MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

18ME43
UNIT-5

by KESHAVAMURTHY.Y.C
Dept of Mechanical Engineering,
R V College of Engineering
 SYLLABUS
UNIT-V 08 Hrs
• Unconventional machining: Need and classification.
• EDM, Wire EDM, ECM - Material Removal Rate (MRR)
and Gap resistance (Numericals), CHM - Chemical Milling
and Chemical Blanking, USM,LBM.
• Electric Arc Welding: Characteristic curves of constant-
current and constant voltage, arc welding transformer
(Numericals).
• Arc Welding Processes: Shielded metal arc welding
(SMAW), Inert Gas Arc Welding -Tungsten Inert Gas
(TIG) welding and Metal Inert Gas (MIG) arc welding,
Submerged arc welding (SAW), Principal zones in the
weld joint and typical grain structure, Welding defects.
• Resistance welding - Principle and types of resistance
welding. KYC
 UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING
• Unconventional machining or Non Traditional
machining (NTM) processes were developed initially
to machine very hard materials that are almost
impossible to be machined economically by the
conventional methods.
• Need for Unconventional processes: Conventional
machining processes utilise the ability of the cutting
tool to stress the material beyond the yield point to
start the material-removal process.
• This requires that the cutting-tool material be harder
than the workpiece material.
• New materials having high strength-to-weight ratio,
heat resistance and hardness, such as nimonic
alloys, alloys with alloying elements (e.g. tungsten,
molybdenum, and columbium), are difficult to
machine by the traditional methods. KYC
 UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING
• Machining of these materials by conventional methods is very
difficult as well as time consuming, since the material-removal
rate reduces with an increase in the work-material hardness.
• Hence, there is the need for development of nontraditional
machining processes which utilise other methods such as
electrochemical processes for the material removal.
• As a result, these processes are termed unconventional or
nontraditional machining methods.
• Besides these, the complex shapes in these materials are
either difficult to machine or time consuming by the traditional
methods.
• In such cases, the application of the nontraditional machining
processes finds extensive use. Further, in some applications, a
very high accuracy is desired besides the complexity of the
surface to be machined.
• These processes are not meant for replacing the conventional
processes, but in fact supplement them.
KYC
 Conventional Machining vs
Unconventional Machining
• The cutting tool and workpiece are always in
physical contact, with a relative motion against
each other, which results in friction and a
significant tool wear.
• In non-traditional processes, there is no physical
contact between the tool and workpiece. Although
in some non-traditional processes tool wear exists,
it rarely is a significant problem.
• Material removal rate of the traditional processes is
limited by the mechanical properties of the work
material.
• Non-traditional processes easily deal with such
difficult-to-cut materials like ceramics and ceramic
based tool materials, fiber reinforced materials,
carbides, titanium-based alloys. KYC
 Conventional Machining vs
Non-Conventional Machining
• In traditional processes, the relative motion between
the tool and work piece is typically rotary or
reciprocating. Thus, the shape of the work surfaces is
limited to circular or flat shapes. In spite of widely used
CNC systems, machining of three-dimensional surfaces
is still a difficult task.
• Machining of small cavities, slits, blind or through holes
is difficult with traditional processes, whereas it is a
simple work for non-traditional processes.
• Traditional processes are well established, use
relatively simple and inexpensive machinery and
readily available cutting tools. Non-traditional
processes require expensive equipment and tooling as
well as skilled labor, which increases significantly the
production cost. KYC
CLASSIFICATION OF NTM

KYC
 Classification of NTM processes
• Classification of NTM processes is carried out
depending on the nature of energy used for material
removal.
1. Mechanical Energy
• Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)
• Ultrasonic Machining (USM)
• Water Jet Machining (WJM)
• Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM)
• Ice jet machining (IJM)
2. Chemical or Electrochemical Energy
• Electrochemical Machining (ECM)
• Electrochemical deburring (ECD)
• Chemical Machining (CHM)
• Electro Chemical Grinding (ECG)
• Electrochemical Honing (ECH)
• Electro Jet Drilling (EJD)
• Photo Chemical machining (PCM) KYC
 Classification of NTM processes
3. Thermal or Electro-Thermal Energy
• Electric-discharge machining (EDM)
• Laser Beam Machining (LBM)
• Ion Beam Machining (IBM)
• Electron Beam Machining (EBM)
• Plasma-Arc Machining (PAM) or
Plasma Beam Machining (PBM)

KYC
 REASONS FOR USING NTM
• High-strength Alloys: The hardness of the work
material is often higher than the cutting-tool
material or sometimes it becomes necessary to use
the machining process on hardened material.
• Complex Surfaces: There are times when very
complex surfaces in three dimensions need to be
produced, such as those in moulds and dies, where
the workpiece surface being the hardened tool
steel, would be difficult to be processed by
conventional means.
• Higher Accuracies and Surface Finish: The
accuracy and surface finish desired in hard
workpiece materials require conventional machining
to be done very slowly as well as adding a number
of finishing processes, making the process very
slow and uneconomical. KYC
 REASONS FOR USING NTM
• Difficult Geometries: In addition to the complex
geometries, sometimes it is required to produce
difficult geometries such as long holes with length-to-
diameter ratio approaching that of 100, or very small-
size holes such as those with less than 0.1 mm in
diameter, which are almost impossible to be
produced by conventional methods.
• Automation: Most of these processes can be easily
automated with very little manual intervention
required.

KYC
EDM-ELECTRIC DISCHARGE MACHINING
• Erosion of craters left by electric discharges on the
cathode surface was first discovered by Joseph
Priestley, an English theologian and chemist, in
1766.
• A powerful spark will cause pitting or erosion of the
metal at both the anode (+) and cathode (-), e.g.
automobile battery terminals, loose plug points, etc.
• This process is utilized in electric-discharge
machining. This process is also called spark
machining or spark-erosion machining.
• The EDM process involves a controlled erosion of
electrically conductive materials by the initiation of
rapid and repetitive spark discharges between the
tool and workpiece separated by a small gap of
about 0.01 to 0.50 mm.
KYC
EDM-ELECTRIC DISCHARGE MACHINING
• This spark gap is either flooded or immersed in a
dielectric fluid. The controlled pulsing of the direct
current between the tool and the work produces
the spark discharge.
• Initially, the gap between the tool and the
workpiece, which consists of the dielectric fluid, is
not conductive.
• However, the dielectric fluid in the gap is ionized
under pulsed application of dc, thus enabling the
spark discharge to pass between the tool and the
work.
• Heat transfer from the spark to both tool and the
workpiece melts, partially vaporizes and partially
ionizes the metal in a thin surface layer.
KYC
EDM-ELECTRIC DISCHARGE MACHINING
• Due to the inertia of the surrounding fluid, the
pressure within the spark becomes quite large and
may possibly assist in ‘blasting’ the molten material
from the surface leaving a fairly flat and shallow
crater.
• The amount of metal removed per spark depends
upon the electrical energy expended per spark and
the period over which it is expended.

KYC
EDM-ELECTRIC DISCHARGE MACHINING

• With the application of voltage, an electric field builds

up between the two electrodes at the position of
least resistance.
• The ionization leads to the breakdown of the
dielectric, which results in the drop of the voltage
and the beginning of flow of current.
• Electrons and ions migrate to the anode and cathode
respectively at very high current density.
• A column of vapor begins to form and the localized
melting of work commences.
• The discharge channel continues to expand along
with a substantial increase of temperature and
pressure.
KYC
EDM-ELECTRIC DISCHARGE MACHINING
• When the power is switched off the current drops; no
further heat is generated, and the discharge column
collapses.
• A portion of molten metal evaporates explosively
and/or is ejected away from the electrode surface.
• With the sudden drop in temperature, the remaining
molten and vaporized metal solidifies.
• A tiny crater is thus generated at the surface.
• The residual debris is flushed away along with
products of decomposition of dielectric fluid.
• The application of voltage initiates the next pulse
and the cycle of events.
KYC
EDM-ELECTRIC DISCHARGE MACHINING
• Principle of EDM: Electric discharge machining,
also referred as spark machining or spark erosion
machining is a controlled metal removal process
based on the principle of erosive effects of electrical
discharges (sparks) taking place between two
electrically conducting materials immersed in a
dielectric fluid.
• One of the conducting materials is called the tool-
electrode, or simply the tool, while the other, the
workpiece electrode, or simply the workpiece.

KYC
EDM-ELECTRIC DISCHARGE MACHINING

KYC
EDM-ELECTRIC DISCHARGE MACHINING

KYC
EDM-ELECTRIC DISCHARGE MACHINING
• Atypical schematic of the various elements present in a
commercial EDM machine is shown.
• The main power unit consists of the required controlled
pulse generator with the dc power to supply the power
pulses.
• The pulse frequency as well as the on and off time of the
pulses can be very accurately controlled using electronic
controllers.
• The gap between the electrode and the workpiece
increases with the removal of metal.
• The EDM power supply voltage is dependent upon the
spark gap, which needs to be maintained constant.
• A servo-controlled electrode feeding arrangement would
be available which continuously senses the spark gap
and moves the tool (electrode) to maintain this gap.
KYC
 EDM-ELECTRIC DISCHARGE MACHINING
• Tool electrode: In EDM process, the shape of the
tool is similar to that desired in the workpiece.
• The material selected for manufacturing EDM tools
should be good conductor of heat and electricity,
easily machinable, and resist the deformation during
the erosion process.
• Various materials like copper, zinc alloys, brass,
graphite, tungsten, silver tungsten, etc., are used for
manufacturing EDM tools.
• Dielectric fluid: In EDM process, the tool and the
workpiece are separated by a dielectric fluid. The
dielectric fluid may be mineral oils, kerosene,
deionized water, etc., and performs the following
functions: Act as a insulator until the potential is
sufficiently high. Act as a flushing medium. Act as a
cooling medium during machining. KYC
EDM-ELECTRIC DISCHARGE MACHINING
• Servo feed mechanism: EDM machines are
equipped with servo control mechanism that
automatically maintains a constant gap between the
tool and the workpiece, which is One of the most
important parameter in the process.
• Pumps and Filters: Pumps and filters serve their
usual purpose of circulating clean fluid to the
machining gap for efficient machining.

