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Transforms and applications handbook 3ed. Edition
Alexander D. Poularikas Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Alexander D. Poularikas
ISBN(s): 9781420066524, 1420066528
Edition: 3ed.
File Details: PDF, 15.58 MB
Year: 2010
Language: english
T H I R D E D I T I O N

TRANSFORMS
AND

APPLICATIONS
HANDBOOK
The Electrical Engineering Handbook Series
Series Editor
Richard C. Dorf
University of California, Davis

Titles Included in the Series

The Avionics Handbook, Second Edition, Cary R. Spitzer

The Biomedical Engineering Handbook, Third Edition, Joseph D. Bronzino
The Circuits and Filters Handbook, Third Edition, Wai-Kai Chen
The Communications Handbook, Second Edition, Jerry Gibson
The Computer Engineering Handbook, Vojin G. Oklobdzija
The Control Handbook, William S. Levine
CRC Handbook of Engineering Tables, Richard C. Dorf
Digital Avionics Handbook, Second Edition, Cary R. Spitzer
The Digital Signal Processing Handbook, Vijay K. Madisetti and Douglas Williams
The Electrical Engineering Handbook, Third Edition, Richard C. Dorf
The Electric Power Engineering Handbook, Second Edition, Leonard L. Grigsby
The Electronics Handbook, Second Edition, Jerry C. Whitaker
The Engineering Handbook, Third Edition, Richard C. Dorf
The Handbook of Ad Hoc Wireless Networks, Mohammad Ilyas
The Handbook of Formulas and Tables for Signal Processing, Alexander D. Poularikas
Handbook of Nanoscience, Engineering, and Technology, Second Edition,
William A. Goddard, III, Donald W. Brenner, Sergey E. Lyshevski, and Gerald J. Iafrate
The Handbook of Optical Communication Networks, Mohammad Ilyas and
Hussein T. Mouftah
The Industrial Electronics Handbook, J. David Irwin
The Measurement, Instrumentation, and Sensors Handbook, John G. Webster
The Mechanical Systems Design Handbook, Osita D.I. Nwokah and Yidirim Hurmuzlu
The Mechatronics Handbook, Second Edition, Robert H. Bishop
The Mobile Communications Handbook, Second Edition, Jerry D. Gibson
The Ocean Engineering Handbook, Ferial El-Hawary
The RF and Microwave Handbook, Second Edition, Mike Golio
The Technology Management Handbook, Richard C. Dorf
Transforms and Applications Handbook, Third Edition, Alexander D. Poularikas
The VLSI Handbook, Second Edition, Wai-Kai Chen
THIRD EDITION

TRANSFORMS
AND

APPLICATIONS
HANDBOOK

Editor-in-Chief
ALEXANDER D. POULARIKAS

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
MATLAB® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission. The MathWorks does not warrant the accuracy of the text or exercises in
this book. This book’s use or discussion of MATLAB® software or related products does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by The MathWorks
of a particular pedagogical approach or particular use of the MATLAB® software.

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© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
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No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper

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International Standard Book Number: 978-1-4200-6652-4 (Hardback)

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Transforms and applications handbook / editor, Alexander D. Poularikas. -- 3rd ed.

p. cm. -- (Electrical engineering handbook ; 43)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-1-4200-6652-4
ISBN-10: 1-4200-6652-8
1. Transformations (Mathematics)--Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Poularikas, Alexander D., 1933- II. Title. III. Series.

QA601.T73 2011
515’.723--dc22 2009018410

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 Contents

Preface to the Third Edition ........................................................................................................................................................ vii

Editor .................................................................................................................................................................................................. ix
Contributors ..................................................................................................................................................................................... xi

1 Signals and Systems ........................................................................................................................................................... 1-1

Alexander D. Poularikas
2 Fourier Transforms ............................................................................................................................................................ 2-1
Kenneth B. Howell
3 Sine and Cosine Transforms ............................................................................................................................................ 3-1
Pat Yip
4 Hartley Transform ............................................................................................................................................................. 4-1
Kraig J. Olejniczak
5 Laplace Transforms ............................................................................................................................................................ 5-1
Alexander D. Poularikas and Samuel Seely
6 Z-Transform ........................................................................................................................................................................ 6-1
Alexander D. Poularikas
7 Hilbert Transforms ............................................................................................................................................................ 7-1
Stefan L. Hahn
8 Radon and Abel Transforms ........................................................................................................................................... 8-1
Stanley R. Deans
9 Hankel Transform .............................................................................................................................................................. 9-1
Robert Piessens
10 Wavelet Transform .......................................................................................................................................................... 10-1
Yulong Sheng
11 Finite Hankel Transforms, Legendre Transforms, Jacobi and Gegenbauer Transforms,
and Laguerre and Hermite Transforms ...................................................................................................................... 11-1
Lokenath Debnath
12 Mellin Transform ............................................................................................................................................................. 12-1
Jacqueline Bertrand, Pierre Bertrand, and Jean-Philippe Ovarlez
13 Mixed Time–Frequency Signal Transformations ...................................................................................................... 13-1
G. Fay Boudreaux-Bartels
14 Fractional Fourier Transform ........................................................................................................................................ 14-1
Haldun M. Ozaktas, M. Alper Kutay, and Çagatay Candan

v
vi Contents

15 Lapped Transforms .......................................................................................................................................................... 15-1

Ricardo L. de Queiroz
16 Zak Transform .................................................................................................................................................................. 16-1
Mark E. Oxley and Bruce W. Suter
17 Discrete Time and Discrete Fourier Transforms ...................................................................................................... 17-1
Alexander D. Poularikas
18 Discrete Chirp-Fourier Transform ............................................................................................................................... 18-1
Xiang-Gen Xia
19 Multidimensional Discrete Unitary Transforms ....................................................................................................... 19-1
Artyom M. Grigoryan
20 Empirical Mode Decomposition and the Hilbert–Huang Transform ................................................................. 20-1
Albert Ayenu-Prah, Nii Attoh-Okine, and Norden E. Huang
Appendix A: Functions of a Complex Variable ................................................................................................................ A-1
Appendix B: Series and Summations .................................................................................................................................... B-1
Appendix C: Definite Integrals ............................................................................................................................................... C-1
Appendix D: Matrices and Determinants .......................................................................................................................... D-1
Appendix E: Vector Analysis ................................................................................................................................................... E-1
Appendix F: Algebra Formulas and Coordinate Systems ............................................................................................... F-1
Index ............................................................................................................................................................................................. IN-1
 Preface to the Third Edition

