Highway Alignment and Location Surveys / : 5 oH Ss Al road projects related to the new constructions start wi the finalization of alignment of the ‘Tested read. In case of road improvements, sometimes the work relates to the improvement in road alignment with the objective of making traffic movements more easy and smooth. In general, the alignment can be defined as follows, Alignment of a road is a location in space depicted by a line, drawn straight or curved or as @ combination of both, between two desired places whose locations are fixed in space, and that fulfills the desired objectives by fitting in well over the political and physical map of the area. The direction and position given to the centerline of the road on ground is its alignment. The line plotted between the two places of interest shows the centreline of the road. The movement of tes centreline in “X-Y' coordinate system and ‘X-Z’ coordinate system defines the profile of the road in the horizontal direction and vertical direction. It, therefore, means that a road profile esssentally consists of two types of profiles, namely horizontal profile and vertical profile. These are defined further below and are discussed in detail in the chapter on highway geometric. a. Horizontal Profile or alignment: Horizontal profile or alignment defines the layout of a road in plan, connecting the two desired places and passing through the geographical and physical features of the area. The plotting of this plan requires a topographical map of the area of concern. The profile is deviated in Y-direction with respect to the X-direction based on the physical features that come along the X-direction as an obstruction to movement. Such deviation requires incorporation of curves to facilitate a change in the direction of movement. ‘These curves are known as ‘horizontal curves’. The latitudes and longitudes shown on the map help in the measurement of distance travelled between the two desired places. b. Vertical Profile or alignment: Vertical profile or alignment of the road defines the layout of the road in elevation. It is not necessary that the ground between the two desired places that usJlevation above the mean Jed and has constant ¢l 908 ey f the intervening ground between the two Places sng dicated by the contour maps drawn for that sa ig points representing same elevation aby. 4 need to be connected by road is leve (MSL). The change in the elevations of th the relative elevation ofthe two pion i tia “ e free! es draw’ aia i a reve te change in the profile in X-Z’ eens es accomplice i joining the two points having different elevations with a nN on oo : nap direction is defined as ‘gradient’. If there is a requirement o} ee a oe that e moving in opposite directions, then they are connected using Profile, ang these are defined as ‘vertical curves’ sari While fixing an alignment, horizontally and vertically, there ae ru of important factors that need to be kept into consideration. At the same time, an ideal alignment shou! Ve certain features and these should become the part of the proposal as far as possible. These features are discussed under the next section. An ideal alignment is the one that satisfies the economic, social, geographical, environmental and political constraints in best of the way; needs minimal resources for its constructor, operation and maintenance; maximizes user's safety and comfort; and provides proper connectivity with equal emphasis to accessibility and mobility. An ideal alignment in this sense should fulfill the following: a. Shortest Path: The line profile marked on the topographical and contour map between the two places of desire should be straight and connect them directly, thus representing the shortest distance that needs to be travelled between the two places. Such connectivity satisfies the economic constraints and social constraints in terms of resources required for its construction and the distance travelled. But this may not be the possibility always. It may happen that the intervening area consists of natural or manmade obstructions that would necessitate deviation in the direction of alignment, and thus making the alignment not the shortest one. Possibility of shifting the obstruction instead of alignment and the comparative economic feasibility should be examined before taking any decision. b. Easy Profile: The profile is rated easy if it requires minimal resources for the construction, operation and maintenance of the road and maintains the comfort and safety of the uset while traversing it. As far as possible, the profile should pass through the terrain that is not tough and do not requires highly specialized and sophisticated construction technology skills. Otherwise, these will increase the cost of construction. If the profile comprises of 4 good number of deviations in horizontal or vertical plane (i.e. curves and gradients), then i increases the cost of operation in terms of consumption of fuel and wear and tear of vehicle engine and parts. At times, the selection of a profile is such that it needs maintenance at much faster rate, i.e. periodically. The users’ perspective is taken into consideration in the form of the ease of driving along the profile and the level of comfort achieved during travelling along it. ©. Safety along Profile: The safety along the profile is to be ensu i the phase construction of the road and operations theta of it. The tape eee coe fobeth the human being and the equipment. During the construction phase, it is the manpower and machinery employed, and during operations, they are users and vehicles. The safety should be ensured by proper selection of the alignment, physical design features of the road and Provision of safety information and devices along the profile, Anct i toithe sendin " ig the profile. Another safety aspect is i Surrounding area on both sides of the road. The profile should pass through an are? that is regarded as safe forthe travelers. ie 2 Bure te % ‘ t F4, Purpose: The alignment should fulfil the purpose with which itis selected. The purpose may be purely social, ie. providing connectivity between two places, improving transportation network in an area; economics based like providing a freight corridor, linking places of production and consumption, improving access to industrial areas, hamessing of resources of ‘jn area; or political in nature, say constructing a road with strategic reasons, satisfying the demand on an area, development of a specific area. The intended purpose should not be defeated at any cost. Aesthetics: As far as possible, the profile should pass through an area that gives pleasant feelings to the travelers moving along that profile. It improves level of comfort during ride and removes monotony. The profile should be such that the road fully integrates with the surrounding landscape of the area. Preservation of Ecology: The big transportation infrastructure projects require big area for their provision. The intervening area between the two places usually passes through rural areas or forest areas. Provision of an alignment through such area has a possibility of disturbing the ecology and bio-diversity of that area. The fixation of the alignment should be such that minimum disturbance is caused to the local flora and fauna due to either construction of the road or operation of vehicles on the same. An environmental impact assessment study of the impacts of the road should be made to ensure that the adverse effects are kept to the minimum. The above mentioned points are the guiding principles for the selection of a road profile. Apart from these there are factors, which need to be taken into consideration while deciding upon the profile of the road. These are discussed in the following section. There are factors, which are part of the abovementioned points. These are discussed below under two categories, general factors and specific factors. Specific factors are listed related to hilly areas, desert area, different types of soils and water logged areas. 