ENG 331 MODULE 3

MODULE 3 WORD AND SENTENCE MEANING

Unit 1 Semantics and the Study of the Word: Sense Relations

Unit 2 Semantics and the Nature of the Lexicon
Unit 3 Aspects of Sentential Meaning
Unit 4 Pragmatics and the Speech Acts Theory

UNIT 1 SEMANTICS AND THE STUDY OF THE

WORD: SENSE RELATIONS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Sense/Lexical Relations Used in Explaining Meaning of
English Word
3.1.1 Synonymy
3.1.2 Antonymy
3.1.3 Hyponymy
3.1.4 Homonymy
3.1.5 Polysemy
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
6.0 Summary
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In our study of semantic theories, we noted that viable theories of
meaning should be able to explain the nature of the meaning of words as
well as that of sentences. You have learnt that the meaning of a word
may not always be realised from its referential or denotational
characteristics. Indeed, there are many words whose basic characteristics
may not be easily analysed. Such words are best studied by focusing on
the kind of relationship they create with other words. These relationships
are based on the sense of the words. Therefore, we study words from
their sense relations or lexical relations. At this level, we shall study
sense relations along the following lines:

 Synonymy,
 Antonymy,
 Hyponymy,
 Polysemy, and
 Homophony.
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ENG 331 INTRODUCTION TO SEMANTICS

In this unit, we shall explore the meaning of words, using principally the
principle of sense relations.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 explain sense/lexical relations;
 discuss key concepts in sense/lexical relations; and
 apply sense relations in explaining the meaning of English words.

HOW TO STUDY THE UNIT

a. Read this unit as diligently as possible.

b. Find meaning of unfamiliar words in the unit using your
dictionary.
c. As you read, put major points down in a piece of paper or jotter.
d. Do not go to the next section until you have fully understood the
section you are reading now.
e. Do all the Self-Assessment exercises in the unit as honestly as
you can. In some areas where it is not feasible to provide answers
to Self-Assessment exercises, go to the relevant sections of the
unit to derive the answers.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Sense/Lexical Relations Used in Explaining Meaning of

English Word

We shall examine different sense/lexical relations used in explaining the

meaning of English words.

3.1.1 Synonymy

When reference is made to lexical relation or close relatedness in the

meaning of words, we deal with synonymy. We can therefore, describe
pairs of words that have very close similarities in meaning as synonyms.
For example, we can have the following pairs of words as synonyms.

Friend/ally: boss/master; amiable/friendly

It has often been observed that words may not always have exact
substitutes in all contexts. This observation means that we may have
absolute, complete and total synonyms when there are exact substitutes
as in:

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ENG 331 MODULE 3

- Everybody/Everyone
- Bandit/Brigand

There are also broad or near synonyms as in:

- rich / sumptuous
- mature / ripe

3.1.2 Antonymy

The relationship of oppositeness is referred to as antonymy. You will

observe that in public and professional examinations in which
knowledge of English is tested, there are sections on words and
opposites. Antonymy occurs in two forms – gradable and non-gradable
antonyms.
For adjectives and adverbs, gradable antonyms show degrees and can be
compared with suffixes –er, and –est as well as with the words, more
and most – as in:
- Tall Taller Tallest
- intelligent more intelligent most intelligent
- dangerously more dangerously most dangerously

On the other hand, non-gradable antonyms do not occur as comparative

constructions. Words in this category are expressed as complementary
pairs – such that their exact opposites are the only options. For example,
someone can be male or female, father or mother, dead or alive, married
or single. Other examples of non-gradable antonyms are – close or open,
found or lost. There are also relational opposites, which convey the
meaning of reciprocal, bilateral or social relationships. Such meanings
are interdependent such that membership of one of the pairs suggests the
other. The following are common examples.

Teacher – student
Parent – child
Brother – sister
Buy – sell
Servant – master
Wife – husband
Employer - employee

3.1.3 Hyponymy

When the meaning of one form is included in the meaning of another,

we have hyponymy. For instance, included in animals are dogs,
elephants, goat, and so on. We can also relate hyponymy to professions

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ENG 331 INTRODUCTION TO SEMANTICS

to include law, medicine, teaching, banking, and so on. There is always

a hierarchical relationship drawing from the general to samples.