The third edition of Transforms and Applications Handbook follows a similar approach to that of the second edition. The new edition
builds upon the previous one by presenting additional important transforms valuable to engineers and scientists. Numerous examples
and different types of applications are included in each chapter so that readers from different backgrounds will have the opportunity
to become familiar with a wide spectrum of applications of these transforms. In this edition, we have added the following important
transforms:
1. Finite Hankel transforms, Legendre transforms, Jacobi and Gengenbauer transforms, and Laguerre and Hermite transforms
2. Fraction Fourier transforms
3. Zak transforms
4. Continuous and discrete Chirp–Fourier transforms
5. Multidimensional discrete unitary transforms
6. Hilbert–Huang transforms
I would like to thank Richard Dorf, the series editor, for his help. Special thanks also go to Nora Konopka, the acquisitions editor for
engineering books, for her relentless drive to finish the project.

Alexander D. Poularikas

MATLAB1 is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. For product information, please contact:

The MathWorks, Inc.

3 Apple Hill Drive
Natick, MA 01760-2098 USA
Tel: 508 647 7000
Fax: 508-647-7001
E-mail: [email protected]
Web: www.mathworks.com

vii
 Editor

Alexander D. Poularikas received his PhD from the University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas, and became a professor at
the University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island. He became the chairman of the engineering department at the University of
Denver, Denver, Colorado, and then became the chairman of the electrical and computer engineering department at the University
of Alabama in Huntsville, Huntsville, Alabama.
Dr. Poularikas has published seven books and has edited two. He has served as the editor in chief of the Signal Processing series
(1993–1997) with Artech House and is now the editor in chief of the Electrical Engineering and Applied Signal Processing series as well
as the Engineering and Science Primer series (1998 to present) with Taylor & Francis. He is a Fulbright scholar, a lifelong senior
member of the IEEE, and a member of Tau Beta Pi, Sigma Nu, and Sigma Pi. In 1990 and in 1996, he received the Outstanding
Educators Award of the IEEE, Huntsville Section. He is now a professor emeritus at the University of Alabama in Huntsville.
Dr. Poularikas has authored, coauthored, and edited the following books:
Electromagnetics, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1979.
Electrical Engineering: Introduction and Concepts, Matrix Publishers, Beaverton, OR, 1982.
Workbook, Matrix Publishers, Beaverton, OR, 1982.
Signals and Systems, Brooks=Cole, Boston, MA, 1985.
Elements of Signals and Systems, PWS-Kent, Boston, MA, 1988.
Signals and Systems, 2nd edn., PWS-Kent, Boston, MA, 1992.
The Transforms and Applications Handbook, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1995.
The Handbook for Formulas and Tables for Signal Processing, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1998, 2nd edn. (2000), 3rd edn. (2009).
Adaptive Filtering Primer with MATLAB, Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton, FL, 2006.
Signals and Systems Primer with MATLAB, Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton, FL, 2007.
Discrete Random Signal Processing and Filtering Primer with MATLAB, Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton, FL, 2009.

ix
 Contributors

Nii Attoh-Okine Artyom M. Grigoryan Mark E. Oxley

Civil Engineering Department Department of Electrical and Computer Department of Mathematics and Statistics
University of Delaware Engineering Graduate School of Engineering and
Newark, Delaware The University of Texas Management
San Antonio, Texas Air Force Institute of Technology
Albert Ayenu-Prah Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio
Civil Engineering Department
Stefan L. Hahn
University of Delaware
Warsaw University of Technology Haldun M. Ozaktas
Newark, Delaware
Warsaw, Poland Department of Electrical Engineering
Bilkent University
Jacqueline Bertrand
Ankara, Turkey
National Center for Scientific Research Kenneth B. Howell
University of Paris University of Alabama in Huntsville
Paris, France Huntsville, Alabama Robert Piessens
Catholic University of Leuven
Pierre Bertrand Leuven, Belgium
Norden E. Huang
Department of Electromagnetism and
Research Center for Adaptive Data
Radar Alexander D. Poularikas
Analysis
French National Aerospace Research University of Alabama in Huntsville
National Central University
Establishment (ONERA) Huntsville, Alabama
Chungli, Taiwan
Palaiseau, France

G. Fay Boudreaux-Bartels M. Alper Kutay Ricardo L. de Queiroz

University of Rhode Island The Scientific and Technological Research Xerox Corporation
Kingston, Rhode Island Council of Turkey Webster, New York
National Research Institute of Electronics
Çagatay Candan and Cryptology Samuel Seely (deceased)
Department of Electrical and Electronics Ankara, Turkey Westbrook, Connecticut
Engineering
Middle East Technical University
Kraig J. Olejniczak Yulong Sheng
Ankara, Turkey
University of Arkansas Department of Physics, Physical
Fayetteville, Arkansas Engineering and Optics
Stanley R. Deans
Laval University
University of South Florida
Jean-Philippe Ovarlez Quebec, Canada
Tampa, Florida
Department of Electromagnetism and
Lokenath Debnath Radar Bruce W. Suter
Department of Mathematics French National Aerospace Research Air Force Research Laboratory
University of Texas-Pan American Establishment (ONERA) Information Directorate
Edinburg, Texas Palaiseau, France Rome, New York

xi
xii Contributors

Xiang-Gen Xia Pat Yip

Department of Electrical and Computer McMaster University
Engineering Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
University of Delaware
Newark, Delware
 1
Signals and Systems
1.1 Introduction to Signals ............................................................................................................... 1-1
Functions (Signals), Variables, and Point Sets . Limits and Continuous Functions . Energy
and Power Signals
1.2 Distributions, Delta Function.................................................................................................... 1-4
Introduction . Testing Functions . Definition of Distributions . The Delta Function .

The Gamma and Beta Functions

1.3 Convolution and Correlation .................................................................................................. 1-13
Convolution . Convolution Properties
1.4 Correlation ................................................................................................................................... 1-19
1.5 Orthogonality of Signals ........................................................................................................... 1-19
Introduction . Legendre Polynomials . Hermite Polynomials . Laguerre Polynomials .

Chebyshev Polynomials . Bessel Functions . Zernike Polynomials

1.6 Sampling of Signals.................................................................................................................... 1-47
The Sampling Theorem . Extensions of the Sampling Theorem
1.7 Asymptotic Series ....................................................................................................................... 1-52
Asymptotic Sequence . Poincaré Sense Asymptotic Sequence . Asymptotic Approximation .