4.2.1 General Factors a. Cost-Economics of the Project: The cost of the project is dependent upon the selection of the profile and the terrain through which it passes. If the terrain is quite tough and construction of the road requires specialized techniques and equipment than the cost of the road project would be very high, whereas, if the design features are kept within acceptable limits or Buidelines, then the cost would be much lower than the former case. The economics of the Project depends upon the source from where the money will come for the construction of the toad and on the operation and maintenance of the facility provided. If the operating cost is quite high, very few will like to use the facility, whereas, if it is beneficial in terms of savings made in travel time or improvement in the quality of riding then more persons will like to use the facility. The facility in such a case may also fetch revenues in terms of tolls that can be charged from the users. It is, therefore, important to look at two factors that govern the cost-economics, i.e. cost-benefit ratio and internal rate of return that will make the repayment of the capital cost feasible within a certain time frame. Another way of achieving economics is to select the profile that balances the cutting and filling, as shown in Fig. 4.1 Obligatory Points: It is usually difficult to finalize a profile of the road that is satisfying the desired elements as mentioned in the previous section and is economical under all orederstions Deviations in the profile are made due to many factors, out of which one is the obligatory points that may or should not be traversed. Passing through or away of the obligatory points is decided based on the characteristics of the obligatory point into i es,to mind before sel jderation. There are certain points that need to be kept int selecting nN consideration. final profile. These are: i. The location should historical monuments, cet subsidence due to mining, pons ic utili verhead lines, and p public utilities say malt ind ecologically important wooded areas, built-up areas, areys play omit or ote should be avoided. The profile should not pass through the man ee ar should Pe poor drainage, areas with poor drainage materi cy land, iy land, lake, pond, ete. ; hips, archeol like places of worships, logical ang steer ee pre earning ght, ‘edges of properties, areas prone ,, met a "far as possible, the need to re-cross the railway ling and as ublic facilities like hospitals, schon. ypstructions Ii Ground profile Gradestine AB (Alignment) Fig. 4.1: Balancing of cut and fill material avoid interference The profile should be located along the edges of the properties so as to ; g0 to the activities carried out on that property and to minimize the possibility of crossin the road by the local population. It should pass through the important cities and towns mountain passes, locations with better type of soil, sites for tunnels and locations for bridges across the rivers. As far as possible, efforts should be made to locate the bridge where - 1. The river is straight both on the upstream and downstream side 2. The location is sufficiently away from the influence of the confluence of tributaries 3. The channel is well defined and narrow 4, The banks are high, rocky /firm and well defined above the HFL iii, It should be close to the source of embankment and pavement materials so as to reduce the distance of haulage and the cost of transportation. The profile should cross the riv® normal to its direction from view point of cost minimization. As far as possible, af likely to be unstable due to toe-erosion by river should be avoided. ©. Physical Features of the Alignment: While an alignment is selected, the importa’ decsions that are usually taken simultaneously is the level of the 100d parle that constructed or provided between the two desired locations. This has its effects on certal? specs lh te tana tas is to be acquired for the construction of the road and for its futt® Seed hahiiee depends upon the geometric guidelines available for different §9P° io ities, like national highway, state highway, district or rural roads. Imports"! yates considered are number of traffic lanes, width of carriageway and shoulders, ‘idth, radius of horizontal curves, rate of rise or fall of the profile in longitudin® =direction, etc. In case of an open land such decisions have its effect only on the amount of land to be acquired and the cost of doing that, but this may not be easy to execute in view of presence of buildings and existing constructions on each side. d. Traffic Projections and Forecasting: The decision attributes listed in the previous sub-section related to physical features are also dependent upon the traffic that is supposed to move on the facility for which profile is selected. Such dependent attributes are number of traffic lanes, design of intersections, design of pavement and economic appraisal of the project. The volume of traffic will depend upon the importance of the two places that need to be connected through the link under consideration and the towns and cities along the profile that would also be connected additionally. Population residing within certain km distance on either side of the profile is expected to contribute to the traffic on this link. Initially, the movement of freight traffic is considerably more than the passenger traffic between the newly connected places. As a thumb rule, the traffic is expected to vary as a square of the population that is served by the proposed link or profile. In case of modifications needed to the already existing alignment, the new traffic count will become the basis of changes in the alignment. The estimated traffic is projected over a certain period that is decided based on the type of project, importance of the road, availability of the finances and other related factors. In case, the alignment is designated as trunk route, the period may span between 10 and 20 years, whereas, for lower category roads it may be 5 to 10 years. ¢. Political Will and Obligations: The decision makers in most of the governing systems are the politicians in power. The ideology and policies of a government defines the areas of importance for that government. The planned outlay dedicated to the cause decides the amount of work that can be executed in a given time frame. Fortunately, the trans-portation and communication have been given due importance over the planning years and hence, there is substantial growth in the two sub-sectors. Sometimes, the population of an area demands for certain links between the desired places or for the upgradation of the existing | links, and these are sanctioned out of political obligations of the politicians towards the area they represent in the parliament or the legislative council. It may happen that such obligations may fall short of economic feasibilities. f, Hydrological Aspects: Natural drainage pattern of an area through which the profile or alignment is expected to cross is one of the parameters that need to be given due importance. Any alignment that crosses the drainage profile repeatedly will require fast periodic | maintenance culminating in costs. Rivers and ponds are important hydrological features that | need to be traversed by the alignment. In case of rivers, a suitable bridge location, not having | | | meandering section and minimum possible in width, need to be identified for the construction of bridges. During fixing of the alignment by the side of the river, the direction of flow of the river and High Flood Level (HFL) records for past 50 years shall be kept in view. As far as possible, the alignment should move along the watershed line. In case of | ponds and lakes, the need of bridges should be avoided by going along its periphery thus | keeping the cost of project to the minimum. Ground Water Table (GWT), its depth and | variation in depth with time and seasons also affects the life of the road constructed on the | selected profile. g, Rock-mass and Soil Characteristics: In most of the cases, the roads are constructed in embankment. In some of the cases as the conditions necessitate it may be in cutting also or may remain at level with the surrounding ground level. In all such cases, it is necessary to ensure that the soil mass allows speedier drainage of water percolating from the top surface or seeping from the sides. The soil mass should be of better quality. The same is the case with rock mass, if the road passes through such area. It should not be fissured and should provideaterial. The susceptibility of the soil or rock penne itioce ie he ee craeist and the possibility of water moveme, to volume change oe ae capillary action should be examined before finalizing iy alia saan, of the, road. The strength of the supporting mass 1S anothe z leppoctank factor th Se rckieraton ‘as whole of the load is finally ens ste es ttom-most layer, i, soil or rock mass. It should be easy to work with as well as t0 co ! : h Environmental and Ecological Considerations: The location oe the en profile should bg such that it fully integrates with the surrounding landscape of the area, jwith minimum of interference caused to it. In this respect, it would be necessary to - udy the environmen impact of the road construction and operation and to examine the adv erse effects that it may cause to the environment and ecology of the area. In cases where the cutting of the Wooded area is unavoidable the road profile should be aligned on a curve So as to preserve ay unbroken background. The widening of the road becomes necessary with the increase in the traffic and it leads to the cutting of the trees on one or either side of the Profile or Toad. This should be compensated by an equal afforestation along the profile or in additional areas xt suitable locations. These aspects should be kept in view even at the time of projec preparation. The aim should remain to cause minimum disturbances to the flora and fauna, habitat of species and the interference with the paths followed by animals during transitions Adequate and secure crossings should be located with this reason along the profile. The main ecological problems associated with hill roads are geological disturbances, degradation o land, soil erosion, loss of forestry and vegetation, aesthetic degradation, siltation of water reservoirs, etc. It is rare that all the above factors are satisfied by a single alignment and therefore highway engineer should make a judgement is selecting the feasible factors to minimize total cost to possible extent. 