3.1.4 Homonymy

Homonymy explains a situation of identical spelling or pronunciation

but with different unrelated meanings. Such words usually create
problems of ambiguity. Consider the following examples.

- Bank (of a river)

- Bank (financial institution)
- Fly (an insect)
- Fly (to move in the air)
- Lead (verb to guide)
- Lead (an element used in making pencil)

When homonymy is partial, we have heteronymy. It is possible to have a

situation of homonymy at one medium of language – such as in writing
– but pronounced differently as in

Lead - /li:d/ and

Lead - /led/.

This situation is referred to as homography. With this distinction, it has

become more common to reserve the term “homophony” – when
reference is made to identical pronunciation as in:

Key and quay /ki:/

Been and bean /bi:n/
Court and caught /kͻ:t/

3.1.5 Polysemy

A situation of polysemy arises when one form of a word has multiple

meanings, which are related by extension. Words that are polysemous
have single entries in the dictionary. However, there are numbers that
suggest the list of possible meanings – as shown below.

1 - Foot of a person
2 – of a bed
3 – of a mountain

It should be noted that homonyms are listed as different lexical items in

the dictionary.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

i. List dif1ferent sense/lexical relations, which English words

attract.
ii. Provide two examples each for antonyms and synonyms.

4.0 CONCLUSION

We have observed that words may not be profitably analysed through

their reference or comportments. This observation has favoured the
relevance on the sense relations holding among words.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have studied the meaning of words from the perspective
of sense relations with emphasis on synonymy antonymy, hyponymy,
homophony and polysemy. We have also illustrated each of these
concepts with examples from English.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

i. Describe the different types of antonyms.
ii. Describe the relationship of hyponymy.

Answers:
i. synonymy, ontonymy, polysemy
ii. antonyms: male/female, old/new
synonyms: still/yet, rich/wealthy

7.0 REFERENCE/FURTHER READING

Ndimele, O. M. (1998). Semantics and Frontiers of Communication.

Port Harcourt: University of Port Harcourt Press.

Ogbulogo, C. (2005). Concepts in Semantics. Lagos: Sam Iroanusi

Publication.

Palmer, F. R. (1996). Semantics. London: Cambridge University Press.

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ENG 331 INTRODUCTION TO SEMANTICS

UNIT 2 SEMANTICS AND THE NATURE OF THE

LEXICON

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Nature of the Lexicon and the Feature of Words
3.2 Subcategorising English Words
3.3 Role Relations of Lexical Items
3.4 The Nature of Empty Categories
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Recall that we have discussed semantics in relation to word and sentence

meaning. It is even more profitable to examine how semantics relates to
the structure of the sentence. This requires some understanding of the
characteristics of words. We have consistently noted that semantics
deals with the study of meaning in natural language. Meaning is
conveyed by words and their combination. There are usually deep
structure forms of the meaning of sentences from which many surface
forms can derive via transformation. The combinations that are
permissible for words are based on the features of specific words.
Interestingly, when the lexicon has been externalised and organised, we
have the dictionary. Indeed, the richer and the more comprehensive the
dictionary of a language, the more it has the capacity to express
meaning. This study is connected with syntax and we shall, for the
purpose of this unit, discuss aspects of semantics relevant to the study of
syntax.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 describe the nature of the lexicon;
 explain the features of words;
 explore the sub categorisation of English words;
 identify role relations of lexical items; and
 examine the nature of empty categories.

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ENG 331 MODULE 3

HOW TO STUDY THE UNIT

a. Read this unit as diligently as possible.

b. Find meaning of unfamiliar words in the unit using your
dictionary.
c. As you read, put major points down in a piece of paper or jotter.
d. Do not go to the next section until you have fully understood the
section you are reading now.
e. Do all the Self-Assessment exercises in the unit as honestly as
you can. In some areas where it is not feasible to provide answers
to Self-Assessment exercises, go to the relevant sections of the
unit to derive the answers.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Nature of the Lexicon and the Feature of Words

The lexicon presents an ordered mental list of words available to a

language user. As we have observed earlier, when the lexicon is
externalised and generalised, it becomes the dictionary. The information
provided in the lexicon or the dictionary covers the phonological,
morphological, syntactic and semantic characteristics of the lexical
items.