Alexander D. Poularikas Asymptotic Power Series . Operation of Asymptotic Power Series

University of Alabama in Huntsville References ................................................................................................................................................ 1-55

1.1 Introduction to Signals 4. Dimensional classification is based on the number of inde-

pendent variables.
A knowledge of a broad range of signals is of practical import- 5. Spectral classification is based on the shape of the fre-
ance in describing human experience. In engineering systems, quency distribution of the signal spectrum.
signals may carry information or energy. The signals with which
we are concerned may be the cause of an event or the conse- 1.1.1 Functions (Signals), Variables,
quence of an action. and Point Sets
The characteristics of a signal may be of a broad range of shapes,
amplitudes, time duration, and perhaps other physical properties. The rule of correspondence from a set Sx of real or complex
In many cases, the signal will be expressed in analytic form; in number x to a real or complex number
other cases, the signal may be given only in graphical form.
It is the purpose of this chapter to introduce the mathematical y ¼ f (x) (1:1)
representation of signals, their properties, and some of their
applications. These representations are in different formats is called a function of the argument x. Equation 1.1 specifies a
depending on whether the signals are periodic or truncated, or value (or values) y of the variable y (set of values in Y) corre-
whether they are deduced from graphical representations. sponding to each suitable value of x in X. In Equation 1.1 x is the
Signals may be classified as follows: independent variable and y is the dependent variable.
A function of n variables x1, x2, . . . , xn associates values
1. Phenomenological classification is based on the evolution
type of signal, that is, a perfectly predictable evolution y ¼ f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) (1:2)
defines a deterministic signal and a signal with unpredict-
able behavior is called a random signal. of a dependent variable y with ordered sets of values of the
2. Energy classification separates signals into energy signals, independent variables x1, x2, . . . , xn.
those having finite energy, and power signals, those with a The set Sx of the values of x (or sets of values of x1, x2, . . . , xn)
finite average power and infinite energy. for which the relationships (1.1) and (1.2) are defined constitutes
3. Morphological classification is based on whether signals the domain of the function. The corresponding set of Sy of values
are continuous, quantitized, sampled, or digital signals. of y is the Sx range of the function.

1-1
1-2 Transforms and Applications Handbook

A single-valued function produces a single value of the TABLE 1.1 Operations with Limits
dependent variable for each value of the argument. A limx!a [ f (x) þ g(x)] ¼ limx!a f (x) þ limx!a g(x)
multiple-valued function attains two or more values for each limx!a [bf (x)] ¼ b limx!a f (x)
value of the argument. limx!a [ f (x)g(x)] ¼ limx!a f (x) limx!a g(x)
The function y(x) has an inverse function x(y) if y ¼ y(x) f (x) limx!a f (x)
implies x ¼ x(y). limx!a ¼ (limx!a g(x) 6¼ 0)
g(x) limx!a g(x)
A function y ¼ f (x) is algebraic of x if and only if x and y
a may be finite or infinite.
satisfy a relation of the form F(x, y) ¼ 0, where F(x, y) is a
polynomial in x and y. The function y ¼ f (x) is rational if f (x)
is a polynomial or is a quotient of two polynomials.
A real or complex function y ¼ f(x) is bounded on a set Sx if and 1.1.2.1 Operations with Limits
only if the corresponding set Sy of values y is bounded. Furthermore,
If limits exist, Table 1.1 gives the limit operations.
a real function y ¼ f(x) has an upper bound, least upper bound
(l.u.b.), lower bound, greatest lower bound (g.l.b.), maximum, or 1.1.2.2 Asymptotic Relations between Two Functions
minimum on Sx if this is also true for the corresponding set Sy.
Given two real or complex functions f(x), g(x) of a real or
1.1.1.1 Neighborhood complex variable x, we write
Given any finite real number a, an open neighborhood of the 1. f(x) ¼ O[ g(x)]; f(x) is of the order g(x) as x ! a if and only
point a is the set of all points {x} such that jx  aj < d for any if there is a neighborhood of x ¼ a such that j f(x)=g(x)j is
positive real number d. bounded.
An open neighborhood of the point (a1, a2, . . . , an), where all 2. f(x)  g(x); f(x) is asymptotically proportional to g(x) as
ai are finite, is the set of all points (x1, x2, . . . , xn) such that x ! a if and only if limx!a[ f(x)=g(x)] exists and it is not zero.
jx1  a1j < d, jx2  a2j < d, . . . , and jxn  anj < d for some positive 3. f(x) ffi g(x); f(x) is asymptotically equal to g(x) as x ! a
real number d. if and only if

1.1.1.2 Open and Closed Sets lim [f (x)=g(x)] ¼ 1:

x!a
A point P is a limit point (accumulation point) of the point set S
if and only if every neighborhood of P has a neighborhood
4. f(x) ¼ o[g(x)]; f(x) becomes negligible compared with g(x)
contained entirely in S, other than P itself.
if and only if
A limit point P is an interior point of S if and only if P has a
neighborhood contained entirely in S. Otherwise P is a boundary
lim [f (x)=g(x)] ¼ 0:
point. x!a
A point P is an isolated point of S if an only if P has a
neighborhood in which P is the only point belonging to S. 5. f (x) ¼ w(x) þ O[g(x)] if f (x)  w(x) ¼ O[g(x)]
A point set is open if and only if it contains only interior points. f (x) ¼ w(x) þ o[g(x)] if f (x)  w(x) ¼ o[g(x)]
A point set is closed if and only if it contains all its limit points;
a finite set is closed.
1.1.2.3 Uniform Convergence
1. A single-valued function f(x1, x2) converges uniformly
1.1.2 Limits and Continuous Functions on a set S of values of x2, limx1 !a f (x1 , x2 ) ¼ L(x2 ) if and
1. A single-value function f (x) has a limit only if for each positive real number e there exists a real
number d such that 0 < jx1  aj < d implies that f(x1, x2) is
lim f (x) ¼ L, L ¼ finite defined and j f(x1, x2)  L(x2)j < e for all x2 in S (d is
x!a
independent of x2).
2. A single-valued function f(x1, x2) converges uniformly
as x ! a{ f (x) ! L as x ! a} if and only if for each positive
on a set S of values of x2 limx1 !1 f (x1 , x2 ) ¼ L(x2 ) if and
real number e there exists a real number d such that 0 <
only if for each positive real number e there exists a real
jx  aj < d implies that f (x) is defined and j f (x)  Lj < e.
number N such that for x1 > N implies that f(x1, x2) is
2. A single-valued function f (x) has a limit
defined and j f(x1, x2)  L(x2)j < e for all x2 in S.
3. A sequence of functions f1(x), f2(x), . . . converges uni-
lim f (x) ¼ L, L ¼ finite
x!1 formly on a set S of values of x to a finite and unique
function
as x ! 1 if and only if for each positive real number e
there exists a real number N such that x > N implies that
lim fn (x) ¼ f (x)
f (x) is defined and j f(x)  Lj < e. x!1
Signals and Systems 1-3