KYC
EDM-ELECTRIC DISCHARGE MACHINING
• EDM Operation: The tool (shaped electrode) is
connected to the -e terminal (cathode), while the
workpiece to the +ve terminal (anode) of the power
source.
• The tool and the workpiece are separated by a
small gap known as spark gap, filled by the
dielectric fluid.
• The spark gap usually ranges from 0.01-0.5mm.
• When the potential difference between the tool and
the workpiece is sufficiently high, a transient spark
discharges through the fluid removing a very small
amount of material from the workpiece.
• Mechanism of metal removal: Initially the gap
between the tool and the workpiece, which consists
of the dielectric fluid, is not conductive. KYC
 EDM-ELECTRIC DISCHARGE MACHINING
• But, under the pulsed application of DC, the dielectric
fluid in the gap is ionized, causing the spark to
discharge or jump between the tool and the
workpiece.
• The arc impinges on the elevated surface of the
workpiece at a very high temperature of around
10,000°C causing a small portion of the workpiece to
melt and/or vapourize.
• The forces of electric and magnetic fields caused by
the spark produce a tensile force resulting in tearing
of particles of molten and softened metal from the
work surface thereby causing metal removal to take
place.
• The continuously flowing fluid flushes away the
excess material removed from the machining gap.
KYC
EDM-ELECTRIC DISCHARGE MACHINING
• Typical parameters used in EDM process are
➢ Spark gap – 0.0125 to 0.125mm
➢ Current – 0.5 to 400A
➢ Voltage (dc) – 40 to 300V
➢ Pulse duration – 2 to 2000s
➢ Dielectric pressure <0.2MPa
➢ The metal-removal rates are about 16.4cm3/hour per
20A of current.
➢ This can go as high as 250cm3/hour per 20A of
current.
➢ Surface finish 3 to 10m Rough & 0.8 to 3m Finish
• Various electrode materials used are graphite,
copper, copper-graphite, brass, zinc alloys, steel,
copper-tungsten, silver-tungsten, tungsten, etc.
KYC
 Dielectric Fluid
• The dielectric fluid is a spark conductor, coolant,
and also a flushing medium.
• The dielectric fluid should have sufficient and stable
dielectric strength to serve as insulation between
the tool and work till the breakdown voltage is
reached.
• It should de-ionize rapidly after the spark discharge
has taken place.
• It should have low viscosity and a good wetting
capacity to provide effective cooling mechanism
and remove the swarf particles from the machining
gap.
• It should flush out the particles produced during the
spark out of the gap. KYC
 Dielectric Fluid
• Inadequate flushing can result in arcing, decreasing
the life of the electrode and increasing the machining
time.
• It should be chemically neutral so as not to attack
the electrode, the workpiece, the table or the tank.
• Its flash point should be high to avoid any fire
hazards.
• It should not emit any toxic vapors or have
unpleasant odors.
• It should maintain these properties with temperature
variation, contamination by working residuals and
products of decomposition.
• It should be economical and easily available.
KYC
 ELECTRODES IN EDM
• In EDM process, the shape of the electrode is
impressed on the workpiece in its complementary
form and as such the shape of the accuracy of the
electrode plays a very important role in the final
accuracy of the workpiece machined.
• The electrode material should have the following
characteristics to serve as a good tool.
➢ It should be a good conductor of electricity and heat.
➢ It should be easily machinable to any shape at a
reasonable cost.
➢ It should produce efficient material-removal rates
from the workpieces.
➢ It should resist the deformation during the erosion
process.
➢ It should exhibit low electrode (tool) wear rates.
➢ It should be available in a variety of shapes. KYC
 Wire EDM
• A brass wire is fed through the workpiece
submerged in a tank of dielectric fluid.
• It is used to cut plates as thick as 0.3m and to make
punches, tools, and dies from hard metals.

와이어 컷 방전가공

- Wire electrode

+ Workpiece

KYC
 Wire EDM

Schematic diagram of Wire EDM

KYC
 Wire EDM
• The electrode wire is typically of a diameter of 0.05
to 0.25 mm copper or brass, which is wound
between the two spools.
• The wire moves past the workpiece at fast rates up
to 3m/min.
• The spark is struck between the moving electrode
wire and the workpiece, thereby removing the
material.
• The dielectric most commonly used is the de-ionised
water applied as a localised stream, rather than
submerging the whole workpiece.
• Kerf is the width of the cut produced by the wire.

KYC
 Wire EDM
• Electrical discharge machining wire cutting (EDM-
WC) is a thermal mass-reducing process that uses a
continuously moving wire to remove material by
means of rapid controlled repetitive spark
discharges.
• A dielectric fluid is used to flush the removed
particles, regulate the discharge, and keep the wire
and workpiece cool.
• The wire and workpiece must be electrically
conductive.
• Can produce complex two-dimensional shapes
• Wire EDM is used for machining the sheet metal
dies, extrusion dies and prototype parts. It is
relatively a very slow process (linear travels of the
order of 100 mm/hour 25 mm thick steel) utilizing
computer-controlled machines. KYC
ECM- ELECTRO CHEMICAL MACHINING
• Electrochemical machining (ECM) is another
process using electrical current to remove the metal,
but unlike EDM, it relies on the principle of
electrolysis for material removal.
• Michael Faraday (1791-1867) discovered that if two
electrodes are placed in a bath containing a
conducting liquid and a dc potential is applied across
them, then metal can be depleted from the anode
and plated on the cathode.
• This process is universally used in electroplating by
making the workpiece as cathode.
• However, in ECM, material is to be removed and
hence electroplating is reversed, i.e. making the
workpiece as anode.
KYC
ECM- ELECTRO CHEMICAL MACHINING
• ECM is based on the electrolysis. A potential
difference is applied across the cathode and anode,
there are a number of possible reactions that can
take place.
• In ECM, the electrolyte is so chosen that there is no
plating on tool and shape of tool remain unchanged.
Generally NaCl into water takes as electrolyte.

KYC
ECM- ELECTRO CHEMICAL MACHINING
• The following are some of the equations that are
relevant for ECM.
• The reaction taking place at the anode is the
dissolution of anode by the electrolyte.
Fe → Fe ++ +2e
• Similarly at the cathode, hydrogen gas is released
from the water contained in electrolyte.
H 2 O+2e → H 2 +2OH −
• Combining the above two reactions
Fe ++ +2OH − → Fe ( OH )2
• Net reaction
Fe+2H 2 O → Fe ( OH )2 +H 2
• It is further possible, iron hydroxide may react with
water and oxygen forming ferric hydroxide
4Fe(OH) 2 + 2H 2 O+O 2 → 4Fe ( OH )3 +H 2
KYC
ECM- ELECTRO CHEMICAL MACHINING
• Principle of ECM: Electrochemical machining works
on the principle of Faradays law of electrolysis.
• ECM is opposite of electrochemical galvanic coating
or deposition process.
• Thus ECM is a controlled anodic dissolution at
atomic level of the work piece that is electrically
conductive by a shaped tool due to flow of high
current at relatively low potential difference through
an electrolyte which is quite often water based
neutral salt solution.
• In electrochemical machining, the workpiece forms
the anode, and a properly insulated tool having
shape similar to that desired in the workpiece forms
the cathode. KYC
ECM- ELECTRO CHEMICAL MACHINING

• The tool and the workpiece are positioned closer to

each other with a conductive electrolyte flowing
through a small gap between the workpiece and tool.
• The chemical properties of electrolyte are such that,
the constituents of the workpiece material (anode) go
into the solution during electrolysis, but do not plate
on the tool (cathode). The shape obtained in the
workpiece material is exactly similar to the shaped
tool. KYC
ECM- ELECTRO CHEMICAL MACHINING