Phonological information guides us in pronunciation; morphological

information refers to the formation of the word while syntactic
information focuses on the categorical features as well as the
distributional possibilities of the word. Semantic information relates to
the meaning of the word. When we focus on the features of words, we
deal on the specific groups such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs,
pronouns, conjunctions, prepositions, and so on. It is possible to classify
words as content and form words. Content words have independent
meaning, even in isolation. Content words have an open class system as
they can accept new entries. For instance, in the age of Information and
Communication Technology (ICT), such new words as laptop, facebook
(an example of social media), and disc drive have been added to the
dictionary of English. Form words also called function or grammatical
words do not have independent meaning when they occur in isolation.
Such words are used to signal syntactic or grammatical relationship
within larger structures. Form words belong to a closed system because
they cannot be expanded. They are also very few in number. They
include- pronouns, auxiliaries, conjunctions, prepositions, determiners
and articles.

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ENG 331 INTRODUCTION TO SEMANTICS

Another way to classify words is to describe them as transparent or

opaque. The meaning of transparent words can be deduced from the
meaning of their constituent parts – for example:

Prefix Stem Suffix

un - god - liness
dis - satisfy(y) action

The meaning of opaque words cannot be determined from their

constituent parts. Most opaque words are also structural, grammatical or
form words.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

State the difference between the lexicon and the dictionary.

Read 3.1 above for the answer.

3.2 Subcategorising English Words

We have noted that words of any language can be grouped into specific
categories – nouns, verbs, adjectives – and so on. Apart from these
groups, often referred to as parts of speech, we can highlight the
properties of individual words. The process of highlighting the
properties of individual words is referred to as subcategorisation. For
instance, a noun can be subcategorised as proper or common, concrete,
or abstract, count or mass, human or non-human.

When the rules of subcategorisation relate to all words in a class- for

example, nouns, as we have observed above, we describe the rule as
context-free. When there are conditions specifying how the rules will
operate, we have context – sensitive conditions. For instance, it is
possible to have a verb – (such as discuss) that must take an obligatory
object. There are certain nouns that may not select indefinite determiner
for example, information and news.

We should be able to provide some generalisations about context-

sensitive characteristics of some words. For example, the verb “discuss”
must take an object, which is a noun or a noun phrase. The adjective
“fond” must be followed by a preposition. The information can be
represented in a systematic way.

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ENG 331 MODULE 3

Discuss V - (NP)
Fond Adj - (of NP)

Every lexical item establishes some constraints on syntactic categories

with which it associates. Context-sensitive generalisations are part of
what we describe as strict subcategorisation.
Words are further constrained by semantic considerations. These
restrictions are referred to as selectional restriction. The rule of
selectional restriction shows the semantic properties of lexical items – in
terms of + concrete + abstract + human. Words like tree and stone are (-
ANIMATE), while fox, man are (+ANIMATE). Some abstract words
like love, eat, run will be marked as (+ANIMATE + HUMAN).

It will therefore be anomalous to present the following sentences

(i) The tree loves them.
(ii) The stone ate rice.
Meaning is therefore predictable from observing the nature of the
complete semantic environment as well as from an assessment of
syntactic well-formedness.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Identify the different ways we can classify English words.

Read 3.2 above for the answer.

3.3 Role Relations of Lexical Items

It may not be enough to limit our knowledge of words to their basic

characteristics. It is necessary to examine the functions of lexical items
in a systematic way. This can be achieved by focusing on the role
relations of lexical items. Indeed, role relations provide information on
semantic relationships among lexical items. In doing so, role
relationships help to highlight functions of lexical items. The functions
of lexical items are referred to as arguments – such as agent, instrument,
experience, source, goal, path, location, possessor, patient, and so on.
Nouns and noun phrases are described as arguments in relation to the
verbs in the sentence. Verbs are central in determining semantic roles.
These roles relate to processes, events and state of affairs associated
with participants in the sentence.