if and only if for each positive real number e there exists a real X
m

integer N such that for n > N implies that j fn(x)  f (x)j < e for all j f (xi )  f (xi1 )j < M for all partitions
i¼1
n in S.
a ¼ x0 < x1 < x2 <    < xm ¼ b
1.1.2.4 Continuous Functions
of the interval (a, b). If f(x) and g(x) are of bounded
1. A single-valued function f (x) defined in the neighborhood variation in (a, b), then f(x) þ g(x) and f(x)g(x) are of
of x ¼ a is continuous at x ¼ a if and only if for every bounded variation also. The function f(x) is of bounded
positive real number e there exists a real number d such variation in every finite open interval where f(x) is
that jx  aj < d implies j f(x)  f(a)j < e. bounded and has a finite number of relative maxima and
2. A function is continuous on a series of points (interval or minima and discontinuities (Dirichlet conditions).
region) if and only if it is continuous at each point of the set.
3. A real function continuous on a bounded closed interval A function of bounded variation in (a, b) is bounded in (a, b)
[a, b] is bounded on [a, b] and assumes every value between and its discontinuities are only of the first kind.
and including its g.l.b. and its l.u.b. at least once on [a, b].
4. A function f(x) is uniformly continuous on a set S and only Table 1.2 presents some useful mathematical functions.
if for each positive real number e there exists a real number d
such that jx  Xj < d implies j f(x)  f(X)j < e for all X in S.
If a function is continuous in a bounded closed interval [a, b], it
is uniformly continuous on [a, b]. If f(x) and g(x) are continuous TABLE 1.2 Some Useful Mathematical Functions
at a point, so are the functions f(x) þ g(x) and f(x) f(x). 1. Signum function
(
1 t>0
1.1.2.5 Limits sgn(t) ¼ 0 t¼0
1. A function f(x) of a real variable x has the right-hand 1 t < 1
2. Step function
limit limx!aþ f(x) ¼ f(aþ) ¼ Lþ at x ¼ a if and only if n
1 1 1 t>0
for each positive real number e there exists a real number u(t) ¼ þ sgn(t) ¼
2 2 0 t<0
d such that 0 < x  a < d implies that f(x) is defined and 3. Ramp function
Ðt
j f(x)  Lþj < e. r(t) ¼ 1 u(t)dt ¼ tu(t)
2. A function f(x) of a real variable x has the left-hand limit 4. Pulse function
limx!a f(x) ¼ f(a) ¼ L at x ¼ a if and only if for each 
1 jtj < a
pa (t) ¼ u(t þ a)  u(t  a) ¼
positive real number e there exists a real number d such that 0 jtj > a
0 < a < d implies that f(x) is defined and j f(x)  Lj < e. 5. Triangular pulse
3. If limx!a f(x) exists, then limx!aþ f(x) ¼ limx!a f(x) ¼ (
jtj
La (t) ¼ 1 jtj < a
limx!a f(x). Consequently, limx!a f(x) ¼ limx!aþ f(x) a
0 jtj > a
implies the existence of limx!a f(x).
6. Sine function
4. The function f(x) is right continuous at x ¼ a if f(aþ) ¼ f(a).
sin at
5. The function f(x) is left continuous at x ¼ a if f(a) ¼ f(a). sin ca (t) ¼ , 1 < t < 1
t
6. A real function f(x) has a discontinuity of the first kind 7. Gaussian function
at point x ¼ a if f(aþ) and f(a) exist. The greatest differ- ga (t) ¼ eat ,
2
1 < t < 1
ence between two of these number f(a), f(aþ), f(a) is the 8. Error function
saltus of f(x) at the discontinuity. The discontinuities of the
2 Ðt 2 P 1 (1)n t 2nþ1
erf (t) ¼ pffiffiffiffi 0 et dt ¼ pffiffiffiffi
2
first kind of f(x) constitute a discrete and countable set. p p n¼0 n!(2n þ 1)
7. A real function f(x) is piecewise continuous in an interval I Properties:
if and only if f(x) is continuous throughout I except for a erf (1) ¼ 1, erf (0) ¼ 0, erf (t) ¼ erf (t)
finite number of discontinuities of the first kind. erfc(t) ¼ complementary error function
2 Ð1 2
1.1.2.6 Monotonicity ¼ 1  erf (t) ¼ pffiffiffiffi t et dt
p
1. A real function f(x) of a real variable x is a strongly mono- 9. Exponential function
tonic in the open interval (a, b) if f(x) increases as x increases f (t) ¼ eat u(t), t  0
in (a, b) or if f(x) decreases as x decreases in (a, b). 10. Double exponential
2. A function f(x) is weakly monotonic in (a, b) if f(x) does f (t) ¼ eajtj , 1 < t < 1
not decrease, or if f(x) does not increase in (a, b). Analo- 11. Lognormal function
gous definitions apply to monotonic sequences. 1
f (t) ¼ e‘n t=2 , 0 < t < 1
2

3. A real function of a real variable x is of bounded variation t

12. Rayleigh function
in the interval (a, b) if and only if there exists a real
f (t) ¼ tet =2
2
, 0<t<1
number of M such that
1-4 Transforms and Applications Handbook

1.1.3 Energy and Power Signals Example

1.1.3.1 Energy Signals Ð1 Ð1 ÐT
(a) u2 (t) dt ¼ dt ¼ 1; limT !1 2T1 T u2 (t) dt ¼
If we consider any signal f(t) as denoting a voltage that exists 0
Ð 0  
1 T
across a 1 V resistor, then limT!1 2T 0 dt ¼ limT !1 2T1 tjT0 ¼ 12 < 1.
This implies that u(t) is a power signal.
f 2 (t) f (t) (b) The signal eat u(t), a > 0 is an energy signal.
¼ f (t) ¼ f (t)i(t) ¼ power VA
1 1