4.2.2 Specific Factors a. Alignment in hilly areas i, Accessibility: The terrain of the area makes it difficult to construct many roads in the hills areas. It is, therefore, advisable to orient the profile in a way that it benefits a goo! ‘number of habitations, irrespective of size, and not necessarily only by direct connectivity Bridal paths leading to the main road may also be considered during the selection of the Profile. Another point is the choice of gradient enabling the access to points at differe™ elevations. The profile should attain the ruling gradient for most of its length, thus makité it possible for even small vehicles and non-motorized movements. Steep gradients and other inaccessible areas should be avoided as far as possible. Stability of Rock and Soil Mass: The stabili of the most important factors that need consideration. It is important to examine characteristics of these masses with respect to stability, strength, polsture movement 4P of the strata, faults and folds, if an i i ; : » if any, unstable hilly features, areas having freque™ landslides or settlement problems and up slope benched agricultural fields with potenti for standing water should be avoided ater 7 Oe ee selected on the strata having dip away fi over the years. Precautions should be taken in new hills and in areas having uncom} mass that i ot the area a Move with a trigger. Careful study should be done of the ‘geological maps“ B ty of rock and soil mass in hilly areas is o"* iii, Drainage Pattern: Drainage of the area and its I _ seanilte important area that decides the stability and need for moreten ne ns a ae need for maintenance. Locating profile alo"the river valley sides allows using the inherent advantage of use of gentle gradients, but requires a large number of cross-drainage structures and protection works against erosion. Side drains should run along the whole length of the profile and catch drains should be located wherever a transverse valley reaches the profile level. It should be kept in mind that cross-drainage structures increase the cost of the project tremendously and hence should be kept as minimum as possible. As far as possible, the natural drainage of the area should not be disturbed. iv. Resisting Length and Geometric: The resisting length is calculated based on the concept of work done in moving the loads along the profile and takes into consideration the horizontal length between the places to be connected by the profile, the difference in elevation of the two places under consideration, and the sum of ineffective rise and fall in excess of floating gradients. This factor indirectly indicates towards the extra consumption of energy and resources that would remain present due to the adjustments done in the selection of profile. Geometric requirements of the roads in hilly areas are different than those in plain areas. Specifically, consideration should be given to the carriageway width, width of road land, shoulders depending upon the location, the radius of curves and the gradients. Land Features: The physical features of the area govern the selection of the alignment more empathetically in hilly areas as compared to plain areas. In crossing mountain ridges, the location should be such that the road preferably crosses the ridge at their lowest elevation. Such locations also need hair-pin bends. These bends should be as minimum as possible and wherever unavoidable should be located on stable and gentle hill slopes. The areas liable to snow drift should be avoided. The alignment should pass through such side of the hill that received plenty of sunlight and is not falling in shade. In certain cases, traversing along the hill may not be an economical solution and it may become expedient to negotiate high mountain ranges through tunnels. As far as possible, attempt should be made to avoid the following features . Unstable hill features and areas having perennial landslide or settlement problems . Areas subject to seepage or flow from springs, hydel channels, subterranean channels, ete. 3. Steep hill sides 4. Area subject to flooding or water logging 5. Areas liable to snow drift or avalanches 6. Locations involving unnecessary and expansive destruction of wooded areas b. Alignment in Deserts i. Soil Characteristics: The soil mass usually available in the desert areas is sand. Sand is a non-cohesive mass and the gradation of the material defines the portability of that due to natural forces like heavy wind. Locations where sand is loose and unstable should be avoided as this makes the pavement surface highly accident and abrasion prone due to Presence of fine slipping material that also works as an abrasive charge under load applications. Preference should be given to areas having coarse sand than to areas having fine wind blowing sand. The locations along the ridges having vegetation make a good choice for alignment. Drainage is not a problem in sand. ii, Sand Dunes: Sand dunes have the tendency to shift with heavy winds. These also have a unique pattern of movements. As far as possible, the profile of the road should run Parallel to the sand dunes. If required the sand dunes should be crossed without disturbing their existing profile, which may be stable in nature. In locating a road profile Bs es * taal aarti Ses “heeri location is always at the t, in an area having longitudinal sand dunes, the best way , orin the inter-dunal space Location along the face of the longitudinal dunes shou avoided. . Alignment in Problematic Soils Different types of soils are available in different parts of the country. Certain ty of like expansive soils, saline soils, and marine clays cause problems for the roads consi over them. It is therefore required to given due consideration to the following: i, The areas with expansive soils show problem of strength when moist. Such soils Should by stabilized, especially by mixing lime in puverised soil, to gain strength. Locations where large salt deposits occur should be avoided. In case it is required tg i profile of the road through medium or highly saline soils, precaution should be tak.» & divert the water away from the road bed. Further, if the saline soi i the saline soil is wet, so embankment of good quality soil should be laid over the saline soil. iii. Marine clay is soft and compressible. On the application of load it has tendency to set In case road profile has to pass through such area, the ground improvement methods should be adopted. If the site is under influence of rise and fall of water, the subgrade should be 1.0 m above the highest water table. Alignment in Water Logged Areas i, Water has detrimental effect on the life of the material used in the pavement crust, as well as on the adhesion of bitumen with the aggregates as used in the surface or wear course. Therefore, if the alignment passes through water logged area then the height ofthe embankment should be adequately above the level of standing water, if any. & 4. Other preventive measures include the laying of capillary cut-offs or blanket below Pavement so as to improve drainage facility The route location process may be divided into the stages: ¥ Broad-Band’ Location approach which is the selection of a general location or corrdt a broad band or area of interest between into poi A Moon Ate ecach thtee corridors are selected and corridor 2 is selected 3 crime n corridor. At the narrow band approach the optimum corridor 2 ic enlarged, the dat® ref and two ali desi ‘gnments are considered, one of which will be selected for final location 2% lesign. Ar times, the alignment which is shortest may be costtier than other alignments in All requirements can not be fully ju Sit : justified simultaneously. Deviation from shortest route necessary due to following points through which road must Pass or must not pass. EE : Seiad a TTCorridor 2 ‘Alignment 1 ongin Cece) rarer, Alignment 2 (2) Narrow-band location stage Fig. 4.2: Route location process Point through which road alignment has to pass: « Important towns and cities * Places of social, commercial, political and defence importance * Site of location of major bridges, river-crossing * Passing the hill or saddles * If tunnels are unavoidable, road alignment should pass through tunnel site. * Politically dictated locations * Other geographical control points. Point through which road alignment should not pass: * Where land acquisition is very costly. * Religious places like temples, churches, mosques tomb etc. * Area liable to flooding (water logged areas), marshy areas * Other areas protected by law. 43.1 Search Techniques for Alignment Route location process, is the process of searching the suitable alignment for roads. Following are some of the basic and modern techniques. a. Upgrading: Most basic technique is upgrading the existing location, such as non- motorable tracks, footpaths. Many modern highways have evolved in this way from horse and wagon paths. Where travel ways have been already established to accommodate non-motorized traffic, they are usually well located to minimize drainage, to follow ridge line, etc and they could be used as primitive locations wherever possible. These paths are nearly in conformity with the topography of the terrain, and a direct horizontal alignment consistent with minimum earthwork. Line Projection: Line projection is the process of fixing the alignment of a highway by drawing the proposed centerline on a topographic map, using this to prepare a ground profile, and planning the grade line. The objective is to obtain best combination of alignment and grade consistent with the terrain and established geometric design standards, It can be used as a general indicator either for the broad-band or narrow-band stage, =Line projection is a trial error process, using topographic maps. The first ste critical terrain control points, through w ‘ich alignment must ns ouch astiverg saddle points, politically determined or geographical point m rc) ee after thes “ are connected by various combinations of non-grade controlled and grade conf _ locations. ; | In generating grade controlled location, various maximum Gradecontoury are’ out (superimposed) on the topographic map, with the span for each step 4 contour-interval, divided by the percentage of grade desired. Thus for a 5 m interval and 5% grade, the step interval would be 5.0/.05 or 100m. Subjective Approach: The subjective approach is search for alternative general locato, combining upgrading, and line projection with social, political and economic consid ation, The route location process must accommodate subjectively determined alternatiyg, to provide a rational basis for comparison and selection. d. The Network Approach: Conceptually, networks of location are considered in the proce, of search and selection. A network is comprised of links and nodes, representing rou segments (with regard to route location) and junctions the route segments would by defined by road characteristics such as curvature, gradient, surface type, etc. The junction _ merely represent points of branching and interconnection to neighbouring links. Any route alignment would then be a sub-set of these links and nodes, interconnected to forn a path, through network, between points of interest. P is to Tay, Pe ENG th COMtoyy Usefulness of network approach in the route location process is that it can facilitate disaggregate analysis, and approximate construction, maintenance and vehicle operating | cost can be evaluated on a link by link basis. Total cost of route alignment would be sun of the costs of the links comprising the alignment between origin and destination. The number of alternatives can be infinite and with the help of computer-assisted procedures, the evaluation becomes easy and fast. | Computer aided route location models are available incorporating most of the part | meters, used in different countries such as CARROLS (Computer Aided Rural Roa | Location System), RSM (Route Selection Model) developed by TRRL, U.K, GCARS (Generalised Computer Aided Route Selection System), developed in US. (Optimal Rural Highway Location System) was developed in Australia. | | 4.4.1 Stages in Project Preparation Stages involved in the preparation of the project are: a. Prefeasibility study b. Feasibility study/preliminary project report preparation ¢. Detailed engineering report and plan of construction . 1 A pre-feasibility report is prepared to provide information regarding the broad features ° the project, finances involved and the probable returns. It is based on connaissance survey’ wherein information on the present status of the profile or the existing road, deficiency distress identification, development potential environmental impact and traffic dat * collected, approximate cost estimated and i i ibility study * id Coon ae economic analysis performed. Feasibility s i the proposal is acceptable in terms of soundness of engineer) | gain and expected benefits from the investments involved. It forms a basis for an invest™®™ cision or of Administrative Approval (AA). Herein, the traffic projections are done bi___Hghway Algnment andi Location Suveys 128. omic profile survey and traffic survey; and cost of the project is estimated based on preliminary topographic survey, limited soil survey, limited pavement design studies, limited Frainage studies, land acquisition estimates and environment screening. The detailed neering report consists of a Detailed Project Report (DPR), which covers detailed alignment final location survey, soil and material surveys, pavement design studies, drainage surveys, environmental impact and management plan, detailed drawings, estimates and studies, implementation schedules. This becomes the basis for the Technical Approval and Financial sanction (TA and FS). Figure 4.3 gives the stages in project preparation cree) Fig. 4.3: Stages in project preparation 442 Surveys of Socio-economic Profile Socio-economic characteristics of an area define the economic activities that may take place in the area. These activities translate into traffic that may move on the selected alignment. This data therefore needs to be gathered at two levels, one at region or state level and other in project influence area. The state or region level data helps in generating the relationship between traffic growth and different economic scenarios, whereas, the project level data would represent the development that would take place in near vicinity of the alignment in future and the additional traffic that would be generated out of that development. The type of data that should be collected includes information on population, culture, land use, land value, institutions, transportation, historical sites, utilities and services, community boundaries and movements, aan potential, tax base and dynamic changes expected to take place in the area. Data ould be collected for last ten years and include aspects related to population, economic fits and transport system. The historical data shouldbe correlated to determine the growth (oP, te elasticity of traffic with respect to economic activities and Gross Domestic Product ‘These should be further used to get the growth rates and trends for the future.eo he design of facilities along th ta that is needed for the design © Profile «y ce on the pede borneen the to desired places is fixed forthe fst time thei difficult to estimate the traffic that would use the proposed link. One way of doing itig bales past experiences in similar conditions of alignment selection. The socio-economic prof OF hy area, the economic activities in that area and the possible growth rate can provide some id the traffic that would be coming on the proposed link. The extent of area expected to pray traffic on the link is taken as around 15 km initially on both the sides of the link ang i, assumed that it spreads to 25 km in due course of time. Therefore, an extensive socio-econen, and land use survey need to be carried out in the catchment area of the profile if the my alignment is newly selected. In case of improvements to the existing roads, a good number, traffic surveys are to be conducted for the preparation of any road project. These are: a. Classified Traffic Volume Counts b. Origin-Destination (O-D) Surveys ¢. Speed and Delay studies . Traffic surveys for the design of road junction €. Traffic surveys for replacing railway level crossings with over-bridges or subways f, Axle load surveys & Accident surveys The above surveys are discussed later in detail in the chapter on traffic studies. The 00 survey when conducted on the existing roads may also highlight the need to provise connectivity between two or more places that are not connected directly so far. If sucha Fequirement is identified then a altogether new alignment selection survey should be carried ot | between the identified locations. 