Schematic of various elements in ECM KYC

ECM- ELECTRO CHEMICAL MACHINING

Schematic of various elements in ECM KYC

ECM- ELECTRO CHEMICAL MACHINING
• The tool to work gap needs to be maintained at a
very small value of the order of 0.25 mm for
satisfactory metal-removal rates.
• A high-current, low-voltage DC power supply is
connected between the tool and the workpiece
• The tool is connected to the negative terminal
(cathode) and the workpiece to the positive terminal
(anode).
• The electrolyte needs to be pumped through this gap
at high pressures ranging from 0.70 to 3MPa.
• This introduces a large amount of load on the
machine, because of large working areas involved.
• For example, if the working area is 800cm2, with an
electrolyte pressure of 1.0 MPa, the resulting load on
the tool will be 80000 N. KYC
ECM- ELECTRO CHEMICAL MACHINING
• Hence, the machine structure will have to be made
rigid to withstand such forces.
• When the current is passed, dissolution of the
workpiece (anode) occurs.
• Meanwhile, the flowing electrolyte washes the metal
ions away from the workpiece before they have a
chance to plate onto the tool.
• The downward movement of the tool causes the
workpiece to take the same shape as that of the tool.
• The electrolyte consists of the metal debris removed
from the anode, which will have to be filtered before
it is repumped into the system.
• Also, a large amount of heat is generated during the
electrolysis, which heats up the electrolyte, and
hence it needs to be cooled. KYC
ECM- ELECTRO CHEMICAL MACHINING
• The electrical conductivity of the electrolyte changes
with temperature.
• Maintaining a constant equilibrium gap needs to be
maintained during the ECM operation.
• A servo drive is provided on the tool axis for this
purpose.
• The electrolytes used in the ECM process are
corrosive in nature and hence, proper care needs to
be taken to see that all the materials that come in
contact with the electrolyte be made of stainless
steel, plastic or other materials to withstand the
corrosion.
• Similarly, provision needs to be made to safely
exhaust the hydrogen gas generated during the
process with explosion-proof blowers continuously.
KYC
ECM- ELECTRO CHEMICAL MACHINING
• Electrolytes used in ECM should be carefully
selected such that they provide the necessary
reactions without plating the cathode.
• The typical functions expected to be served by an
electrolyte in ECM are
➢ Completes the electrical circuit between the tool and
the workpiece
➢ Allow desirable machining reactions to takes place
➢ Carry away heat generated during the operation
➢ Carry away products of reaction from the zone of
machining
➢ The electrolyte must be injected in the gap at high
speed (between 1500 to 3000 m/min). KYC
ECM- ELECTRO CHEMICAL MACHINING
• The properties that should be carefully looked into
during the selection of the electrolyte to serve the
function are
➢ High electrical conductivity
➢ Low viscosity and high specific heat
➢ Chemical stability
➢ Resistance to formation of passivating film on
workpiece surface
➢ Noncorrosive and nontoxic
➢ Inexpensive and readily available
• The salt solutions, with water forming a large
proportion, satisfy many of the above conditions
and, therefore, are generally used
KYC
ECM- ELECTRO CHEMICAL MACHINING
• Sodium chloride or potassium chloride up to 0.25
kg/litre.
• Most widely used because of low cost and stable
conductivity over a broad range of pH values.
• However, it is corrosive and produces large amount
of sludge. It cannot be used on tungsten-carbide or
molybdenum.
• Sodium nitrate up to 0.50 kg/litre.
• Less corrosive but forms a passive film on the
workpiece surface.
• Hence, not used as a general-purpose electrolyte. It
is used for machining aluminium and copper.
• The electrolyte flow when drilling a hole, is allowed
to flow through the tool under high pressure and
exits through the workpiece. KYC
ECM- ELECTRO CHEMICAL MACHINING
• Since the electrolysis lakes place as long as the
current is flowing through the tool, there is a steep
taper produced by an uninsulated.
• To reduce this taper, it is necessary to insulate the
sides of the tool, which will produce straight walls.

KYC
 ECM- PROCESS PARAMETERS
• The material-removal rates with ECM are
sufficiently large and comparable with that of the
conventional methods.
• Excellent surface finish of the order of 0.4m can
be obtained with tolerances of the order of
±0.02mm or less.
• The process parameters that have a control on the
performance of the ECM process are the following.
➢ Feed rate
➢ Voltage
➢ Current
➢ Electrolyte Concentration
➢ Electrolyte Temperature
KYC
 ECM- PROCESS PARAMETERS
• Typical ECM parameters used are
➢ Current 50 to 40 000 Amperes
➢ Current density 8 to 233 Amperes/cm2
➢ Voltage 4 to 30 V dc
➢ Gap 0.025 to 0.75 mm
➢ Electrolyte velocity 15 to 60 m/s
➢ Electrolyte pressure 0.069 to 2.700MPa
➢ Electrolyte temperature 24 to 65°C
➢ Feed rate 0.5 to 19.0 mm/min

KYC
ECM- ADVANTAGES & LIMITATIONS
• Advantages
➢ Complex three-dimensional surfaces can be
machined accurately.
➢ Since there are no cutter marks, surface finish will
be higher.
➢ The tool wear is practically nil, which results in a
large number of components produced per tool.
➢ The ECM process does not thermally affect the
workpiece.
• Limitations
➢ Use of corrosive media as electrolytes makes it
difficult to handle.
➢ Sharp interior edges and corners (<0.2mm radius)
are difficult to produce.
➢ Very expensive machine. KYC
 ECM-MRR & Gap resistance
• The first law of Faraday’s electrolysis states that the
chemical change produced during electrolysis is
proportional to the current passed and the
electrochemical equivalence of the anode material.
• Hence, the material-removal rate (MRR) in ECM
(assuming 100% current efficiency) is given by
AI
MRR = kg / s
ZF
• The volumetric material-removal rate is given by
dividing the above with the density of the workpiece
material,
AI
MRR = mm3 / s
ZF  a
KYC
 ECM-MRR & Gap resistance
• where A= Atomic weight of the work material,
• I = Current, amperes
• Z = Valency of the work material,
• F = Faraday’s constant = 96540 coulombs and
• a = Density of work material

• Gap resistance R is given by

h
R=
AGap
• where  = Specific resistance of the electrolyte
• h = equilibrium gap and
• AGap = Cross-sectional area of the gap.
KYC
 NUMERICALS
• Calculate the material-removal rate and the
electrode feed rate in the electrochemical machining
of an iron surface that is 25mm x 25mm in cross
section using NaCl in water as electrolyte. The gap
between the tool and the workpiece is 0.25 mm. The
supply voltage is 12 Vdc. The specific resistance of
the electrolyte is 3cm.
• AGap=25x25=625mm2
• h=0.25mm
• V=12V
• =3cm
• For iron, Valency Z=2
Atomic weight, A=55.84
• Density, a=7860kg/m3
KYC
 NUMERICALS
h
• Gap resistance R is given by R =
3  0.25 AGap
R= = 0.0012
625
V 12
• Current, I = = = 1000 A
R 0.0012
• MRR in ECM ( assuming 100% current efficiency)
AI 55.85 1000
MRR = = = 0.2893g / s = 289.3 10−6 kg / s
ZF 2  96540
AI 289.3 10−6
MRR = = = 0.03677 10−6 m3 / s
ZF  a 7860
• Feed rate of the electrode is
MRR 0.03677 10−6  60
Feed rate= = −9
= 3.53mm/min
Surface area 625 10
KYC
 CHEMICAL MILLING
• Chemical machining or chemical milling is a
process used to dissolve the workpiece material in
chemical solutions.
• Since the chemical solutions used have the ability to
dissolve all of the workpiece material, the parts which
are not to be dissolved would have to be applied with
a mask, which resists the chemical action of the
solution, so that only the unmasked portion gets
removed by the chemical solutions.
• The steps involved in a typical chemical machining
operation arc the following:
➢ Clean the workpiece thoroughly. This is necessary to
ensure that the masking material will adhere to the
workpiece well to reduce any possibility of stray
etching due to maskant debonding. KYC
 CHEMICAL MILLING
➢ Apply a chemical-resistant mask on the workpiece
surface where no material is to be removed.
➢ Dip the workpiece into the chemical solution called
etchant and leave it for sufficient time to get the
necessary depth of etching.
➢ The etchant is either continuously sprayed onto the
workpiece surface or the part is immersed in a tank
of constantly agitating etchant solution.
➢ This helps in removing the material uniformly from all
the exposed surfaces of the part. The strength of the
etchant is maintained since it becomes weak by
absorbing the workpiece material with time.
➢ Remove the mask and clean the workpiece.
KYC
 CHEMICAL MILLING
• During the etching process, the removal of material
takes place depth wise in the unexposed portion as
well as in the inward direction under the mask.
• The distance etched under the mask is termed
undercut, while the distance etched in the exposed
portion is termed the depth of cut.

Chemical machining process KYC

 CHEMICAL MILLING
• The undercut is dependent upon the depth of cut,
the strength of the etchant solution and the
workpiece material.
• It is necessary during the design of the maskant to
take the undercut into account to get the actual size
required.
• The relationship between the undercut and the depth
of cut is termed the etch factor

Undercut
Etch factor =
Depth of cut

KYC
 CHEMICAL MILLING
• There are three generally followed methods for
making the masks.
➢ Cut and Peel
➢ Screen-printing
➢ Photo-resist Masks
• (i) Cut and Peel: This is generally a neoprene, butyl
or vinyl-based thick material, which is applied by dip
spraying or flow coating.
• Afterwards, the pattern is scribed on the mask using
a pattern, and peeled away exposing the areas to be
etched.
• The thickness of the mask can range from 0.025 to
0.125 mm, which allows it to be used for large
depths of cut. ft can also be used for step-etching
application. KYC
 CHEMICAL MILLING
• (ii) Screen-printing: The maskant is transferred to
the workpiece using a fine-mesh screen such as
those used for silk screen-printing.
• This is fast and economical for large-volume
production with relatively less accuracy.
• The thickness of the mask is relatively small (less
than 0.05 mm) and hence used for shallower etching
depths.
• (iii) Photo-resist Masks: This is the most versatile
compared to the other mask-making technologies.
• Use of these masks makes the process to be called
Photochemical Machining (PCM), though the rest of
the processing remains the same as chemical
machining. KYC
 CHEMICAL MILLING
• Common Etchants used
• For aluminium
➢ sodium hydroxide
➢ Keller's reagent
• For steels
➢ hydrochloric and nitric acids
➢ ferric chloride for stainless steels
➢ Nital (a mixture of nitric acid and ethanol,
methanol, or methylated spirits for mild steels)
• For copper
➢ cupric chloride
➢ ferric chloride
➢ ammonium persulfate
➢ ammonia
➢ 25-50% nitric acid.
➢ hydrochloric acid and hydrogen peroxide KYC
 CHEMICAL MILLING