Therefore, the integral 1.2 Distributions, Delta Function

ðb 1.2.1 Introduction
E ¼ f 2 (t)dt joule (1:3)
The delta function d(t) often called the impulse or Dirac
a
delta function, occupies a central place in signal analysis.
Many physical phenomena such as point sources, point charges,
representing the energy dissipated in the resistor during the time
concentrated loads on structures, and voltage or current sources,
interval (a, b). A signal is called energy signal if
acting for very short times, can be modeled as delta functions.
ð
1 Strictly speaking, delta functions are not functions in the
f 2 (t)dt < 1 (1:4) accepted mathematical sense, and they cannot be treated with
1
rigor within the framework of classical analysis. However, if dis-
tributions are introduced, then the concept of a delta function and
1.1.3.2 Power Signals operations on delta functions can be given a precise meaning.
Power signals are defined by the relation

ðT
1.2.2 Testing Functions
1
0  lim f 2 (t)dt < 1 (1:5) A distribution is a generalization of a function. Within the
T!1 2T
T framework of distributions, any function encountered in appli-
cations, such as unit-step functions and pulses, may be differen-
For complex-valued signals, we must introduce j f(t)j2 instead tiated as many times as we desire, and any convergent series of
of f 2(t). functions may be differentiated term by term.
We may represent the energy in a finite interval in terms of the A testing function w(t) is a real-valued function of the real
coefficients of the basis function wi; that is, we write the energy variable that can be differentiated an arbitrary number of times,
integral in the form and which is identical to zero outside a finite interval.

ðb ðb X
1
E ¼ f (t)dt ¼ f (t)
2
cn wn (t)dt Example
n¼0
a a
Testing function
X
1 ðb X
1
(
¼ cn f (t)wn (t)dt ¼ c2n k wn (t) k2 (1:6) a2
n¼0 n¼0 w(t, a) ¼ ea2 t2 jtj < a (1:7)
a
0 jtj  a

where
1.2.2.1 Properties
ðb ðb 1. If f(t) can be differentiated arbitrarily often
f (t)wn (t)dt ¼ cn w2n (t)dt ¼ cn k wn (t) k2
a a c(t) ¼ f (t) w(t) ¼ testing function
Because the square of the norm k wn (t) k2 is the energy associated
with the nth orthogonal function, Equation 1.6 shows that the 2. If f(t) is zero outside a finite interval
energy of the signal is the sum of the energies of its individual
orthogonal components weighted by cn. Note that this is the ð
1

Parseval theorem. This equation shows that the set {wn(t)} c(t) ¼ f (t)w(t  t)dt, 1 < t < 1
forms an orthogonal (complete) set, and the signal energy can 1
be calculated from this representation. ¼ testing function
Signals and Systems 1-5

3. A sequence of testing functions, {wn} 1  n < 1, converges 3. Shifting

to zero if all wn are identically zero outside some interval
independent of n and each wn, as well as all of its deriva- ð
1 ð
1

tives, tends uniformly to zero. g(t  t0 )w(t)dt ¼ g(t)w(t þ t0 )dt (1:12)

1 1

Example 4. Scaling
 
1 ð
1 ð
1
t 
wn (t) ¼ w t þ  w(t) 1
n g(at)w(t)dt ¼ g(t)w dt (1:13)
jaj a
1 1
4. Testing functions belong to a set D, where D is a linear
vector space, and if w1 2 D and w2 2 D, then w1 þ w2 2 D 5. Even distribution
and aw1 2 D for any number a.
ð
1

g(t)w(t)dt ¼ 0, w(t) ¼ odd (1:14)

1.2.3 Definition of Distributions 1
A distribution (or generalized function) g(t) is a process of
6. Odd distribution
assigning to an arbitrary test function w(t) a number Ng[w(t)].
A distribution is also a functional. ð
1

g(t)w(t)dt ¼ 0, w(t) ¼ even (1:15)

Example 1

An ordinary function f(t) is a distribution if 7. Derivative

ð
1 ð
1 ð
1
dg(t) dw(t)
f (t)w(t)dt ¼ Nf [w(t)] (1:8) w(t)dt ¼ g(t)w(t)j1
1  g(t) dt
dt dt
1 1 1
ð
1
dw(t)
exists for every test function w(t) in the set. For example, if ¼ g(t) dt (1:16)
f(t) ¼ u(t) then dt
1

ð
1 ð
1 where the integrated term is equal to zero in view of the
u(t)w(t)dt ¼ w(t)dt (1:9) properties of testing functions.
1 0 8. The nth derivative

The function u(t) is s distribution that assigns to w(t) a number ð

1 ð
1
dn g(t) d n w(t)
equal to its area from zero to infinity. w(t)dt ¼ (1)n g(t) dt (1:17)
dt n dt n
1 1
1.2.3.1 Properties of Distributions
1. Linearity–homogeneity 9. Product with ordinary function

ð
1 ð
1
ð
1 ð
1
[g(t)f (t)]w(t)dt ¼ g(t)[f (t)w(t)]dt (1:18)
g(t)[a1 w1 (t) þ a2 w2 (t)]dt ¼ a1 g(t)w1 (t)dt
1 1
1 1
1ð provided that f(t)w(t) belongs to the set of test functions.
þ a2 g(t)w2 (t)dt (1:10) 10. Convolution
1
2 3
ð
1 ð
1
for all test functions and all numbers ai. 4 g1 (t)g2 (t  t)dt5w(t)dt
2. Summation 1 1
2 3
ð
1 ð
1
ð
1 ð
1 ð
1
¼ g1 (t)4 g2 (t  t)w(t)dt5dt (1:19)
[ g1 (t) þ g2 (t)]w(t)dt ¼ g1 (t)w(t)dt þ g2 (t)w(t)dt 1 1
1 1 1
(1:11) by formal change of the order of integration.
1-6 Transforms and Applications Handbook