The agent is usually a noun phrase marked as (+ANIMATE), and which

instigate an action or an event as shown below.

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ENG 331 INTRODUCTION TO SEMANTICS

(i) John boiled eggs (John as agent)

When entities designated as (-ANIMATE) initiate some action, we

describe the entities as force For example:

(ii) Radiation caused some damage (Radiation as force)

That entity that is affected by the action of the agent or force is referred
to as patient e.g.

(iii) John boiled eggs (eggs as patient)

The entity that undergoes some psychological state is the experience

(iv) Juliet became happy (Juliet as experience)

The instrument is the semantic role for what is used to carry out a piece
of action

(v) She cleaned the chair with a brush (brush as instrument)

Source indicates the origin or direction from which an entity comes.
The source is usually a location.

(vi) The teacher took out the duster from the cupboard. (the cupboard
as source)

We can, however refer to the place an entity is situated. That is usually

the location as a thematic role.

The semantic role goal shows the direction towards which an entity
goes.

(vii) The mango rolled into a basket.

The path shows the route along which an entity moves e.g.

(viii) They reached the town through the unused road.

We also have the possessor or the beneficiary, describing the entity

benefiting from an action. The beneficiary is always (+ANIMATE)

3.4 The Nature of Empty Categories

Sentence varieties are achieved by transformations some of which

involve rearrangement, deletion, additional and replacement of linguistic
items. These transformations involve the movement of items.

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ENG 331 MODULE 3

When these items are moved, spaces are left. These spaces are referred
to as empty categories. In order to realise the full meaning of any
sentence that has undergone transformation, there is the need to explain
the nature of these empty categories.

Empty categories are of the following types:

(i) The non-anaphoric null pronominal (PRO)
(ii) Anaphors
(iii) Traces

PRO – This empty category occurs as the subject of the infinitive clause
as shown below:
(i) Peter promised (PRO to return)
(ii) Anaphors such as themselves, each other and one another.
(iii) NP Trace

In transformations involving passive structures, we always have traces

as shown below.

(i) The men were promoted -t. Note that the space after the verb
promoted has been left empty

Wh Trace- when we have WH-Questions and relative clauses, among

other structures, WH- traces occur:
(i) What did the lady cook -t-?
(ii) You said the man who I described -t-?

4.0 CONCLUSION

I have observed that our knowledge of semantics will be more fulfilling

with a more detailed analysis of words in their combination in sentences.
This demand has been pursued in this unit as we have explored the
nature of the lexicon, the features of words, the sub categorisation of
words, role relations of lexical items and the place of empty categories
in interpreting the meaning of sentences.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have examined the place of the structure of words in the
study of semantics. We have discussed:
 the nature of the lexicon
 the features of words
 the process of sub categorisation
 role relations of lexical items
 some empty categories.

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ENG 331 INTRODUCTION TO SEMANTICS

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

i. Discuss the essential features of English words.
ii. Highlight the basic role relations of English lexical items.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Chomsky, N. (2002). On Nature and Language. Cambridge University
Press.

Cook, V. J. (1988). Chomsky’s Universal Grammar. Oxford: Basil

Blackwell.
Ogbulogo, C. (2005). Concepts in Semantics. Lagos: Sam Iroanusi
Publication.

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ENG 331 MODULE 3

UNIT 3 ASPECTS OF SENTENTIAL MEANING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Paraphrase
3.2 Ambiguity
3.3 Vagueness
3.4 Tautology
3.5 Presupposition
3.6 Entailment
3.7 Anomaly
3.8 Contradiction
3.9 Analyticity
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Sense or lexical relations are concerned with the meaning of individual

words. However, as we observed in the unit on semantic theories, the
function of theories of meaning includes the explication of sentences. A
great deal of the problems of communication derives from the confusion
at the level of sentences. It is, therefore, important that you explore
sources of these problems. We do not communicate with isolated words.
Indeed, knowledge of language and the art of communication depend on
our ability to combine words in a systematic way. When words are
confined, we achieve sentential meaning. The study of semantics is also
expected to explore meaning at this level. This is the purpose of this
unit.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 identify different issues related to the meaning of the sentence;

 explain major concepts in the meaning of English sentences; and
 demonstrate the ability to apply these concepts in real language
situation.