44.4 Reconnaissance Survey The main objective of the reconnaissance survey is to examine the topographical fetu Present in the area and to identify those that are missed or modified since the topographic! | map of that area was drawn. This helps in the determination of the most suitable alignments between the two desired places. It also paves the path for future detale! investigations, This survey actually helps in identifying the deviations that need to be made” the alignment(s) drawn based on map-study done in the office. The survey is carried out it following sequence: a. Study of maps b. Aerial Reconnaissance, if required and feasible ©. Ground Survey ot The first stage in reconnaissance survey is map study. Different of maps vf topographical sheets, agricultural, geological, metrolosical, coi profile, raced pattern 127, as well as aerial photographs are available, Topographical sheets are available with SUN®) | Indian (SON) on the scale of 1:25,000 1:50,000 and 1:250,000. State maps are available on SOK 11,000,000, Plastic relief maps, if available, can provide information on ridges, valle)® Py | ete with contour information (3-D) for a region. These are drawn on scale of 1:15,0000) | giiéetation maps from Forest Survey of Indian (FSOI) are available on scale 12500) | Similarly, maps from National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning (NBSS & LUP) | Geological Survey of India (GSI) are also available. After going through all these ™#P® "y | Aiving due consideration to all controlling factors, the feasible aligrments are determined: Ay | Photographs, if available, on a scale of 1:50,000 can be enlarged five times to provide det! a Bea shlogical, geomorphological, groundwater, environmental attributes of interest. Small Format Aerial Photographs (SFAP) can also be used with the same purpose. The aerial photographs can further reduce the alternate alignments determined based on study of other maps. Aerial photographs are available from National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA), Hyderabad, Air Survey Company, Kolkatta and the Indian Air Force (IAF). Aerial reconnaissance provides a bird view of the determined alignments and help in identifying features that may cause deviation in alignment or rejection of any alignment. It may also indicate towards the need of ground reconnaissance of certain sections of the determined alignments. It also helps in making observations regarding the correctness of obligatory points as given in the map, correctness of control points as marked in the map, existence of other control points like, major saddles or passes, river crossings, slide or slip areas, marshy areas, camping sites, rocky areas and vegetation. Ground reconnaissance is carried out by walking or riding along the determined alignments and required information is collected along the way for the evaluation of the alignment. Reference pegs are left along the alignment for further survey that needs to be conducted under preliminary ot detailed surveys. Equipment usually carried during this survey are compass, Abney level, Pedometer, Aneroid barometer, Clinometers, Ghat tracer, etc that are used for collecting data at bends and slopes. In difficult terrain, Global Positioning System (GPS) and Differential GPS (DGPS) can also be used. The final result of the reconnaissance survey is the determination of alternate alignments. It | has following objectives: | ¢ To acquire the knowledge of physical features of the area like rivers, valleys, cultivated 1 land, forests, hill, existing roads, canals, ete. and the topography (plain, rolling, hilly) i Confirm features indicated on map study * To collect geological information regarding: ~ Nature of soil, and strength characteristic ~ Surface formation of ground ~ Dip of the existing rock | ~ Hill shapes ' ~ Drainage conditions and floods, etc. To collect information regarding availability of construction materials, labour, and sources of water, etc for proposed alternative alignments. * To see the number, width and type of rivers, and streams crossing the proposed alignment for determining bridge sites and other requirements. * To locate the control points through which alignment should pass, and also those along which alignment should not pass, and determine length of each alternative. To decide maximum gradient and curvature for proposed alignment, like sharp curves, | Teverse curves, hair-pin bends, etc. | To judge the requirements for land acquisition and available right of way, built up areas | and other land uses and land values. To assess extent and type of plants, trees and other vegetation, and scenic spots. To locate if there are existing animal tracks, non-motorable tracks or foot paths. To collect climatic information regarding rain fall, temperatures, snow, wind, fog, storms, ground water table, etc. To note towns, villages, etc which are connected, population they serve, and their economic status and mode of transport. aei it tance, « To locate railway and road crossings, Places of religious importance other structing . school, grave yards, ete : i hich may help in f © To note other ecological, historical, aesthetical factors w! y 'P in further Study 4.45 Preliminary Survey ; e se of & reliminary survey is to collect more information on ground Te puro of cont Fomine a the end of reconnaissance Survey iS 2 ir based averse survey conducted to collect topographical details of physical features of the on either side of the alignment(s) along with taking longitudinal — — CTOSS-sections 9 regular intervals. The data collected at this stage becomes the basis for the final determina, Of the alignment ofthe road. Apart from the topographical details, information on nature of gj or rock strata, availability of construction material, drainage, metrological factors, sub-soj] a flood water levels, etc is also collected to assist in taking final decisions. The survey procedure includes running of a traverse along the centre line of the determing alignment. The lengths and intermediate angles between the straight lines are measur carefully. Equipments used are theodolite with Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM), Gis and level. EDM or Total Station is used for the measurement of distances and angles, GPS. used for taking coordinates of necessary points of the traverse and level is used for fly-leveling at an interval of 50 m along longitudinal profile and for cross-sectional details at 100 to 200 min plain terrain, 50 m in rolling terrain and up to 25 m in hilly terrain. Benchmarks are made st regular intervals and connected to GTS datum. Sufficient area should be covered on both tte sides of the alignment. Physical features, such as, buildings, monuments, burial grounds cremation grounds, places of worship, posts, pipelines, existing roads, railway lines, stream/ river /canal crossings, cross-drainage structures, etc that are likely to affect the alignment shoul be located by means of offsets measured from the traverse line. In case of existing alignments measurements of existing carriageway, roadway, location, radii of horizontal curves should ® taken. In addition to these, the nature and extent of grades, ridges and valleys, and vertial curves should be covered in the alignment passing through rolling or hilly terrain. The data so collected is plotted to produce plans and longitudinal and transverse sections the alignment. The contours should be traced at critical locations like, hair-pin bends, sha"? f curves, bridge crossings, etc to examine the suitability of the alignment. The whole exercise preliminary survey prepares ground for the submission of feasibility report. Finally drawings are prepared for each alignment, providing following information: * Length of alternative routes * Various possible gradients, along the route * Quantity of earthwork * Maximum height and length of embankment and cutting. * Characteristics of rivers to be crossed such as H.F.L, LW.L, flow direction, stream prot cost of boring, difficulties in alignment etc. * Geological information like soil type, rocks and slips, etc. * Details of crossings of other roads, canals, railway line etc. . Availability of materials, labour, water, food and equipment etc. * Details of various affected properties with ownerships for land acquisition. * The climatic conditions of routes traversed. Im the end, a comparative study of various results is made, with relative merits and demes® The route which is most economical and bes iderati jignmen’* ct ideal ali selected and plotted on the map. from all consideration of an ideal align™ t4.4.6 Feasibility Report Feasibility