1.2.3.2 Definition 4. Multiplication by continuous function

A sequence of distributions {gn (t)}1 is said to converge to the
1
ð
1 ð
1
distribution g(t) if
[d(t)f (t)]w(t)dt ¼ d(t)[f (t)w(t)]dt ¼ f (0)w(0)
ð
1 ð
1 1 1
lim gn (t)w(t)dt ¼ g(t)w(t)dt (1:20)
n!1
1 1 If f(t) is continuous at 0, then

for all w belonging to the set of test functions. f (t)d(t) ¼ f (0)d(t) (1:25)
11. Every distribution is the limit, in the sense of distributions,
and
of sequence of infinitely differentiable functions.
12. If gn(t) ! g(t) and rn(t) ! r(t) (r is a distribution), and the td(t) ¼ 0 (1:26)
numbers an ! a, then

d dg(t) 5. Derivatives
gn (t) ! , gn (t) þ rn (t) ! g(t) þ r(t),
dt dt (1:21)
an gn (t) ! ag(t) ð
1
dd(t) dw(0)
w(t)dt ¼ 
dt dt
13. Any distribution g(t) may be differentiated as many times 1

as desired. That is, the derivative of any distribution always ð

1
dd(t  t0 ) dw(t0 )
exists and it is a distribution. w(t) ¼  (1:27)
dt dt
1
1.2.4 The Delta Function ð
1
dn d(t) dn w(0)
1.2.4.1 Properties n
w(t) dt ¼ (1)n (1:28)
dt dt n
1
Based on the distribution properties, the properties of the delta
function are given below. ð
1 ð
1
dd(t) d[ f (t)w(t)]
f (t)w(t)dt ¼  d(t) dt
1. The delta function is a distribution assigning to the func- dt dt
1 1
tion w(t) the number w(0); thus
dw(0) df (0)
¼ f (0)  w(0) (1:29)
ð
1
dt dt
d(t)w(t)dt ¼ w(0) (1:22) dd(t) df (0) dd(t)
1
f (t) ¼ d(t) þ f (0) (1:30)
dt dt dt
2. Shifted dd(t)
t ¼ d(t) (1:31)
dt
ð
1

d(t  t0 )w(t)dt ¼ w(t0 ) (1:23) Set f(t) ¼ w(t) ¼ 1 in Equation 1.29 to find the relation
1
ð
1 
dd(t) dd(t)
3. Scaled dt ¼ 0 is an odd function (1:32)
dt dt
1
ð
1 ð
1
t 
d(at)w(t)dt ¼
1 1
dt ¼ w(0) d n d(t) X n
n! dk f (0) d nk d(t)
jaj
d(t)w
jaj f (t) ¼ (1)k
(1:33)
a dt n k!(n  k)! dt k dt nk
1 1 k¼0

From Equation 1.22 we have the identity From

1 ð
1 ð
1
d(at) ¼ d(t) du(t) dw(t)
jaj w(t)dt ¼ u(t)w(t)j1
1  u(t) dt
dt dt
1 1
and hence (a ¼ 1) ð
1
dw(t)
¼ dt ¼ w(t)j1
0 ¼ w(0)
dt
d(t) ¼ d(t) ¼ even (1:24) 0
Signals and Systems 1-7

and comparing with Equation 1.22 we find that 1.2.4.2 Distributions as Generalized Limits
We can define a distribution as a generalized limit of a sequence
du(t)
d(t) ¼ (1:34) fn(t) of ordinary function. If there exists a sequence fn(t) such that
dt the limit
Therefore, the generalized derivatives of discontinuous
function contain impulses. An is the jump at the discon- ð
1

tinuity point t ¼ tn of the expression An w(t  tn). Also lim fn (t)w(t)dt (1:44)
n!1
1

dd(t) d 2 u(t)
¼ or u(t) þ u(t) ¼ 1 exists for every test function in the set, then the result is a
dt dt 2
number depending on w(t). Hence, we may define a distribution
Hence g(t) as

du(t) g(t) ¼ lim fn (t) (1:45)

¼ d(t) (1:35)
dt
du(t  t0 ) and, therefore, equivalently
d(t  t0 ) ¼ (1:36)
dt
d(t) ¼ lim fn (t) (1:46)
If r(t) has a finite or countably infinite number of zeros at
tn on the entire t axis and these points r(t) have a continu-
ous derivative dr(tn)=dt 6¼ 0, then Consider the two sequences shown in Figure 1.1a and b. The
rectangular pulse sequence is given by
X d(t  tn )
d[r(t)] ¼ (1:37)
dr(tn ) u(t)  u(t  e)
n dt pe (t) ¼
e
Hence, we obtain
and has area unity whatever the value of e. Because w(t) is
1 1 continuous, it follows that
d(t 2  1) ¼ d(t  1) þ d(t þ 1) (1:38)
2 2
X
1 ð
1 ðe ðe
1 1
d(sin t) ¼ d(t  np) (1:39) lim pe (t)w(t)dt ¼ lim w(t)dt ¼ lim w(0) dt ¼ w(0)
e!0 e!0 e e!0 e
n¼1
1 0 0

In addition, the following relation in also true:

and therefore
dd[r(t)] X dd(ttn )
¼ dt
dr(t) dr(tn )
(1:40) d(t) ¼ lim pe (t) (1:47)
dt n dt dt e!0

6. Integrals
Similarly, from
ð
1
ð
1 ð
1
Ad(t  t0 )dt ¼ A (1:41) 1 t 2 =e w(0)
et =e
2
lim pffiffiffiffiffiffi e w(t)dt ffi pffiffiffiffiffiffi dt ¼ w(0)
1 e!0 ep ep
1 1

for all t0
it follows that
d(t  t1 ) * d(t  t2 ) ¼ convolution
et =e
2
ð
1
d(t) ¼ lim pffiffiffiffiffiffi (1:48)
¼ d(t  t1 )d(t  t  t2 )dt ¼ d[t  (t1 þ t2 )] (1:42) e!0 ep
1
If we use the sequence
ð
1

f (t) * d(t) ¼ f (t  t)d(t)dt ¼ f (t  0) ¼ f (t) (1:43) sin vt

d(t) ¼ lim
1 v!1 pt
Other documents randomly have
different content
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Useful
Knowledge: Volume 1. Minerals
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Title: Useful Knowledge: Volume 1. Minerals

Author: William Bingley

Release date: September 14, 2018 [eBook #57898]

Language: English

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK USEFUL

KNOWLEDGE: VOLUME 1. MINERALS ***
The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public
domain.
Useful Knowledge: 4th ed. Minerals. Vol 1 of 3

Frontispiece to Vol. I. see Page 237.