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ENG 331 INTRODUCTION TO SEMANTICS

HOW TO STUDY THE UNIT

a. Read this unit as diligently as possible.

b. Find meaning of unfamiliar words in the unit using your
dictionary.
c. As you read, put major points down in a piece of paper or jotter.
d. Do not go to the next section until you have fully understood the
section you are reading now.
e. Do all the Self-Assessment exercises in the unit as honestly as
you can. In some areas where it is not feasible to provide answers
to Self-Assessment exercises, go to the relevant sections of the
unit to derive the answers.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Paraphrase

In the study of meaning processes in the sentence, we shall discuss these

concepts in the sections that follow.

Paraphrase is to the sentence what synonymy is to words. This means

that the paraphrase explains a situation in which two or more sentences
have one meaning. Indeed, a sentence can have many paraphrases.
There are two types of paraphrases: lexical and structural paraphrases.

In lexical paraphrases, we have two or more sentences giving the same

interpretation as a result of the replacement of one word or phrase by
another. The following are examples.

(i) The chef hired a bachelor

(ii) The chef hired an unmarried man

In the two sentences above, the change in their structure is as a result of

the substitution of a bachelor for an unmarried man. Both a bachelor
and unmarried man are phrases. Consider further the following
sentences.

(i) The man was agitated

(ii) The man was anxious

We have achieved the paraphrase by the substitution of the word

“agitated” for another, “anxious.”
Structural paraphrase is achieved when we alter the arrangements of the
sentences through transformations. The following are examples:

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ENG 331 MODULE 3

(i) They bought a new apartment (Basic –subject + Verb+ object)

(ii) It was a new apartment that they bought (Cleft)
(iii) What they bought was a new apartment (Pseudo cleft)
(iv) A new apartment was what they bought (topicalised)

3.2 Ambiguity

When an expression can be given more than one interpretation

ambiguity arises. Therefore, why polysemy relates to words, ambiguity
is concerned with sentences. We have two types of ambiguity – lexical
and structural.

Lexical ambiguity occurs when the presence of just a specific word

leads to multiple interpretations. Consider the following examples.
(i) The team has many goals
(ii) She prepared tables

It should be noted that “goals” and “tables” can be interpreted in

different easy based on the contexts.

Structural ambiguity is achieved by the organisation of the elements of

the sentence. It is possible to interpret these elements in different ways.
Consider these examples.

(i) They promoted all English teachers

(ii) Boiling water can be dangerous

The ambiguity in the second sentence drives from the possibility of

reading the sentence as:

(i) Water that is boiling (i.e. hot) can be dangerous

(ii) The act of boiling water can be dangerous

The first interpretation makes boiling water as the subject noun phrase
whereas in the second interpretations, boiling water is the complement.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

State the two types of ambiguity that can occur in a sentence.

Answer: Lexical and Structural

3.3 Vagueness

A sentence is vague when it has no definite meaning. This lack of

meaning may derive from the incompatibility of the semantic properties
of some of the words. Sometimes, a vague expression may be
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ENG 331 INTRODUCTION TO SEMANTICS

grammatically well formed, yet its meaning may be farfetched. Consider

the following classical example taken from Chomsky (1965).

(i) Colourless green ideas sleep furiously together

It should be noted that many of what we describe as literary language

would have been vague except that we understand the background as
literary. Consider further the following example.

(ii) The stones consoled her

This expression is clearly a personification since stones which are

inanimate have been endued with the characteristics of consoling.

3.4 Tautology

A situation of tautology arises when we have unnecessary repetition of

elements in communication. There is undue emphasis without
necessarily making meaning any clearer. Tautology is closely associated
with redundancy, which is the introduction of linguistic units, which do
not affect the status, or meaning of the larger construction. The
following are examples of tautology.