Sequence of processing steps in chemical milling

(1) Clean raw part (2) Apply maskant (3) Scribe/cut
and peel the maskant from areas to be etched
(4) etch (5) Remove maskant and clean to yield
finished part KYC
 CHEMICAL BLANKING
• Chemical blanking is used to etch entirely through a
metal part.
• In chemical blanking, holes and slots that penetrate
entirely through the material are produced, usually in
thin sheet materials.
• Chemical blanking uses chemical erosion to cut very
thin sheet metal parts—down to 0.025mm (0.001in)
thick and/or for intricate cutting patterns.
• In both instances, conventional punch-and-die
methods do not work because the stamping forces
damage the sheet metal, or the tooling cost would be
prohibitive, or both.
• Chemical blanking produces parts that are burr free,
an advantage over conventional shearing operations.
KYC
 CHEMICAL BLANKING
• Methods used for applying the maskant in chemical
blanking are either the photo resist method or the
screen resist method.
• For small and/or intricate cutting patterns and close
tolerances, the photoresist method is used.
• Tolerances as close as0.0025mm (0.0001in) can be
held on 0.025-mm (0.001-in)-thick stock using the
photoresist method of masking.
• As stock thickness increases, more generous
tolerances must be allowed.
• Screen resist masking methods are not nearly so
accurate as photoresist. The small work size in
chemical blanking excludes the cut and peel maskant
method. KYC
 CHEMICAL BLANKING
• Using the screen resist method to illustrate, the steps
in chemical blanking.
• Because chemical etching takes place on both sides
of the part in chemical blanking, it is important that
the masking procedure provides accurate registration
between the two sides.
• Otherwise, the erosion into the part from opposite
directions will not line up.
• This is especially critical with small part sizes and
intricate patterns.

KYC
 CHEMICAL BLANKING

Sequence of processing steps in chemical blanking

(1) Clean raw part, (2) Apply resist (maskant) by
painting through screen, (3) etch (partially completed)
(4) etch (completed) (5) remove resist and clean to
yield finished part. KYC
 USM-ULTRASONIC MACHINING
• Ultrasonic machining (USM) is a mechanical metal-
removal process for brittle materials by using high-
frequency oscillations of a shaped tool using
abrasive slurry.
• The term ultrasonic refers to the frequency range
above the audible range and is above 16 kHz.
• The transducer generates the high, frequency
vibrations of the order of 20 to 30 kHz with an
amplitude of the order of 0.02 mm.
• This vibration is transmitted to the tool made of soft
material, through a mechanical coupler known as
tool holder.
• The tool shape is a close complementary shape of
the final surface to be generated. KYC
 USM-ULTRASONIC MACHINING
• The tool while oscillating would be pressed against
the workpiece and fed continuously.
• A slurry of abrasive grains suspended in a liquid is
fed into the cutting zone under pressure.
• The slurry is about 30% concentration. Abrasive
particles are driven into the work surface by the
oscillating tool.
• The force is typically about 1,50,000 times the
weight of the individual grains.
• A small crater will be formed at the impact site of the
grain, if the workpiece is brittle.
• A very large number of such small craters remove
sufficiently large material from the workpiece.
KYC
 USM-ULTRASONIC MACHINING
• As the material is removed, the tool is gradually
advanced into the workpiece by a servomechanism
such that constant gap is maintained between the
tool and the workpiece.
• Finally the shape of the tool is impressed into the
workpiece.
• The material removal rates in USM arc relatively
small, but in materials, which are brittle, this is the
only way to produce economically complex cavities
without breaking the workpiece.
• Since there is no direct contact between the
workpiece and the tool, fragile workpieces can be
conveniently used in USM.
KYC
 USM-ULTRASONIC MACHINING
• The transducer in USM is utilized to convert the
electrical energy to vibratory motion utilizing either
the piezoelectric or magnetostrictive principles.
• Tool cone amplifies the mechanical energy produced
by the transducer. Horn mechanically amplifies the
vibratory energy to give the required force-amplitude
ratio.
• A large variety of abrasives are available for using in
USM. The abrasive selected should be harder than
the material being machined.
• Typical abrasives used are aluminium oxide, silicon
carbide and boron carbide. Aluminium oxide wears
fast and are good for glass and ceramics.
KYC
USM-ULTRASONIC MACHINING

USM-ULTRASONIC MACHINING KYC

 LBM-LASER BEAM MACHINING
• Laser Beam Machining (LBM) utilizes the energy
from the coherent light beams called LASER (Light
amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation).
• The types of lasers used in LBM are carbon dioxide
gas lasers and solid-state lasers (of which there are
several types).
• In laser beam machining, the energy of the coherent
light beam is concentrated not only optically but also
in terms of time.
• The light beam is pulsed so that the released energy
results in an impulse against the work surface that
produces a combination of evaporation and melting,
with the melted material evacuating the surface at
high velocity.
KYC
 LBM-LASER BEAM MACHINING
• LBM is used to perform various types of drilling,
slitting, slotting, scribing and marking operations.
• Drilling small diameter holes is possible-down to
0.025 mm (0.001 in).
• For larger holes, above 0.50-mm (0.020-in) diameter,
the laser beam is controlled to cut the outline of the
hole.
• LBM is not considered a mass production process
and it is generally used on thin stock.
• The range of work materials that can be machined by
LBM is virtually unlimited. Ideal properties of a
material for LBM include high light energy absorption,
poor reflectivity, good thermal conductivity, low
specific heat, low heat of fusion, and low heat of
vaporization. KYC
 LBM-LASER BEAM MACHINING
• Of course, no material has this ideal combination of
properties. The actual list of work materials
processed by LBM includes metals with high
hardness and strength, soft metals, ceramics, glass
and glass epoxy, plastics, rubber, cloth, and wood.
• The first laser was invented by Maiman in May,
1960, which is a solid ruby laser.
• Since then, a number of lasers were invented-
uranium laser by IBM labs in 1960, helium-neon
laser by Bell Laboratories in 1961, semiconductor
laser by Robert Hall at General Electric Labs in
1962, Nd: YAG (Neodymium-doped Yttrium
Aluminium Garnet) laser and CO2 (carbon dioxide)
laser by Bell Laboratories in 1964, argon-ion laser in
1964. KYC
 LBM-LASER BEAM MACHINING
• A number of processes are possible using the laser
beam such as laser drilling, laser cutting and laser
grooving, marking or scribing.
• The laser beam is focused with the help of the lens
and the workpiece is placed near the focal point of
the lens.
• A short pulse of laser melts and vaporizes the
material. The explosive escape of the vaporized
metal helps in removing most of the molten metal
from the hole as tiny droplets.
• Any of the molten metal not removed will be re-
solidified along the walls of the hole.
• This process can be used for machining small holes
of 0.125 to 1.25 mm with a length- to-diameter ratio
up to 100. KYC
 LBM-LASER BEAM MACHINING
• Hole size depends largely on set-up and spot size of
the laser beam.
• Laser drilling of metals is used to produce very small
orifices for nozzles, cooling channels in air-turbine
blades, drilling of circuit board, etc.
• The laser-drilled holes exhibit a taper and also lack a
high degree of roundness.
• Hole size can be controlled to within 0.025 mm, with
some taper being evident in thick materials.
• Holes larger than 1.25 mm cannot be drilled
because the power density will decrease. Hence,
laser cutting is used rather than laser drilling.

KYC
 LBM-LASER BEAM MACHINING
• Laser cutting is similar to flame cutting where
workpieces can be cut along lines or curves.
• Since the laser is not contacting the workpiece
directly, it is possible to cut thin workpieces easily.
CO2 laser and Nd:YAG laser are the most popular
lasers because of their ability to provide high power,
i.e. above 1 kW.
• Based on the method used, laser cutting can be
basically divided into two types.
• Evaporative laser cutting is the process in which
laser vaporizes the material directly for some organic
materials such as paper, cloth or polymers.
• Laser fusion cutting for cutting metals, the laser
directly melts the target material and the gas jet
blows the molten material away, thus formingKYC a hole.
 LBM-LASER BEAM MACHINING
• Then the nozzle continues to move in the direction of
the profile to be cut.
• The energy required for cutting in this process is
much less compared to the evaporative laser cutting.
• In this way, the requirement on laser energy is lower
compared with vaporization cutting.
• Thicknesses of up to 25 mm can be cut with a laser,
with a kerf down to a tenth of a millimeter.
• The biggest advantage of laser cutting is that very
complex shapes with corners that have radii of a
tenth of a millimeter and good, almost burr-free edge
quality, can be cut at high speeds.