report is prepared for the connectivity between the two desired locations may be through different alternative alignments. It is prepared after carrying out engineering surveys and investigations with sufficient accuracy and details along the alternative alignments. It provides complete information on the need and scope of the project, socio-economic profile of alignment influence area, methodology adopted, types of surveys and investigations conducted, engineering details, design standards adopted, reasonably accurate estimate of costs, sources of funding, budgetary provisions, and the implementation programme including prequalification, bidding, construction supervision and contract management. The economic analysis, including cost-benefit assessment, should be based on current costs and sensitivity analysis should be presented for different economic scenarios. The report should accompany the following drawings: a. Location map b. Plans showing various alternate alignments considered and the selected alignment ¢. Typical cross-sections showing pavement details d. Drawings for cross-drainage and other structures e. Road junction drawings f. Strip plan g; Preliminary land acquisition plans The feasibility report should be presented in three volumes as, Volume -I -Main text and Appendices, Volume -II-Design Report and Volume -III -Drawings. 4.4.7 Final Location Survey (Detailed Survey) Once the discussions on the feasibility report are over and the alignment is finally selected out of the various alternate alignments a final location survey is conducted for the selected align- ment. Before carrying out the final location survey certain points need to be given consi- deration. They are: a. Few alternate alignments of the centreline of the selected alignment are drawn and studied with respect to the engineering, economic and aesthetic requirements. b. A trial gradeline is drawn taking into account the control points already set during preliminary survey and the vertical curves are designed. c. The horizontal alignment of the profile is examined and adjustments are made: The horizontal and transition curves are designed with respect to visibility and the final centre- line is marked on the map. The purpose of the final location survey is to lay the centreline of the road in the field and to collect information that is required for working drawings. The accuracy maintained in this survey is of the highest quality. The centreline of the road or alignment is transferred to the ground by means of continuous transit survey and placing hubs or pegs along that, Double reversal method should be adopted at all horizontal intersection points (HIP) and intermediate Points of transit (POT)on long tangents. At curve, the beginning of spiral curve (BS), beginning of circular curve (BC), end of circular curve (EC) and end of spiral curve (ES) should be fixed and referenced. The angle of intersection of road with road or road with railway track should be measured. Such points should be serially numbered and identified by coordinates on final plan drawings. These should not be disturbed or altered during construction. Final centreline should be staked at an interval of 50 m in plain and rolling terrain and 20 m in hilly terrain for taking levels. In case of existing roads paint mark with button headed steer nails may be used. Distanceshould be measured continuously following the horizontal curve. To establish | rm oo elevations, design and constructions, permanent bench marks should be established "a interval of 2 km and temporary bench marks at an interval of 250 m. Single datum shohie used as far as possible. ‘ be Levels should be taken along the centreline of the alignment at all staked sta sections should be taken at 50-100 m intervals in plain terrain, 50-75 m interval in rolling St and 20 m in hilly terrain. Cross-sections should also be taken at all critical points like «"% tions, and deviations namely, beginning and end of spiral and circular curves, middle of cin curve, etc. These are extended up to right of way limit on either side of the centre line vik, levels shown at every 2-5 m interval. Centreline profile should extend up to 200 m beyond . limits of the project for proper connection of grades at both ends. For intersecting alignmen, « should be up to 150 m. at railway level crossings, the level of top of the rails, and in the case subways, the level of the roof should be noted. In general, material surveys are required to: a. determine the nature and physical characteristics of soil and soil profile b. determine the salt content in soil ¢. classify the earthwork involved in various categories like rock excavation, earthwork in hard soil, etc. d. gather information regarding sub-soil water level and flooding, etc ©. locate sources of aggregates, ascertain their suitability and availability for use | £. locate source of good quality water for use in different construction works ' Information on above aspects is collected from the concerned authorities like PWDs, ground water commission, etc and from the available information like geological maps, soil maps, ec. Information from similar constructions or constructions requiring similar construction materiél may prove more useful. The investigations to be carried out will depend on the construction | activity in which that material is to be used. Soil is used as subgrade material or for construction of embankments. The investigations depend upon the height of the embankment and are follows: a. Gradation test, for soil classification and sand content b. Atterburg limits (liquid limit and plasticity index) ¢ Density and optimum moisture content d. Deleterious constituents (for salt infected areas) ©. Shear parameters and consolidation properties f. Stability analysis for slopes and embankments 8. Identification of land slide or rock fall prone areas. h. California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test or ‘K’ value test for pavement crust design é In case of aggregates (naturally occurring or artificially prepared from rock mass) fot by Pavement courses, suitable quarries as sources, amount likely to be available from a¢! identified, and physical and strength characteristics are determined. The materials that c2" a used are stone aggregates, murum, gravel, kankar, etc. Ceratin waste products of hea\t industries like slag, fly ash, pond ash, etc can also be used in the construction of em! mae and pavements. Project preparation should aim at maximum utilization of these subs! ical arenas im the construction process. This would help in environmental and ecomomy | development. Possibility of getting overburnt bricks and brick bats to be useda. Highway Aignment ond Location Suveys 131 aggregates in the near viinty of the project should also be envisaged and recorded. The ‘so available should be tested based on quarry source. Samples should be representative wr fat as possible. Three specimens per sample should be tested for each type of material met with. The tests required to be conducted on aggregate material are: ‘a. Gradation of the material b. Aggregate abrasion value or 2 ¢. Hlakiness and elongation test d. Specific tests like soundness test, stone polishing value test, water absorption test, etc regate impact value test Improvements of existing roads usually include strengthening or widening of road and construction of new facilities along the road. Such measures are taken to improve the traffic condition over the existing facility. The justification and scope of measures are dependent upon the road inventory and condition surveys. In case road registers and bridge registers are maintained by the concerned PWD, then these should be consulted and made use of. In case these sources are not available, a road inventory should be prepared and fresh condition survey should be carried out. Road inventory data includes data like type of terrain, land use, formation width, type, width and condition of carriageway, type, width and condition of shoulders, height of embankment, depth of submergence, etc. The pavement or road character- istics that are considered are: a. Riding quality b. Pavement width c. Vertical profile d. Horizontal curvature The riding quality is measured by a bump integrator or roughometer. In case these instruments are not available, a International Roughness Index can be estimated based on World Bank guidelines and correlated with 5th Wheel Bump Integrator value using relation given in HDM-I11 volume-L The roughness estimation scale for paved roads with surfacing or surface treatments varies between 0 and 12, representing high ride comfort at over 120 km/h and necessitating reduction in speed below 50 km/h, respectively. In case of unpaved roads with gravel or earth surface, the scale varies between 0 and 24, representing