(i) This bachelor has not been married

(ii) The congregation are members of a church

Other instances of tautology are:

 circumnavigate around
 unlawful theft
 can be able

3.5 Presupposition

In presupposition, there is usually a piece of information, which the

speaker assumes the hearer already knows. This assumption is based on
some shared background knowledge between the speaker and the
hearers. An outsider in the circle of communication may be at a loss.
Let us illustrate this situation with the following sentences.

(i) John: Are you able to bring Harry along?

(ii) Peter: That will be splendid. On our way, we shall pick up the
drinks.
The presupposition in this conversation is that both John and Peter know
who Harry is. They both have an idea of the drinks, and the source from
where to bring them.
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3.6 Entailment

In entailment, there is usually a pair of sentences and the truth of one

derives from the truth of other. Consider the following sentences.

(i) Tracy is a spinster

(ii) Tracy is a female

Sentence (i) derives from the meaning of sentence (ii). This means that
if sentence (i) entails sentence (ii) then, sentence (ii) is necessarily the
implication of sentence (i).

3.7 Anomaly

Anomaly results from the combination of two semantic features that are
not compatible in describing a phenomenon. Words attract specific
selectional restrictions. For instance, trees are vertical while rulers, ropes
and snakes are horizontal. For vertical items, we describe them in terms
of tall, while for the horizontal ones we talk of long. Thus, we can have
tall trees, tall buildings, tall people, but long ropes, long snakes, long
rulers, and so on. It will therefore be anomalous to have:

 a long man
 a tall snake

3.8 Contradiction

Contradictory expressions present two opposing proposition at the same

time. Thus, a person cannot be dead and alive at the same time. Other
examples of anomaly are:

(i) That circular house is rectangular

(ii) The drains are flooded because there are no rains

3.9 Analyticity

We talk about analyticity when we have sentences in the grammatical

forms and lexical meanings of their proposition, which make them
necessarily true. Consider the following examples.

(i) Churches are usually attended by Christians

(ii) Unmarried ladies are spinsters

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ENG 331 INTRODUCTION TO SEMANTICS

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

List the different areas of interest in the study of the meaning of the
sentence.

Answer: paraphrase, ambiguity, vagueness, tautology, presupposition,

entailment, anomaly, contradiction, analycity.

4.0 CONCLUSION

A great deal of the problems of communication derives from the

misinterpretation of the meaning of the sentence. It is always profitable
to explore the full range of meaning, potentials in the sentence.

5.0 SUMMARY

We have studied in this unit, different area of emphasis in the

mechanisms for deriving the meaning of sentences. We have focused
attention on paraphrase, ambiguity, vagueness, tautology,
presupposition, entailment, anomaly, and analyticity.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

i. Describe lexical and structural paraphrases.

ii. Distinguish between ambiguity and vagueness.
iii. Discuss the nature of presupposition and entailment.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Huford, J. R. & Heasley, B. (1983). Semantics: A Course Book. London:

Cambridge University Press.

Kempson, R. (1977). Semantic Theory. London: Cambridge University

Press.

Ndimele, O. M. (1998). Semantics and Frontiers of Communication.

Port Harcourt: University of Port Harcourt Press.

Ogbulogo, C. (2005). Concepts in Semantics. Lagos: Sam Iroanusi

Publication.

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ENG 331 MODULE 3

UNIT 4: PRAGMATICS: CONVENTIONAL

IMPLICATURE AND SPEECH ACTS
THEORIES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Speech Acts Theory and Types of Acts in Language
3.2 Levels of Speech Acts
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Pragmatics is concerned with the range of choices and constraints

available to users, and based on the context. In pragmatics, emphasis is
on the pairing of sentences and their appropriate contexts. The choices
made in language have been found to affect the listeners and their
responses. It is possible to observe norms of politeness, appropriateness,
formality and respect in the way language is used. It is believed that
pragmatics determines the appropriate interpretation of sentences since
there could be differences between literal and implied meanings.
Differences in meaning are at the instance of the situation, the shared
background and the linguistics context of the expression. It will be most
inconceivable to limit the study of semantics to the abstract study of
meaning. Indeed, a dependable theory of meaning should explore
language use. The relationship between semantics and language use is
referred to as pragmatics. We shall explore this relationship in the
course of this unit.