Comparative Height of Mountains, Cities and Lakes

British Islands Continent of Europe Islands not
British Asia America

(Click on image to see a larger version.)

J. Shury sculp.
 USEFUL KNOWLEDGE:
OR

A FAMILIAR ACCOUNT
OF THE

VARIOUS PRODUCTIONS
OF

Nature,
MINERAL, VEGETABLE, AND ANIMAL,
WHICH ARE CHIEFLY EMPLOYED FOR THE USE OF MAN.

Illustrated with numerous Figures, and intended as a Work both of

Instruction and Reference.

BY THE

Rev. WILLIAM BINGLEY, AM. FLS.

LATE OF PETERHOUSE, CAMBRIDGE, AND AUTHOR OF ANIMAL BIOGRAPHY.
 IN THREE VOLUMES.

VOL. I. MINERALS.

FOURTH EDITION.

LONDON: PRINTED FOR BALDWIN, CRADOCK, AND JOY;

HARVEY AND DARTON;
AND C. AND J. RIVINGTON.

1825.
 C. Baldwin, Printer,
New Bridge-street, London.
 PREFACE.

The mode in which instruction has hitherto been conveyed, on the

peculiar subjects of the present work, has chiefly been by small
books, in question and answer, denominated catechisms. But such,
however respectable in themselves, or however advantageous for
children, are wholly insufficient for persons who are in search of
extended knowledge, and desirous of furnishing their minds with
useful information.
On these subjects there has not hitherto been published any work
in which they are collectively to be found; nor could a knowledge of
them be obtained but by the consultation of many and expensive
writings. That they are generally important to be known will not
probably be denied.
It has consequently been the object of the author to compress all
the interesting information that could be obtained respecting them,
within as narrow a compass, and at the same time to render this
information as entertaining, and as devoid of technical words and
phrases, as possible.
The scheme of the work will, it is hoped, be found sufficiently
simple. The passage in smaller characters at the head of each
article, is in general so arranged as to reply to the questions, “What
is?” “What are?” or “How do you know?” For instance: “What is
flint?” (See Vol. I. p. 53.) The answer will be found thus: “Flint is a
peculiarly hard and compact kind of stone, generally of smoke-grey
colour, passing into greyish white, reddish, or brown. It is nearly
thrice as heavy as water, and, when broken, will split in every
direction, into pieces which have a smooth surface.” The author is
aware that, in many instances, the definitions are defective: but this
has, in general, arisen from a necessity of rendering them short, and
at the same time of using such terms as would be likely to convey
information to the minds of persons who have had no previous
knowledge of the systems of natural history.
After the definition, a further illustration sometimes follows; and in
the large characters will be found a brief detail of the history and
uses of the object described. The articles are numbered, for the
greater convenience both of reference and explanation, but
particularly the latter. Thus, under the explanation of Carbon, it is
stated that “in combination with oxygen (21) it forms carbonic acid
(26), and that it is the chief component part of pit-coal (217),
petroleum (213), and other bituminous substances.” By a reference
to the numbers inserted, each of the words, against which they
stand, will be explained: whilst at least three of them would
otherwise have been incomprehensible by the generality of
unscientific readers.
It must be remarked that the reader will not here find an account
of every production of nature, which is employed for the use of man,
nor even all the uses of such objects as are described. The most
important of the productions, and the principal of the uses, are all
that he trusts can reasonably be required in a work of the present
extent. On this ground it is that a great number of animals, which
are in request only for food, have been wholly omitted.
The figures that are inserted have been drawn upon as small and
economical a scale as was compatible with a sufficiently accurate
representation of the objects to which they relate. If the reader be
desirous of reference to further illustration, he will derive much
satisfaction from the invaluable figures of Mr. Sowerby in his British
and Exotic Mineralogy, and English Botany, and Woodville’s Medical
Botany; as well as from those in Dr. Shaw’s General Zoology, and
Bewick’s Histories of Quadrupeds and British Birds. There are also
many figures of useful animals in the author’s own work, entitled
“Memoirs of British Quadrupeds.”
 ADVERTISEMENT
TO THE

THIRD EDITION.

Since this work was first printed, the author has

made in it considerable improvements. The first
volume, particularly, contains many additional
articles, and more than half of it has been re-written.
The plates also have been re-engraved. For the plate
of the mountains a new drawing has been made,
that the scale might be extended, and many
particulars might be introduced which before were
omitted. For the plates of vegetables every drawing
has been corrected; and, in place of such figures as
were most defective, new ones have been inserted.
Charlotte-street, Bloomsbury,
London, 1st March, 1821.
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES
OF THE

FIRST VOLUME.

FRONTISPIECE.

This is explained in pages 236, 237.

PLATE I.
Fig. MINERAL DEPOSITS.
1. Horizontal beds or strata.
a. Veins or dykes.
2. Bending strata.
3. Minerals in detached masses.
4. Disjoined strata.
b. A fault.

PLATE II.
 CRYSTALS, &c.
5. Octohedron.
6. Rough diamond.
7. Profile of a brilliant-cut stone.
8. Profile of a rose-cut stone.
9. Plane of a table-cut stone.
10. Plane and profile of the Pitt diamond.
11. Dodecahedron.
12. Rough garnet.
13. Six-sided pyramids, joined base to base.
14 Regular four-sided prism.
15. Six-sided prism.
16. Cube.
17. Four-sided pyramid having a rhomb for its
base.

PLATE III.
SECTION OF ROCKS.
I. Primitive Rocks.
Fig.
1. Granite.
2. Gneiss.
3. Mica-slate.
4. Clay-slate.
a. Lime-stone.
b. Quartz.
5. Primitive lime-stone.
 II. Secondary Rocks.
1. Transition Rocks.
6. Grey-wacka.
7. Transition lime-stone.

2. Floetz Rocks.
8. Old red sand-stone.
9. Alternating strata of lime-stone and sand-
stone.

III. Alluvial Deposits.

10. Alluvial strata of clay, gravel, &c., &c.

The BINDER is desired to insert all the Plates, except the

Frontispieces, immediately after the Explanations in the
respective Volumes.
 Pl. 1. Vol. I.
J. Shury. sculp.
Sections of Strata &c.
 Pl. 2. Vol. I.
CRYSTALS &c.

Pl. 3. Vol. I.
Section of Rocks. J Shury sculp.
USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.
MINERALS.
 INTRODUCTION.