fine blanded surface of gravel or soil with excellent longitudinal and transverse profile and a poor earth surface with frequent moderate defects and depressions, respectively. The amount of undulations, surface depressions, potholes, corrugations, etc keep increasing as the number of roughness increases. The surface condition of the pavement is assessed by a team of experts, who rate the condition of the pavement on a five point scale based on amount of depressions, ruts, potholes, cracks, etc. The average value of all the experts is used as a “Pavement Condition Index” and recorded for use, For pavement widening projects, the information needed is the subgrade soil strength and traffic projections or forecast for horizon or design year. The investigations carried out in such cases are: a. California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test or ‘K’ value test indicating strength of soil subgrade b. ‘K’ value test for materials used in pavement layers «. Traffic census and growth rates for future traffic projections and predictions For pavement strengthening projects, information on subgrade soil strength and pavement and composition is needed. Deflection characteristics of the pavement are alsorelated to pavement edge drop, condition ofe i need of construction of additional lanes for wig ‘Mba, the road is known prior to the project preparation, the embankment aed the pavement shat’ constructed eccentric with respect to the total land available. The sul enue construct then be undertaken symmetrically with respect to the centre line of the land. In case o F Side required. Other information collec ment, road side drain, ete. In case, roads, the provision may be made either symmetrically on both sides of the road or on on, of the road. The points to be considered in such case are: hi a. The availability of land and convenience of additional acquisition if buildings op o.. tructions are present on each side b. The width of new construction and facility of compaction equipment to operate ¢. Technical convenience for construction of additional structures and necessary protetog works d. Technical convenience for locations of additional two-lane carriageway preferably oy upstream side of the flow of water The additional investigations carried out, apart from the above listed, are: a. Benkelman beam deflection data for existing roads b. Pavement condition survey c. Riding quality survey The pavement width can be measured easily. The vertical profile and horizontal curvature are measured quickly by car-mounted instruments or can be evaluated from topographical survey. In case of bridges, the inventory information includes data like, location of bridge, name o river and type of crossing, length/span of bridge, average vertical clearance, type of foundation sub-structure and super-structure of bridge, type and condition of deck, carriageway, footway and railings, High Flood Level (HEL), thickness of slab or girder, type of protection works, et. The water may come on the road in different forms like precipitation falling on the road, surfa runoff, seepage water moving through sub-terranean channels or moisture rising by capillary action. Drainage studies have the following principal objectives: a. Fixing the grade line of the road b. Design of pavement ¢. Design of the surface/sub-surface drainage system Main components of the drainage investigation are determination of HFL and ponded wate" level, depth of water table, range of tidal levels and amount of surface run-off. Special investigations for cut sections are also carried out for roads in hilly and rolling terrain. HEL is determined based on the information available with irrigation department, Wat marks left on trees and structures, and by gathering information locally. The height & embankment should be fixed based on HEL, If the embankment blocks the natural drainage Paths then adequate number of openings shall be provided. The design HEL should be base 0" return period of flood and decided based on the importance of the structure. In case water stagnates by the roadsides, the level of standing water should also be taken it® consideration. The knowledge of depth of water table helps in fixing the subgrade level, deciding thickness of pavement, provision of capillary cutoffs or design of intercepting drains, et. It ™Y be measured at open wells along the alignment or at holes specially bored for the purpose. 7. Jworst condition data is collected at the time of withdrawal of the monsoon (for highest water table) and fluctuation in water table is computed from the driest month data (lowest water table). In areas where the climate is arid and the water table is known to be at least one meter below the ground level, the depth of water table need not be measured The surface water is usually carried from the pavement through side drains. Following investigations need to be carried out for the design of these drains: a. Study of ground contours of the land adjacent to the road for determining the catchment contributing to the flow b. Determination of the surface characteristics of the catchment area like type of soil, vegetation, slopes, etc c. Study of ground contours for locating the outfall points. For cross-drainage structures, the decisions are taken at two levels, first to select the site and second to collect data for the design of cross-drainage (CD) structure. Following points should be given consideration in the selection of site: a. The site should be on straight reach of the stream sufficiently below bends b. The location should be as far away from the confluence of the large tributaries as possible c. The bands should be well defined d. As far as possible the site should enable a straight alignment and a square crossing. The essential data needed for the design of new CD structure are: Identification of catchment area Taking three cross-sections of the stream, one at the selected site, one upstream and another downstream of the site. Approximate distance upstream or downstream of the selected site varies between 150 m and 160 m depending upon the size of the catchment area. The maximum HFL Longitudinal section of the channel showing levels of bed, low water level and HFL Velocity of the flood, and Trial pits, upto the depth of rock or firm mass and in case of their absence up to twice of the maximum depth of existing or anticipated scour line. For existing drainage structure requiring improvement, the data required are: a. Type of structure and details of span, vent height, etc b. Existing width of carriageway c. Condition of foundation, sub-structure, super-structure, etc d. Load carrying capacity of the structure ¢. Adequacy /inadequacy of waterway, signs of silting or blocking of ventway, over-topping of structure, scour level, patterns, etc. The frases alignment of the proposed road along with the reports of different investigations, att’ designs of facilities, and plans and drawings should be presented in a proper form for consideration of competent authority. The complete project document should include: a. The report b. Estimates ©. Drawings = measint in itself as it contains varied information on, itfenegy : hysical features. These desi ment and related phy bani Ms aspects of the proposed road oneal of works. The joins of quantities ang orem ae a eee based on the materials and resources needed for the completion of construc 0 the These are discussed in sufficient details in the following successive Paragraphs Project. a 4.8.1 Project Report : ing sections: The prjct report consis ofthe hehehe of whole report and includes salient fcaty, a. Bxacuiive Summary: Ita the munuoaly forward. In case, the work is he the proposal. This should be clear and straight forward, Faas Fee Wark is taken under a scheme, the documents related to that scheme should form the part of the executive summary. - b. Introduction: This should include the name of the work, broad scope of the work, hist geographic, climatic and demographic details like economic activity, Population served transport facilities, drainage problems, topographical features, geological feature, metrological data, and the justification of the project proposal. ¢. Socio-economic Profile: The profile should include the socio-economic data of the projet influence area as well as the region. Social and Environmental considerations: This should include the social impacts like generation of employment, improvement in lifestyle and daily wage rate, health impact, relocation requirements, resettlement and rehabilitation needs, and beneficial ani detrimental impacts to the environment like different types of pollutions, loss of flora and fauna, ecological disturbances, erosion of productive soil cover, interruption to availabe drainage pattern, changes in landscapes, etc. The possible