrate one’s pace. One

method is to determine the average length of an individual’s normal step. The other

method is to adjust one’s pace to some predetermined length, such as 1 meter.

DISTANCE BY TACHYMETRY

1. Stadia Method

DISTANCE BY GRAPHICAL AND MATHEMATICAL METHODS

DISTANCE BY MECHANICAL DEVICES

1. Odometer

2. Measuring Wheel

3. Optical Rangefinder

DISTANCE BY PHOTOGRAMMETRY
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FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING #DrBantayanBryanV
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CORRECTIONS IN TAPING

Remember this in correcting taping errors:

“When measuring with tape too long, add; tape too short, subtract. Do the reversed

when laying out.”

These are the following conditions which could exist during a taping operation may require

the application of corrections.

1. The tape used is not of standard or nominal length due to either faults in their

manufacture, or damage caused by kinks, bends, cuts and splices on the tape.

2. Ends of the tape are not held at the same level when “breaking tape” along inclined or

rough terrain surfaces, or when undertaking slope taping.

3. Inaccuracy in keeping the tape along a straight line during the measurement or in laying

out of lengths.

4. Tape is not of nominal length due to the difference in temperature prevailing during the

actual measurement and the temperature for which the tape was standardized.

5. Shortening or lengthening of the tape due to the application of the pull on its ends which

differs significantly from the pull applied on the tape during standardization.

6. Distance between the end points of an unsupported length of tape is less than the

specified nominal length due to the effect of sag or a strong blowing side wind.
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CORRECTIONS DUE TO INCORRECT TAPE LENGTH

• The absolute value for correction per tape length (Corr) is determined from the

difference between the true or actual length of tape (TL) and the nominal length of the

tape (NL) or Corr = TL - NL

• Correspondingly, corrected distances which are measured or laid out with a tape that is

too long or too short can be determined from the following equations.

C1 = Corr (ML/NL)

CL = ML ± C1

Where:

C1 = total correction to be applied to the measured length or length to be laid out

CL = corrected length of the line to be measured or laid out

ML = measured length or length to be laid out

NL = nominal length of tape

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FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING #DrBantayanBryanV
FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING #DrBantayanBryanV

CORRECTIONS DUE TO SLOPE

When distances are measured along the slope, the equivalent HD may correspondingly

be determined by applying an approximate slope correction.

Where:

s = measured slope distance between points A and B

h = difference in elevation between points A and B

d = equivalent horizontal distance AC

Ch = slope correction, Ch = s – d

Transporting terms and Factoring out s2 = d2 + h2

Since Ch = (s – d), therefore H2 = Ch (s – d) or Ch = h2 / (s+d)

A slope is classified as gentle when it is not greater than 20%. This means a rise or fall

of 20 units in a horizontal distance of 100 units. The slope is calculated by dividing the
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difference in elevation by the horizontal distance and multiplying by 100% to obtain the

slope in percent or SLOPE = h / d (100%)

CORRECTIONS DUE TO SLOPE

This are the following are the different slope correction formulas used when reducing

slope measurements to equivalent horizontal distances.

1. Gentle Slopes (Less than 20%)

Ch = h2 / 2s

2. Steep Slopes (Between 20% and 30%)

Ch = (h2 / 2s) + (h4 / 8s3)

3. Very Steep Slopes (Greater than 30%)

Ch = s (1 – Cos Ø)

CORRECTION DUE TO TEMPERATURE

The tape lengthens as the temperature rises and shortens as the temperature falls. Tapes

used in surveying measurements are standardized at a specific temperature. since

measurements are taken at temperature which may vary significantly from the

temperature at which the tapes were standardized, tapes may be either too long or too

short. The correction applied to the length of the tape due to change in temperature Ct is

given by the formula

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Ct = CL (T – Ts)

wherein:

C = coefficient of linear expansion

L = length of the tape or line measured

T = observed temperature of the tape during measurement

Ts = temperature at which the tape was standardized

CORRECTION DUE TO TENSION

During calibration (or standardization) a tape is subjected to a certain amount of standard

pull or tension on its ends. When used in the field during taping, it is elongated or

shortened accordingly, depending on the amount of pull applied on it. The change in

length can be determined as follows:

E = Unit Stress / Elongation per Unit Length = (P/A) ÷ (e/L)

By substituting the quantity, (Pm – Ps), to P, and computing for the value of

elongation, e or Cp the following formula is obtained

Cp = [(Pm – Ps)L] / AE

L’ = L ± Cp

Where:

Cp = total elongation in tape length due to pull (m)

Pm = pull applied to the tape during measurement (kg)

Ps = standard pull for the tape (kg)

L = measured length of line (m)

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A = cross-sectional area of the tape (sq.cm)

E = modulus of elasticity of the tape material (kg/cm2)

L’ = corrected length of the measured line (m)

CORRECTION DUE TO SAG

A tape attains its correct length when it is fully supported and subjected to the pull for

which it was standardized. If the support is only at its ends or at the two points measured,

it will sag even if the standard pull is maintained because of its own weight. The correction

due to sag is the difference in length between the arc formed by the tape and the

subtending chord. In determining this correction, the arc is assumed to be a parabola,

and is computed with sufficient precision by the formula

Cs = w2L3 / 24P2

Since W = wl or W2 = w2L2, and subtituting this to equation 1, we obtain

Cs = W2L / 24P2

Where:

Cs = correction due to sag

ω = weight of tape per unit length ( kg / m)

W = total weight of tape between supports

L = interval between supports

P = tension or pull applied on the tape

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FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING #DrBantayanBryanV
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FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING #DrBantayanBryanV
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