KYC
LBM-LASER BEAM MACHINING

LASER BEAM MACHINING KYC

LBM-LASER BEAM MACHINING

LASER BEAM MACHINING KYC

 WELDING
• A weld is defined by the American Welding Society
(AWS) as “a localized coalescence (the fusion or
growing together of the grain structure of the
materials being welded) of metals or nonmetals
produced either by heating the materials to the
required welding temperatures, with or without the
application of pressure, or by the application of
pressure alone, and with or without the use of filler
materials”.
• Welding is defined as “a joining process that
produces coalescence of materials by heating them
to the welding temperature, with or without the
application of pressure or by the application of
pressure alone, and with or without the use of filler
metal”
KYC
 WELDING
• Welding is a process of joining two similar or
dissimilar metals by fusion, with or without the
application of pressure and with or without the use of
filler metal.
• The fusion of metal takes place by means of heat.
The heat may be obtained from electric arc. electric
resistance, chemical reaction, friction or radiant
energy.
• Autogenous Welding: The process of joining
similar metals by melting the edges together, without
the addition of filler metal, is called autogenous
welding.
• Homogeneous Welding: The process of joining
similar metals with the help of filler rod of the same
metal is called homogeneous welding. KYC
 WELDING
• Heterogeneous Welding: The process of joining
dissimilar metals using filler rod is called
heterogeneous welding.
• Weldability: Weldability of a metal is the ease with
which two similar or dissimilar metals are joined by
fusion with or without the application of pressure and
with or without the use of filler metal.
• Base Metal: The metal to be joined is termed as the
base metal.
• Bead or Weld Bead: Bead is the metal added
during welding.
• Weld Pass: A single movement of the welding torch
or electrode along the length of the joint, which
results in a bead, is a weld pass.
KYC
 WELDING
• Backing: It is the material support provided at the
root side of a weld to aid in the control of
penetration.
• Deposition Rate: The rate at which the weld metal
is deposited per unit time (kg/hr).
• Penetration: It is the depth upto which the weld
metal combines with the base metal as measured
from the top surface of the joint.
• Root: It is the point at which the two pieces to be
joined by welding are nearest to each other.
• Tack Weld: A small weld, generally used to
temporarily hold the two pieces together during
actual welding is called the tack weld.
KYC
 CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING
• Various welding and allied processes are classified as
follows
❖ Gas Welding
➢ Air-acetylene welding
➢ Oxy acetylene welding
➢ Oxy-hydrogen welding
➢ Pressure gas welding
❖ Arc Welding
➢ Carbon arc welding
➢ Shielded metal arc welding
➢ Flux cored arc welding
➢ Submerged arc welding
➢ TIG (Tungsten Inert Gas) welding
➢ MIG (Metal Inert Gas) welding
➢ Plasma arc welding
➢ Electroslag welding
➢ Electrogas arc welding
➢ Stud arc welding. KYC
 CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING
• Resistance Welding
➢ Spot welding
➢ Seam welding
➢ Projection welding
➢ Resistance butt welding
➢ Flash butt welding
➢ Percussion welding
➢ High frequency resistance welding.
• Solid State Welding
➢ Cold welding
➢ Diffusion welding
➢ Explosive welding
➢ Forge welding
➢ Friction welding
➢ Hot pressure welding
➢ Roll welding
➢ Ultrasonic welding KYC
 CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING
• Thermo-chemical welding processes
➢ Thermit welding
➢ Atomic hydrogen welding
• Radiant Energy Welding Processes
➢ Electron beam welding
➢ Laser beam welding

KYC
 CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING
• Welding processes can also be divided into the
following two groups:
1. Forge or Pressure Welding (Plastic Welding)
• In forge or pressure welding, the workpieces are
heated to plastic state and then, the workpieces are
joined together by applying external pressure on
them.

KYC
 CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING
2. Fusion or Non-pressure Welding: In this welding,
the material at the joint is heated Io a molten slate
and then allowed to solidify.

KYC
 ADVANTAGES OF WELDING
• A good weld is as strong as the base metal.
• A large no. of metals/alloys can be joined by
welding.
• Repair by welding is very easy.
• Welding can be easily mechanized.
• Portable welding equipment is available.
• General welding equipment is not very costly.
• Total joining cost is less in case of welding joint.

KYC
 LIMITATIONS OF WELDING
• Welding produces the harmful radiation, fumes and
spatter.
• A skilled welder is required.
• Welding heat produces metallurgical changes.
• Edge preparation is required before welding.
• More safety devices are required.
• Jigs and fixtures are required to hold the parts to be
welded.

KYC
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW)
• Arc welding is widely used method of joining the
metal parts. Here the source of heat is an electric
arc.
• In arc welding, arc is generated between the positive
pole of D.C. (direct current) called anode and
negative pole of D.C. called cathode.
• When these two poles are brought together, and
separated for a small distance (1.5 to 3 mm) such
that the current continues to flow through a path of
ionized particles, called plasma, an electric arc is
formed.
• Since the resistance of this ionized gas column is
high, so more ions will flow from anode to the
cathode. Heat is generated as the ions strike the
cathode. KYC
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW)
• Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) uses a
consumable stick electrode that conducts the
welding current from the electrode holder to the
work, and as the arc melts the end of the electrode
away, it becomes part of the weld metal.
• Stick electrodes are available in lengths of 12in, 14in
and 18in (300 mm, 350 mm, and 450 mm).
• The welding arc vaporizes the solid flux that covers
the electrode so that it forms an expanding gaseous
cloud to protect the molten weld metal.
• In addition to fluxes protecting molten weld metal,
they also perform a number of beneficial functions
for the weld, depending on the type of electrode
being used.
KYC
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW)
• SMA welding equipment can be very basic as
compared to other welding processes.
• It consist of a welding transformer and two welding
cables with a work clamp and electrode holder.
• There are more types and sizes of SMA welding
electrodes than there are filler metal types and sizes
for any other welding process.
• This wide selection of filler metal allows welders to
select the best electrode type and size to fit their
specific welding job requirements.
• Therefore, a wide variety of metal types and metal
thicknesses can be joined with one machine.

KYC
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW)

Shielded metal arc welding equipment

KYC
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW)
• Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) is a welding
process that uses a flux-covered metal electrode to
carry an electrical current.
• The current forms an arc across the gap between
the end of the electrode and the work.
• The electric arc creates sufficient heat to melt both
the electrode and the work.
• Molten metal from the electrode travels across the
arc to the molten pool on the base metal, where they
mix together.
• The end of the electrode and molten pool of metal is
surrounded, purified, and protected by a gaseous
cloud and a covering of molten flux produced as the
flux coating of the electrode burns or vaporizes.
KYC
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW)
• As the arc moves away, the mixture of molten
electrode and base metal solidifies and becomes
one piece.
• At the same time, the molten flux solidifies, forming a
solid slag. Some electrode types produce heavier
slag coverings than others.
• SMAW is a widely used welding process because of
its low cost, flexibility, portability, and versatility. The
machine and the electrodes are low in cost.
• The source of heat for arc welding is an electric
current. An electric current is the flow of electrons.
Electrons flow through a conductor from negative (-)
to positive (+).
• Resistance to the flow of electrons (electricity)
produces heat. KYC
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW)
• The greater the resistance, the greater the heat. Air
has a high resistance to current flow.
• As the electrons jump the air gap between the end of
the electrode and the work, a great deal of heat is
produced.
• Electrons flowing across an air gap produce an arc.
• An arc’s temperature is dependent on the voltage,
arc length, and the atmosphere (gas or vapor) it is
passing through.
• The arc temperature can range from approximately
5500°F (3000°C) to more than 36,000°F (20,000°C),
but most SMA welding arcs have effective
temperatures of approximately 11,000°F (6100°C).
KYC
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW)

Shielded metal arc welding KYC

SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW)

Shielded metal arc welding KYC

 TYPES OF WELDING CURRENT IN SMAW
• The three different types of current used for welding
are alternating current (AC), direct-current electrode
negative (DCEN), and direct-current electrode
positive (DCEP).
• The terms DCEN and DCEP have replaced the
former terms direct-current straight polarity (DCSP)
and direct-current reverse polarity (DCRP).
• DCEN and DCSP are the same currents and DCEP
and DCRP are the same currents.
• Some electrodes can be used with only one type of
current. Others can be used with two or more types
of current.
• Each welding current has a different effect on the
weld. KYC
 TYPES OF WELDING CURRENT IN SMAW
• DCEN: In direct-current electrode negative, the
electrode is negative and the work is positive.
• The electrons are leaving the electrode and traveling
across the arc to the surface of the metal being
welded.
• This results in approximately one-third of the welding
heat on the electrode and two-thirds on the metal
being welded.
• DCEP: In direct-current electrode positive, the
electrode is positive and the work is negative.
• The electrons are leaving the surface of the metal
being welded and traveling across the arc to the
electrode.
• This results in approximately two-thirds of the
welding heat on the electrode and one-third on the
metal being welded. KYC
TYPES OF WELDING CURRENT IN SMAW
• AC: In alternating current, the electrons change
direction every 1/120 of a second so that the
electrode and work alternate from anode to
cathode.
• The positive side of an electrode arc is called the
anode and the negative side is called the cathode.
• The rapid reversal of the current flow causes the
welding heat to be evenly distributed on both the
work and the electrode that is, half on the work and
half on the electrode.
• The even heating gives the weld bead a balance
between penetration and buildup.