measures to minimize such detrimental impacts should also be discussed. The Ministry of Environment and Forests his issued environmental guidelines for highway projects. ~ Traffic Surveys and Traffic Forecasts: The trafic survey data, trafic growth computed for different horizon years, design trafic with respect to the design elements like pavement width, pavement crust design, intersections, crossings, etc should be inchudéd in thx section ofthe report. In case of road under improvement or upgradation, the accent daa should also be included, especially the list of accident Prone locations. Engineering Surveys and Investigations: This section should include information of the alternate alignments considered and the one selected based on the reasons, The merits of that alignment and the developmental effect it would bring in the area should The project report is a big docume! . topographical and geological features, obligatory ints, production and consumption centers, soil profile along the alignment, the meee levee and eeu levels, the ath work involved, cross-sectional details at regular intervals, etc should also form the part of this section. Further, the decisions taken regarding the total road land, width of carriageway, width of shoulders, acquisition of structenee alongside roadway, nature o cuttings or high fanks, nature of gradients, radi of curves, ete seal be noted. In case of ca sting fos s, additional information includes road inventory, road condition survey, ge” al investigations, bridge inventory if any, bridge condition survey, ete. Material, Labour and Equi : availablity of type of road vores oerVeY:, The results of material survey like the ad ‘ali ar ; of quarties for stone « construction material in near vicinity of the alignment, number cover available locally sheen ge ailtble and their transportation lead, the type o! the physical and engineerin, 4 tes ‘ ; '8 Properties of the stone aggregat and soil, the location and size of borrow Pits, cost of Sanat or Pitino att wire agrren - r and Location Surveys _ 1$6) etc should constitute one part of this section. Similarly, the requirement of labour and equipment is to be identified. The labour may be skilled, semi-skilled, or unskilled. The requirement of highly skilled labour and specialized equipment should also be identified and listed. Design Standards and Specifications: A complete list of standards that are used in the selection of alignment, fixing the physical features of the alignment, design of the facilities, preparation of estimates, preparation of abstract of cost, etc. should be given Wherever, some deviation is made it should be highlighted. In general, such guidelines include specifications for fixing road geometric, specifications for road construction materials, specifications for materials used in layers of the pavement, specification related to special provisions to be taken for roads constructed in special areas, and standards related to road furniture, and design guidelines related to design of horizontal and vertical curves, sight distances, set-back distances, transition curves, super-elevation design, design of pavement, design of culverts and bridges, design of drainage structures and protection structures, etc. . Geometric Designs: Here all the standard values related to various geometric features of the road that should be provided along the alignment are listed. These includes type of terrain, different cross-sectional elements like lane width, carriageway width, width of shoulders, right-of-way width, road land, side slopes and drains, and camber (based on terrain classification), design of horizontal curves and super-elevation, length of transition curves, extra-widening at curves, provision of extra-widening, transition curve length and super-elevation at curve, choice of gradients, length of vertical curves, design of intersections if any, etc. Each curve should be identified by a number and drawing detail should follow the design for proper implementation. Fixing of grade line with respect to HEL and transverse section at regular interval showing ground level, formation level and final road (pavement) level should also constitute this part. In case of existing roads, the deficiencies in road design, remedial measures in problematic areas like landslide prone areas, need for increasing the carriageway width, etc. should be included. |. Pavement Design: The soil investigation data and traffic counts and projections are utilized in the design of pavements. The decisions include the type of pavement construction (bituminous or cement-concrete), design of pavement crust, i.e. depth of pavement based on traffic load (million standard axles) and soil strength (CBR or ‘K value), number of layers, type of material to be used in those layers, specification of such material, design of wearing surface or slab, etc. All the calculations along with drawings should be given. In case of existing roads, the Benkelman beam data is used for the design of overlays on the existing pavement surface. Roads are usually designed in embankment. In such cases, the height of embankment, the slope of sides, stability of slopes, the use of waste material in the construction of the embankment, etc becomes the decision parameters. Drainage Facilities: The hydrological data investigation becomes the part of this section. The decision parameters include HFL, water table, ponded water table, seepage flows, closure periods in case of canals, etc. The design features should include surface and sub- surface drainage measures like longitudinal side drains, catch water drains, longitudinal- transverse sub drains, blanket courses, etc. Design features of small cross-drainage structures like culverts should be enclosed. This includes design calculations for waterway, deck level, HEL, protection structures, etc. Design calculations and drawings should be attached. . Rates and Cost Estimates: The cost estimates are prepared based on schedule of rates published from time to time by regional PWDs. In case any correction to the last publishedrecorded. These should be rai watage is needed: For all those items oy yt ® Iysis should be attached along with i th analysis is required than that shou ly be schedule of rates is in force ten hat should also far as possible so that no correction a 1a schedule of rates are available, the rate ant Y of such rate analysis. If financial and econo! be included after the estimates. genie i "The executing agency of the lente, im. Construction Prograr on with phased programme of execetn of ren Proposed per ighted, This may be inthe form of constructoy Ne tle defined by ya Soo teal Path Method (CPM). Further included is the budgetary requiremen different stages of the construction. n. Conclusions and Recommendations: The 4.8.2 Estimates - This is an important section of the report and the timely completion of the project depends pe the accuracy of estimates to a great extent. The estimate consists of: a. General abstract of cost: This gives the total cost of the project with the general breakup under major heads like land acquisition, site clearance, earthwork, sub- bases and bases bituminous/cement concrete pavements, cross-drainage works, other structure miscellaneous items, percentage charge for contingencies, work- charged establishment, quality control, cost of shifting utilities like electric lines, telephone poles, underground cables, gas lines, sewers, water pipes, cost of arboriculture, cost of removal of tres ard compensatory afforestation. Detailed estimate of major heads: This should consist of - i, Abstract of cost ii. Estimate of quantities iii, Analysis of rates for items not covered by the relevant schedule of rates iv. Quarry / material source charts. 4.8.3 Drawings Project drawings should depict the proposed works in relation to the existing features. The should be drawn in uniform manner with regard to size, scales and the details to be in" porated. Following drawings should be included in the detailed report: a. Locality map cum site plan b. Land acquisition plans c. Plan and longitudinal sections 4. Typical cross-sections «. Detailed cross-sections f. Drawings for cross-drainage works 8. Road junction intersection drawings hh. Drawings for retaining walls and other structures i, Drawings for wayside amenities i, Location of various road signs, markings, etc. ese should form the last part of the report s Following scales are commonly used for drawings: Key map—1: 250, 000 Index map—1: 50, 000Land acquisition plan—1: 2000 to 1 : 8000 Horizontal plan—1; 2500 on hill roads—1: 1000 Vertical plan—1 : 250 on hill roads—1 ; 100 Cross-section elements (intervals) Plain area—50-100 m Hilly area—20 m Scale : Rolling area—50-75 m Cross-Drainge structures ~ 1 : 50 Road Junction/Intersections - 1 : 500 to 1: 600