1. Minerals are natural bodies destitute of organization and life:

and Mineralogy is that branch of natural science which treats of the
properties and relations of such bodies.

MINERAL DEPOSITS.

2. If we penetrate beneath the surface of the earth, we observe

there a very remarkable arrangement. Instead of a generally uniform
appearance, as we see on the surface, we pass through divers
substances, as clay, gravel, sand, and numerous others, deposited in
beds or strata of various thickness, from a few inches to a great
many feet (Pl. I. Fig. 1). These lie, for the most part, nearly
horizontal: but in some instances, particularly in mountainous
countries, they take different degrees of inclination; and, in places
where the country consists of gently sloping hills and vales, the beds
have a waving or bending form (Pl. 1, Fig. 3). The strata of which
the earth is composed, as deep as the curiosity or the necessities of
mankind have induced them to explore, satisfactorily demonstrate
the wisdom which has been displayed in the arrangement of
materials requisite for the use of men and animals.
The first layer is frequently a rich, black mould, formed almost
wholly of animal and vegetable remains. This yields sustenance to
the vegetable productions; and thereby becomes the actual, though
not the immediate, support of the whole animal creation.—Beneath
this is often found a thick bed of clay, that furnishes to man a
substance of which to make bricks, tiles, various kinds of pottery,
and innumerable other articles for the comfort of social life.—Next
are deposited vast beds of gravel, that are of use in numerous points
of view.—Underneath this are the infinitely varying strata of
sandstone, limestone, &c. which not only serve for the construction
of buildings, and for other important purposes, but also frequently
surround mines which contain the valuable metals.—Beneath a slaty
stratum are usually discovered those immense beds of coal so
requisite for the comfort, and, in some situations, even for the
existence of man.
These strata, it is true, are not always found together, nor are they
always discovered in the same order; but the statement will suffice
to show the general nature of their arrangement.
3. Minerals are sometimes observed in detached masses of various
size, and situated at various depths in the earth (Pl. I, Fig. 1).
4. They are also found in a kind of natural clefts which cross the
regular mineral beds or strata in different directions (Pl. I, Fig. 1, a,
Pl. I, Fig. 4, b). When these contain metallic ores, they are styled
veins; but when they contain only stony or earthy matters, the
miners call them dykes. They vary much both in magnitude and
length. Six thousand feet are considered an unusual length for veins,
though, in some instances, veins have been traced upwards of four
miles. Few veins extend more than 1200 feet below the surface of
the mountains in which they are situated. They are usually much
inclined; but they sometimes descend in a direction parallel with the
beds of rock in which they occur.
5. At the places where dykes or veins pass through the earth, they
occasionally disjoint the strata in a very singular manner (Pl. I, Fig.
4). Some of the coal strata, for instance, are thrown down or raised
on one side of a dyke upwards of a hundred yards; and the miner,
after penetrating through this dyke, instead of finding the same coal
again, meets, on the opposite side, with beds of stone or clay. Hence
he is frequently at a loss how to proceed in searching for the coal of
which he is in pursuit; and hence it is that to such dykes the peculiar
name of faults has sometimes been given.
6. In England the metallic ores are generally found in veins, that
form a considerable angle with the regular strata. This in Cornwall is
uniformly the case. And it is remarkable, concerning the veins of tin
and copper of that county, that they run in a direction nearly east
and west; whilst the dykes, or veins of other substances, run for the
most part north and south.
7. The thickness of veins, and the quantity and quality of the ores
they contain, differ in every mine. Some are only a few inches wide,
whilst others extend to the width of several feet. The vein at
Dalcooth mine, in Cornwall, varies from two or three to forty feet
and upwards; and, in some parts, it contracts so as to be little more
than six inches across.
8. In Cornwall the first traces of tin and copper are usually found
at the surface of the ground, and thence to the depth of 80 or 100
feet beneath; and it is said that no miner has ever yet seen the
bottom of a vein, although several have been wrought to the depth
of more than 1000 feet. The veins of these metals have, in some
instances, been worked to the length of three or four miles.
9. It is frequently observed that metallic veins are separated, from
the substances they intersect, by a thin wall, or lining, of minerals
different from these substances, and also by a layer of clay on each
side of the vein. It is also remarked that the same substance which
forms the outer coat of the vein is often intermixed with the ore, or
forms layers alternately with it. This has usually the denomination of
matrix or gangue.
10. There are few mines of any considerable depth that would not
be flooded with water from internal springs were not means adopted
for drawing off this fluid. The steam engines that are employed for
this purpose in some of the Cornish mines are so powerful as to
discharge incessantly, both by night and day, a quantity of water,
equal to at least 1000 gallons, or near twenty hogsheads, every
minute.

SYSTEMATIC ARRANGEMENT OF MINERALS.

 11. To a superficial observer, perhaps nothing would appear more
easy than to describe a mineral. This, however, is by no means the
case. The same general appearance sometimes prevails in
substances that are very different from each other; and the same
stone, in its different states, is often extremely varied in its
appearance. To these difficulties it must be added, that the
combinations of mineral substances are multiplied to a great extent.
A little application, however, particularly if the student be possessed
of a collection of arranged and named specimens, which he will have
no difficulty in procuring at a reasonable price, will enable him to
overcome all the obstacles that otherwise might impede his progress
in beginning to acquire a knowledge of this interesting science.[1]
12. The most simple and natural division of minerals is into four
classes, of, 1. Stones; 2. Salts; 3. Combustibles; and, 4. Metals; and
the following table, which has chiefly been arranged from the system
of Werner, the well-known German mineralogist, will exhibit a
tolerably correct outline of the classification of these substances. To
reduce the whole within the compass of a single page, many of the
families, however, have necessarily been omitted.
1. Such collections are supplied by Mr. Mawe, No. 149, Strand, London. His
terms, for collections containing from 100 to 200 specimens, are 5 guineas;
from 200 to 300 specimens, 10 guineas; and from 300 to 400 specimens, 15
guineas. For collections containing from 350 to 400 specimens, more select,
and comprising a better suite of precious stones, he charges from 20 to 30
guineas; and for larger collections, from 50 to 100 guineas. At the particular
request of the author, Mr. Mawe has arranged a few collections of minerals,
and numbered them in such manner as to correspond with, and illustrate the
present volume.
 13.To complete a general view of the different productions of the
mineral kingdom, it is requisite to subjoin a tabular arrangement of
the various kinds of rocks.
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