KYC
TYPES OF WELDING CURRENT IN SMAW

Electrode negative (DCEN) – straight polarity (DCSP)

KYC
TYPES OF WELDING CURRENT IN SMAW

Electrode positive (DCEP) – reverse polarity (DCRP

KYC
TYPES OF WELDING CURRENT IN SMAW

Alternating current (AC) KYC

SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW)
• Materials for Electrode Coverings: Materials used
in the coverings of shielded arc electrodes may be
classified according to their purpose:
➢ Fluxes
➢ Deoxidizers
➢ Slagging ingredients
➢ Alloying ingredients
➢ Gas reducers
➢ Binders
➢ Arc stabilizers
➢ Shielding gas
KYC
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW)
• Sodium and potassium silicates are universally used
as binders; some organic gums also have a limited
use for this purpose.
• Ferro-alloys and pure metals serve as deoxidizers
and alloying ingredients. The alkaline earth metals
are the best arc stabilizers.
• Wood flour, wood pulp, refined cellulose, cotton
linters, starch, sugar, and other organic materials
provide a shield of reducing gases.
• Fluxes and slagging ingredients include silica,
alumina, clay, iron ore, rutile, limestone, magnesite,
mica, and many other minerals, as well as some
man-made materials, such as potassium titanate and
titanium dioxide.
KYC
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW)
• A flux is a substance used to prevent the formation
of oxides and other unwanted contaminants, or to
dissolve them and facilitate removal.
• During welding, the flux melts and becomes a liquid
slag, covering the operation and protecting the
molten weld metal.
• The slag hardens upon cooling and must be
removed later by chipping or brushing.
• Flux is usually formulated to serve several additional
functions:
➢ (1) provide a protective atmosphere for welding
➢ (2) stabilize the arc
➢ (3) reduce spattering
KYC
 INERT GAS WELDING
• In inert-gas shielded arc-welding processes, a high
pressure inert gas flowing around the electrode while
welding, would physically displace all the atmospheric
gases around the weld metal to fully protect it.
• It all started in 1890 when a patent was granted for
welding with an electrode, which is provided with a
shielding of flowing carbon dioxide gas.
• But in 1930, the first use of helium and argon as
shielding gases for arc welding with non-consumable
electrodes has been demonstrated for commercial
use.
• The shielding gases most commonly used are argon,
helium, carbon dioxide and mixtures of them. Argon
and helium are completely inert and therefore they
provide a complete inert atmosphere around the
puddle. KYC
 TUNGSTEN INERT GAS WELDING (TIG)
• Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding or Gas Tungsten
Arc welding (GTAW) is an inert-gas-shielded arc-
welding process using non consumable electrode.
• The electrodes may also contain 1 to 2% thoria
(thorium oxide) mixed along with the core tungsten
or tungsten with 0.15 to 0.40% zirconia (zirconium
oxide).
• The pure tungsten electrodes are less expensive but
will carry less current.
• The thoriated tungsten electrodes carry high currents
and are more desirable because they can strike and
maintain a stable arc with relative ease.
• The zirconia added tungsten electrodes are better
than pure tungsten but inferior to thoriated tungsten
electrodes. KYC
 TUNGSTEN INERT GAS WELDING (TIG)
• A typical tungsten inert gas welding consists of a
welding torch at the centre of which is the tungsten
electrode.
• The inert gas is supplied to the welding zone through
the annular path surrounding the tungsten electrode
to effectively displace the atmosphere around the
weld puddle.
• The smaller weld torches may not be provided with
any cooling devices for the electrodes, but larger
ones are provided with circulating cooling water.
• TIG welding process can be used for joining
aluminium, magnesium and stainless steel.
• Tungsten is a good electrode material due to its high
melting point of 3410°C (6170°F). KYC
 TUNGSTEN INERT GAS WELDING (TIG)
• GTAW is applicable to nearly all metals in a wide
range of stock thicknesses. It can also be used for
joining various combinations of dissimilar metals.
• Its most common applications are for aluminum and
stainless steel.
• In steel welding applications, GTAW is generally
slower and more costly than the consumable
electrode AW processes, except when thin sections
are involved and very-high-quality welds are required.
• When thin sheets are TIG welded to close tolerances,
filler metal is usually not added.
• The process can be performed manually or by
machine and automated methods for all joint types.
KYC
TUNGSTEN INERT GAS WELDING (TIG)

Typical tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding setup

KYC
TUNGSTEN INERT GAS WELDING (TIG)

Typical tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding setup

KYC
TUNGSTEN INERT GAS WELDING (TIG)

Typical tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding setup

KYC
TUNGSTEN INERT GAS WELDING (TIG)

Typical tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding setup

KYC
METAL INERT GAS WELDING (MIG)
• Metal Inert Gas (MIG) arc welding, more
appropriately called as Gas-Metal Arc Welding
(GMAW), utilizes a consumable electrode and
hence, the term ‘metal’.
• There are other gas-shielded arc-welding processes
utilizing the consumable electrodes, such as Flux-
Cored Arc Welding (FCAW), all of which can be
termed under MIG.
• Though Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW or TIG)
can be used to weld all types of metals, it is more
suitable for thin sheets.
• When thicker sheets are to be welded, the filler
metal requirement makes GTAW difficult to use. In
this situation, the GMAW comes handy.
KYC
METAL INERT GAS WELDING (MIG)
• The typical set-up for GMAW (or MIG) process
consists of consumable electrode is in the form of a
wire reel which is fed at a constant rate, through the
feed rollers.
• The welding torch is connected to supply cylinder
which provides the necessary inert gas.
• The electrode and the workpiece are connected to
the welding power supply.
• The power supplies are always of the constant-
voltage type only.
• The current from welding machine is changed by the
rate of feeding of the electrode wire. Normally, dc
arc-welding machines are used for GMAW with
electrode positive (DCEP). KYC
 METAL INERT GAS WELDING (MIG)
• Metal inert gas (MIG) welding was first patented in
the United States in 1949 for welding aluminum.
• The arc and weld pool formed using a bare wire
electrode was protected by helium gas, readily
available at that time.
• From about 1952 the process became popular in the
United Kingdom for welding aluminum using argon as
the shielding gas, and for carbon steels using CO2.
• CO2 and argon–CO2 mixtures are known as metal
active gas (MAG) processes.
• MIG welding is a commonly used high-deposition-
rate welding process. A consumable electrode is
continuously fed into the weld pool.
KYC
METAL INERT GAS WELDING (MIG)
• MIG welding is therefore referred to as a
semiautomatic welding process.
• The shielding gas forms the arc plasma, stabilizes
the arc on the metal being welded, shields the arc
and molten weld pool, and allows smooth transfer
of metal from the weld wire to the molten weld
pool.
• The primary shielding gasses are generally argon
and helium. Argon gas is usually used for welding
mild steel, aluminum, titanium, and alloy steels.
• Helium is generally used for high-speed welding of
mild steel and titanium and also for stainless steel
and copper.
KYC
 METAL INERT GAS WELDING
• Metal inert gas welding or gas metal arc welding
(GMAW) is an arc welding process in which the
workpieces are joined by the heat obtained from an
electric arc struck between a bare (uncoated)
consumable electrode and the workpiece in the
presence of an inert gas atmosphere.
• The consumable electrode acts as a filler metal to fill
the gap between the two workpieces.
• The equipment consists of a welding torch in which
a bare consumable electrode in the form of a wire is
held and guided by a guide tube.
• The electrode material used in MIG welding is of the
same material or nearly the same chemical
composition as that of the base metal.
KYC
 METAL INERT GAS WELDING
• Diameter varies from 0.7 -2.4 mm. The electrode is
fed continuously at a constant rate through feed
rollers driven by an electric motor.
• MIG makes use of shielding gas to prevent
atmospheric contamination of the molten weld pool.
• Mixture of argon and carbon dioxide in a order of
75% to 25% or 80% to 20% is commonly used.
• The shielding gas flow from the cylinder, through the
passage in the electrode holder and then impinges
on the workpiece.
• AC is rarely used with MIG welding; instead DC is
employed and the electrode is positively charged.
This results in faster melting of the electrode which
increases weld penetration and welding speed.
KYC
 METAL INERT GAS WELDING
• The workpieces to be joined are cleaned to remove
dust, grease and other oxides chemically or
mechanically to obtain a sound weld. The tip of the
electrode is also cleaned with a wire brush.
• The control switch provided in the welding torch is
switched ON to initiate the electric power, shielding
gas and the wire (electrode) feed.
• An arc is struck by touching the tip of the electrode
with the workpiece and instantaneously the
electrode is separated from the workpiece by a
small distance of 1.5-3 mm such that the arc still
remains between the electrode and the workpiece.
• The high intensity of the arc melts the workpiece
metal forming a small molten pool.
KYC
 METAL INERT GAS WELDING
• At the same time, the tip of the electrode also melts
and combines with the molten metal of the
workpieces thereby filling the gap between the two
workpieces.
• The deposited metal upon solidification bonds the
joint to form a single piece of metal.
• MIG is much faster compared to TIG or SMAW
process.
• Significantly higher deposition rates compared to
SMAW.
• MIG is more complex than TIG and SMAW process
• Welding equipment is less portable and expensive
than that of SMAW
KYC
 METAL INERT GAS WELDING
• These gasses are often mixed with CO2 to reduce
cost. CO2 is also used in its pure form in some MIG
welding processes.
• CO2 used as a component of a gas mixture is
generally used for carbon and low alloy steels.
• The major variables involved in MIG welding are:
➢ Welding current
➢ Type of current, AC or DC
➢ Heat impact/arc voltage/preheat
➢ Gas coverage of weld zone
➢ Cleanliness of weld area
➢ Welding speed
➢ Electrode composition and end profile
➢ Metal conductivity
➢ Joint design
KYC
➢ Joining material composition and properties
METAL INERT GAS WELDING (MIG)

MIG Welding process

KYC
METAL INERT GAS WELDING (MIG)

MIG Welding process KYC

METAL INERT GAS WELDING (MIG)

MIG Welding process KYC

METAL INERT GAS WELDING (MIG)