Pragmatics, according to Kempson (1986) is the study of the general

principles necessary for retrieving information from a specific utterance
based on the context. Emphasis is not necessarily on the grammatical or
structural properties of the sentence. Indeed, a great deal of what we do
in human communication is determined from the context. This means
that the meaning of any stretch of communication is based on the
interpretation of the listener. We also lay emphasis on the message, the
participants, and the deductions to be made from the utterance, the
implications of what is said or assumed and the impact of the non-verbal
aspects of the interaction on the meaning.

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ENG 331 INTRODUCTION TO SEMANTICS

In terms of objectives, pragmatics deals with the totality of the processes

through which utterances convey meaning, bearing in mind the context
and how participants respond to the meanings intended. It will therefore
be easy to say that the common tie between pragmatics and semantics is
language. However, while semantics is concerned with language
meaning, pragmatics is concerned with language use. This will
necessarily mean that the contextual approach to meaning will be
relevant to pragmatics. Since the full manifestation of language from the
point of use deals on the implied processes, we shall explore the nature
of implicature.

It is always common to hear people argue over what is meant, and what
is implied. This means that there could be differences between what a
speaker says and how the listener interprets it. However, success in
communication depends on how well the meaning intended by the
speaker and how the implicature of the listener converge. This is usually
possible when participants in communication obey principles of
conversational implicature. Implicature, a term coined by H. P. Grice,
refers to what is suggested in an utterance and which may not have been
expressed.

The speaker deliberately breaks the rules of a conversational maxim to

convey additional meaning. For instance, it is possible to respond to the
question:

1. Do you really believe Betty?

The answer could be

2. She was speaking grammar.

The answer implies, among other things that Betty was not telling the
whole story.

It is expected of people in communication to obey certain co-operative

principles.

These principles have been presented as maxims of quantity, quality,

relation and manner.

Quantity – provide the right quantity of information; that is:

i. Make your contribution informative enough.

ii. Do not make your contribution more informal than necessary.

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Quality – make your contribution true; that is:

i. Do not say what you believe is not true

ii. Do not say that for which you lack evidence.

Relation – Be relevant

Manner – be perspicuous, that is:

i. Avoid obscurity of expression;

ii. Avoid ambiguity

There are also conventional implicatures used for communicating non-

truth-conditional meaning for specific linguistic expressions.
For example:

1. Ade is an Ibadan businessman, he is very rich.

This will have the conventional implicature that all Ibadan businessmen
are rich; however, this is not always the case.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you shall be able to:

 define pragmatics;
 relate pragmatics to the meaning of sentences; and
 explain the three levels of speech acts.

HOW TO STUDY THE UNIT

a. Read this unit as diligently as possible.

b. Find meaning of unfamiliar words in the unit using your
dictionary.
c. As you read, put major points down in a piece of paper or jotter.
d. Do not go to the next section until you have fully understood the
section you are reading now.
e. Do all the Self-Assessment exercises in the unit as honestly as
you can. In some areas where it is not feasible to provide answers
to Self-Assessment exercises, go to the relevant sections of the
unit to derive the answers.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Speech Acts Theory and Types of Acts in Language

Austin (1962) describes the Speech Acts theory as an approach that

explains the roles of utterances in shaping the attitudes of participants in
interpersonal communication. Speech acts reveal the intentions of
speakers and the effects the speaker’s utterances and expressions have
on the hearers. The implication of speech acts is that every utterance has
a purpose, which derives from the specific context. It has been observed
that language use depends on such contextual factors as social and
physical conditions, attitudes, abilities, beliefs and the relationship
existing between the speaker and the listener.
There are different types of speech acts, the most common being the
following.
(a) Representative Acts;
(b) Declarative Acts;
(c) Directive Acts;
(d) Expressive Acts; and
(e) Commissive Acts.

Representative Acts – These acts describe events, processes and states.

Usually, the speaker is committed to the truth of the assertion, claim,
report, suggestion, prediction, description, hypothesis or conclusion.