Typical Metal inert gas (MIG) welding setup

KYC
 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW)
• The submerged arc welding (SAW) is used for doing
faster welding jobs.
• It is possible to use larger welding electrodes
(12mm) as well as very high currents (4000A) so that
very high metal-deposition rates of the order of
20kg/h or more can be achieved with this process.
• Also, very high welding speeds (5 m/min) are
possible in SAW.
• Some submerged arc-welding machines are able to
weld plates of thickness as high as 75 mm in butt
joints in a single pass.
• Though submerged arc welding can be used even
for very small thicknesses, of the order of 1mm, it is
more economical for larger welds only. KYC
 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW)
• The schematic representation of a typical
submerged arc-welding process is presented, the
arc is produced while the consumable electrode wire
which is continuously fed into the weld zone as in
GMAW.
• The welding zone is completely covered by means of
a large amount of granulated flux, which is delivered
ahead of the welding electrode by means of a
welding flux feed tube.
• The arc occurring between the electrode and the
workpiece is completely submerged under the flux
and not visible from outside.
• A part of the flux melts and forms the slag, which
covers the weld metal. The unused flux is collected
and reused. KYC
 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW)
• Submerged arc welding (SAW) is an arc welding
process that uses a continuous, consumable bare
wire electrode and arc shielding is provided by a
cover of granular flux.
• The electrode wire is fed automatically from a coil into
the arc. The flux is introduced into the joint slightly
ahead of the weld arc by gravity from a hopper.
• The blanket of granular flux completely submerges
the welding operation, preventing sparks, spatter, and
radiation that are so hazardous in other AW
processes.
• Thus, the welding operator in SAW need not wear the
somewhat cumbersome face shield required in the
other operations (safety glasses and protective
gloves, of course, are required). KYC
 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW)
• The portion of the flux closest to the arc is melted,
mixing with the molten weld metal to remove
impurities and then solidifying on top of the weld joint
to form a glass-like slag.
• The slag and unfused flux granules on top provide
good protection from the atmosphere and good
thermal insulation for the weld area, resulting in
relatively slow cooling and a high-quality weld joint,
noted for toughness and ductility.
• The unfused flux remaining after welding can be
recovered and reused.
• The solid slag covering the weld must be chipped
away, usually by manual means.
• Submerged arc welding is widely used in steel
fabrication for structural shapes KYC
SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW)

Submerged arc welding (SAW) KYC

SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW)

Submerged arc welding (SAW)

KYC
SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW)

Submerged arc welding (SAW) KYC

SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW)

Submerged arc welding (SAW) KYC

 Principal zones in the weld joint
• Most weld joints are fusion welded. As illustrated in
the cross-sectional view, a typical fusion-weld joint in
which filler metal has been added consists of several
zones: (1) fusion zone, (2) weld interface, (3) heat-
affected zone, and (4) unaffected base metal zone.

Principal zones in weld joint KYC

 Principal zones and grain structure
in weld joint
• The fusion zone consists of a mixture of filler metal
and base metal that have completely melted.
• This zone is characterized by a high degree of
homogeneity among the component metals that
have been melted during welding.
• The mixing of these components is motivated largely
by convection in the molten weld pool.
• Solidification in the fusion zone has similarities to a
casting process. In welding the mold is formed by
the unmelted edges or surfaces of the components
being welded.
• The significant difference between solidification in
casting and in welding is that epitaxial grain growth
KYC
occurs in welding.
 Principal zones and grain structure
in weld joint
• In casting, the metallic grains are formed from the
melt by nucleation of solid particles at the mold wall,
followed by grain growth.
• In welding, by contrast, the nucleation stage of
solidification is avoided by the mechanism of
epitaxial grain growth, in which atoms from the
molten pool solidify on preexisting lattice sites of the
adjacent solid base metal.
• Consequently, the grain structure in the fusion zone
near the heat affected zone tends to mimic the
crystallographic orientation of the surrounding heat-
affected zone.
• Further into the fusion zone, a preferred orientation
develops in which the grains are roughly
perpendicular to the boundaries of the weld interface.
KYC
 Principal zones and grain structure
in weld joint
• The resulting structure in the solidified fusion zone
tends to feature coarse columnar grains.
• The grain structure depends on various factors,
including welding process, metals being welded
(e.g., identical metals vs. dissimilar metals welded),
whether a filler metal is used, and the feed rate at
which welding is accomplished.
• The second zone in the weld joint is the weld
interface, a narrow boundary that separates the
fusion zone from the heat-affected zone.
• The interface consists of a thin band of base metal
that was melted or partially melted (localized melting
within the grains) during the welding process but
then immediately solidified before any mixing with
the metal in the fusion zone. KYC
 Principal zones and grain structure
in weld joint
• Its chemical composition is therefore identical to that
of the base metal.
• The third zone in the typical fusion weld is the heat-
affected zone (HAZ).
• The metal in this zone has experienced
temperatures that are below its melting point, yet
high enough to cause microstructural changes in the
solid metal.
• The chemical composition in the heat-affected zone
is the same as the base metal, but this region has
been heat treated due to the welding temperatures
so that its properties and structure have been
altered.
KYC
 Principal zones and grain structure
in weld joint
• The amount of metallurgical damage in the HAZ
depends on factors such as the amount of heat input
and peak temperatures reached, distance from the
fusion zone, length of time the metal has been
subjected to the high temperatures, cooling rate, and
the metal’s thermal properties.
• The effect on mechanical properties in the heat-
affected zone is usually negative, and it is in this
region of the weld joint that welding failures often
occur.
• As the distance from the fusion zone increases, the
unaffected base metal zone is finally reached, in
which no metallurgical change has occurred.
Nevertheless, the base metal surrounding the HAZ is
likely to be in a state of high residual stress, the
result of shrinkage in the fusion zone. KYC
Principal zones and grain structure
in weld joint

Typical grain structure in weld joint

KYC
 WELDING DEFECTS
• In addition to residual stresses and distortion in the
final assembly, other defects can occur in welding.
➢ Undercut
➢ Incomplete fusion
➢ Porosity
➢ Slag inclusion
➢ Hot cracking
➢ Cold Cracking
➢ Lamellar tearing

KYC
 WELDING DEFECTS
• Undercut: This appears like a small notch in the
weld interface. This is generally attributed to the
improper welding technique or excessive welding
current.
• This is mainly caused by the incorrect manipulation
of the electrode while depositing the bead,
particularly, in horizontal and vertical welding.

KYC
 WELDING DEFECTS
• Incomplete Fusion: This will be seen as a
discontinuity in the weld zone.
• The main causes for this defect are improper
penetration of the joint, wrong design of the joint or
incorrect welding technique including the wrong
choice of the welding parameters.
• The main parameter that controls is the welding
current, if lower than required would not sufficiently
heat all the faces of the joint to promote proper
fusion.
• Also the improper cleaning of the joint hinders the
fusion of the metal in the joint.

KYC
WELDING DEFECTS

Incomplete Fusion KYC

 WELDING DEFECTS
• Porosity: Porosity consists of small voids in the
weld metal formed by gases entrapped during
solidification. The main gases that cause porosity
are Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen.
• The shapes of the voids vary between spherical
(blow holes) to elongated (worm holes).

Porosity

KYC
 WELDING DEFECTS
• Slag Inclusion: Slag is formed by the reaction with
the fluxes and is generally lighter. In view of its low
density, it will float on top of the weld pool and would
be chipped off after solidification.
• However, the stirring action of the high intensity arc
would force the slag to go into the weld pool and if
there is not enough time for it to float, may get
solidified inside the fusion zone and ends up as slag
inclusion.
• Also, in multi-pass welding, the slag solidified in the
previous pass is not cleaned before depositing the
next bead may cause slag inclusion.

KYC
 WELDING DEFECTS
• Some of the factors that cause slag inclusion are
➢ High viscosity of weld metal
➢ Rapid solidification
➢ Insufficient welding heat
➢ Improper manipulation of the electrode
➢ Undercut on previous pass

Slag Inclusion KYC

 WELDING DEFECTS
• Hot Cracking: Generally occurs at high temperature
and the size can be very small to visible.
• The crack is in most parts is intergranular and its
magnitude depends upon the strains involved in
solidification.
• They are more likely to form during the root pass
when the mass of the base metal is very large
compared to the weld metal deposited.
• It can be prevented by preheating the base metal,
increase the cross-sectional area of the root bead, or
by changing the contour or composition of the weld
bead.

KYC
 WELDING DEFECTS
• Cold Cracking: Cold cracking generally occurs at
room temperature after the weld is completely
cooled.
• This can be generally seen in the heat-affected
zone. The causes are
➢ Excessive restraint of the joint which induces very
high residual stresses
➢ Martensitic transformations making the metal very
hard as a result of rapid cooling
• Stress relieving the weldment immediately would
help in relieving the residual stresses and the
potential for cracking gets reduced.
• Also, pre and post heating of the weldment helps in
reducing the cooling rates and the consequent
locking of the stresses. KYC
WELDING DEFECTS

Cracking in welding
KYC
 WELDING DEFECTS
• Lamellar Tearing: It is generally seen at the edge of
the heat-affected zone.
• It appears as a long and continuous visual
separation line between the base metal and the heat
affected zone.
• This is caused by the presence of the elongated
inclusions such as Mn, Fe and S in the base metal.
• It can also be caused by the weld configuration
which gives rise to high residual tensile stresses in
the transverse direction.