Declarative Acts – These are acts that immediately change the state of
affairs to which they apply. These acts are used in arresting, christening,
marriage, sentencing, acquittal and so on. Consider the following:

(i) I discharge and acquit the accused

(ii) I hereby name this baby Amanda

Directive Acts – In directive acts, the addressee is instructed to carry

out some instruction by responding verbally to an utterance or by
performing some physical actions. The acts can be questions,
commands, requests, pleas or invitation. For example:

(i) Kindly lend me some money!

(ii) Please, be my guest!
(iii) What is your name?

Expressive Acts - Expressive acts show the psychological states –

feelings and attitudes towards some events and affairs. These usually
occur in greetings, scolding, condoling, appreciating, thanking,
congratulating, apologising, and so on. For example:

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ENG 331 MODULE 3

(i) We congratulate you on your success

(ii) I apologise for my mistakes

Commissive Acts - In commissive acts, the speaker is committed to

some future action as in challenging, betting, promising, offering,
threatening, vowing, warning, etc.

(i) I pledge a hundred thousand Naira

(ii) We promise to build them a house

It should be noted that commissive acts carry specific performative

verbs – promise, swear, name, pledge, warn, advise, declare, and bet.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

List the types of speech acts.

Answer: Read 3.1 above for the answer.
3.2 Levels of Speech Acts

There may be some confusion regarding types and levels of speech acts.
We have already discussed types of speech acts – representative,
declarative, directive, expressive and commissive. For levels of speech
acts, emphasis is on the different stages of interaction between the
speaker and the listener using speech acts. Three distinct levels are
usually observed – locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary acts.

Locutionary Acts – These are observed as the processes of producing

grammatical and meaningful utterances, which can be recognised by the
hearer.

Illocutionary Acts – Illocutionary acts are the force behind the

utterances. Indeed, the speaker performs these acts to achieve the
purpose of communication as a statement, a question, a command, an
invitation, a threat, a request, an apology, and so on. It is possible, for
instance, to use a sentence that has the structure of a statement for the
purpose of a warning – e.g.

(i) You will lose all your deposits – (from a financial adviser to a
client).

This sentence may be a warning or a piece of advice.

Therefore, it is possible to use identical utterance types for different

tokens based on the intentions of the speaker and the context.
Perlocutionary Acts – These are the effects of the speaker’s utterance
on the behaviour of the hearer. They are the acts performed by the
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ENG 331 INTRODUCTION TO SEMANTICS

hearer as a result of the effect of the speaker’s utterances. It is assumed,

for instance, that the hearer will respond to a question of the speaker in a
specific way, or behave in accordance with the demands of the context.

It should be noted that the illocutionary force is the intended effect of an

utterance on the hearer from the point of view of the speaker. The
perlocutionary effect is the actual effect of the speaker’s utterance on the
action, behaviour, attitude or belief of the hearer.

Maximum communication is achieved when there is illocutionary

uptake. This situation arises when the listener understands the intended
effect of the speaker. This demand is at the core of semantics since
meaning must be shared.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Identify the levels of speech acts.

Answer: locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary

4.0 CONCLUSION

We have explored meaning beyond the abstract level of deep structure

sentences. Indeed, we have examined language in use. This is the core
of pragmatics. Our focus in this unit has been on speech acts.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have explored different dimensions of the speech acts

theory. In specific terms, we have discussed:

 the concept of pragmatics

 types and levels of speech acts
 the place of illocutionary uptake in achieving maximum
communication.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

i. Discuss the different types of speech acts.

ii. Explain the different levels of speech acts.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

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ENG 331 MODULE 3

Cook, G. (1989). Discourse. London: Oxford University Press.

Grice, H. (1975). “Logic and Conversation”. In Cole, P. & Morgan, J.

(Eds.), Syntax and semantics, vol 3, New York: Academic Press,
pp 41-58.

Halliday, M. A. (1978). Language as Social Semiotic. London: Edward

Arnold.

Kempson, R. (1986). Semantic Theory. London: Cambridge University

Press.

Ogbulogo, C. (2005). Concepts in Semantics. Lagos: Sam Iroanusi

Publication.

Searl, J. R. (1969). Speech Acts. Cambridge: M.I.T. Press.

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