KYC
WELDING DEFECTS

Lamellar Tearing KYC

 RESISTANCE WELDING
• Resistance welding process is a fusion welding
process where both heat and pressure are applied
on the joint but no filler metal or flux is added.
• The heat necessary for the melting of the joint is
obtained by the heating effect of the electrical
resistance of the joint and hence, the name
resistance welding.
• In resistance welding (RW), a low voltage (typically
1V) and very high current (typically 15000A) is
passed through the joint for a very short time
(typically 0.25s).
• This high amperage heats the joint, due to the
contact resistance at the joint and melts it.
• The pressure on the joint is continuously maintained
KYC
and the metal fuses together under this pressure.
 RESISTANCE WELDING
• The heat generated in resistance welding can be
expressed as
H =k I R t 2

➢ H= total heat generated in the work, J

➢ I= electric current, A
➢ t= time for which the electric current is passing
through the joints, s
➢ R= the resistance of the joint, ohms
➢ k= a constant to account for heat losses from welded
joint.
• The resistance of the joint, R is a complex factor to
know because it is composed of
➢ a) resistance of the electrodes
➢ b) contact resistance between electrode and
workpiece
➢ c) contact resistance between two workpiece plates
➢ d) resistance of the workpiece plates. KYC
 RESISTANCE WELDING
• The main requirement of the process is the low
voltage and high current power supply.
• This is obtained by means of a step down
transformer with a provision to have different
tappings on the primary side, as required for different
materials.
• The secondary windings are connected to the
electrodes which are made of copper to reduce their
electrical resistance.
• The time of the electric supply needs to be closely
controlled so that the heat released is just enough to
melt the joint and the subsequent fusion takes place
due to the force (forge welding) on the joint.
• The force required can be provided either
mechanically, hydraulically or pneumatically. KYC
 RESISTANCE WELDING
• To precisely control the time, sophisticated electronic
timers are available.
• The critical variable in a resistance welding process
is the contact resistance between the two workpiece
plates and their resistances themselves.
• The contact resistance is affected by the surface
finish on the plates, since the rougher surfaces have
higher contact resistance.
• The contact resistance also will be affected by the
cleanliness of the surface.
• Oxides or other contaminants if present, should be
removed before attempting resistance welding.
• The lower resistance of the joint requires very high
currents to provide enough heat to melt it. KYC
 RESISTANCE WELDING

Schematic of a resistance welding setupKYC

 RESISTANCE WELDING
• The average resistance may be of the order of
100micro ohms, as a result, the current required
would be of the order of tens of thousands of
amperes. With a 10,000A current passing for 0.1s,
the heat liberated is

H = (10000) 2 (0.0001)(0.1) = 1000 J

• By comparison to arc welding, resistance welding
uses no shielding gases, flux or filler metal; and the
electrodes that conduct electrical power to the
process are non-consumable.
• RW is classified as fusion welding because the
applied heat almost always causes melting of the
faying surfaces.
KYC
 TYPES OF RESISTANCE WELDING
• The resistance-welding processes of most
commercial importance are
➢ Resistance spot welding
➢ Resistance seam welding
➢ Resistance projection welding
➢ Upset welding
➢ Flash welding
➢ Percussion welding
➢ High-frequency resistance welding

KYC
 RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING
• Resistance spot welding is by far the predominant
process in this group.
• It is widely used in mass production of automobiles,
appliances, metal furniture and other products made
of sheet metal.
• If one considers that a typical car body has
approximately 10,000 individual spot welds, and that
the annual production of automobiles throughout the
world is measured in tens of millions of units, the
economic importance of resistance spot welding can
be appreciated.
• Resistance spot welding (RSW) is an RW process in
which fusion of the faying surfaces of a lap joint is
achieved at one location by opposing electrodes.
KYC
 RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING
• The process is used to join sheet-metal parts of
thickness 3 mm (0.125 in) or less, using a series of
spot welds, in situations where an airtight assembly
is not required.
• The size and shape of the weld spot is determined
by the electrode tip, the most common electrode
shape being round, but hexagonal, square, and
other shapes are also used.
• The resulting weld nugget is typically 5 to 10 mm
(0.2–0.4 in) in diameter, with a heat affected zone
extending slightly beyond the nugget into the base
metals.
• If the weld is made properly, its strength will be
comparable to that of the surrounding metal.
KYC
 RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING
Steps in a resistance spot-
welding (RSW) cycle, and
(b) plot ofsqueezing force
and current during cycle.
The sequence is: (1) parts
inserted between open
electrodes
(2) electrodes close and
force is applied
(3) weld time-current is
switched on
(4) current is turned off but
force is maintained or
increased (a reduced current
is sometimes applied near
the end of this step for
stress relief in the weld
region)
(5) electrodes are opened,
and the welded assembly is
removed.
KYC
RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING

Rocker-arm sport-welding machine KYC

 RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING
• Materials used for RSW electrodes consist of two
main groups: (1) copper-based alloys and
(2) refractory metal compositions such as copper
and tungsten combinations.
• The second group is noted for superior wear
resistance. As in most manufacturing processes, the
tooling in spot welding gradually wears out as it is
used.
• The equipment includes rocker-arm and press-type
spot-welding machines, and portable spot-welding
guns.
• Rocker-arm spot welders, have a stationary lower
electrode and a movable upper electrode that can be
raised and lowered for loading and unloading the
work. KYC
 RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING
• The upper electrode is mounted on a rocker arm
(hence the name) whose movement is controlled by
a foot pedal operated by the worker.
• Modern machines can be programmed to control
force and current during the weld cycle.
• Press-type spot welders are intended for larger work.
The upper electrode has a straight-line motion
provided by a vertical press that is pneumatically or
hydraulically powered.
• The press action permits larger forces to be applied,
and the controls usually permit programming of
complex weld cycles.

KYC
 RESISTANCE SEAM WELDING
• Resistance seam welding (RSEW) is a specialized
process of spot welding.
• Here the cylindrical electrodes are replaced by disc
electrodes.
• The disc electrodes are continuously rotated so that
the workpieces get advanced underneath them while
at the same time the pressure on the joint is
maintained.
• The electrodes need not be separated at any time.
The current is applied through the heavy copper
electrodes in a series of pulses at proper intervals.
• The timing is adjusted so that the pulses overlap
each other and thus, form a continuous seam joint.
KYC
RESISTANCE SEAM WELDING

Resistance seam welding process

KYC
RESISTANCE SEAM WELDING

Resistance seam welding process

KYC
 RESISTANCE SEAM WELDING

Different types of seams produced by electrode wheels:

(a) conventional resistance seam welding, in which
overlapping spots are produced; (b) roll spot welding; and
(c) continuous resistance seam. KYC
RESISTANCE PROJECTION WELDING
• Resistance projection welding (RPW) is an RW
process in which coalescence occurs at one or
more relatively small contact points on the parts.
• These contact points are determined by the design
of the parts to be joined, and may consist of
projections, embossments, or localized
intersections of the parts.
• The part on top has been fabricated with two
embossed points to contact the other part at the
start of the process.
• There are two variations of resistance projection
welding.

KYC
RESISTANCE PROJECTION WELDING
• In one variation, fasteners with machined or
formed projections can be permanently joined to
sheet or plate by RPW, facilitating subsequent
assembly operations.
• Another variation, called cross-wire welding, is
used to fabricate welded wire products such as
wire fence, shopping carts, and stove grills.
• In this process, the contacting surfaces of the
round wires serve as the projections to localize the
resistance heat for welding.

KYC
RESISTANCE PROJECTION WELDING

Resistance projection welding (RPW): (1) at start of

operation, contact between parts is at projections;
and (2) when current is applied, weld nuggets similar
to those in spot welding are formed at the projections.
KYC
RESISTANCE PROJECTION WELDING

Features of projection welding (a) Projections on the workpiece,

(b) Projection welding process (c) Special electrodes to serve as
assembly fixtures, (d) Cross-wire welding KYC
 UPSET WELDING
• In upset welding (UW), the pieces to be joined are
brought together to mate with each other in butt joint
compared to the lap joint that is used so far.
• The two pieces are held tightly together and current
is applied, so that the heat is generated through the
contact area between two plates.
• Because of the joint being under pressure, the ends
of the two pieces get slightly upset.
• This is useful for joint the two ends of rods or similar
pieces.
• The plate is first formed into the shape of the pipe
with the help of the three roll set.

KYC
 UPSET WELDING

Forming and welding a pipe from a sheet by means of

upset butt welding process KYC
 FLASH WELDING
• In flash welding (FW), normally used for butt joints,
the two surfaces to be joined are brought into contact
or near contact and electric current is applied to heat
the surfaces to the melting point, after which the
surfaces are forced together to form the weld.
• In addition to resistance heating, some arcing occurs
(called flashing, hence the name of the welding
process), depending on the extent of contact
between the faying surfaces, so flash welding is
sometimes classified in the arc welding group.
• Current is usually stopped during upsetting. Some
metal, as well as contaminants on the surfaces, is
squeezed out of the joint and must be subsequently
machined to provide a joint of uniform size.
KYC
 FLASH WELDING

Flash welding (FW): (1) heating by electrical

resistance; and (2) upsetting - parts are forced
together.
KYC
 PERCUSSION WELDING
• Percussion welding (PEW) is also similar to flash
welding, except that the duration of the weld cycle is
extremely short, typically lasting only 1 to 10 ms.
• Fast heating is accomplished by rapid discharge of
electrical energy between the two surfaces to be
joined, followed immediately by percussion of one
part against the other to form the weld.
• The heating is very localized, making this process
attractive for electronic applications in which the
dimensions are very small and nearby components
may be sensitive to heat.

KYC
 PERCUSSION WELDING
• High-frequency resistance welding (HFRW) is a
resistance-welding process in which a high-
frequency alternating current is used for heating,
followed by the rapid application of an upsetting
force to cause coalescence.
• The frequencies are 10 to 500 kHz, and the
electrodes make contact with the work in the
immediate vicinity of the weld joint.
• In a variation of the process, called high-frequency
induction welding (HFIW), the heating current is
induced in the parts by a high-frequency induction
coil.
• The coil does not make physical contact with the
work.
KYC
 PERCUSSION WELDING

Welding of tube seams by: (a) high-frequency

resistance welding, and (b) high-frequency induction
welding.
KYC
 ARC WELDING EQUIPMENT
• The main requirement in an arc-welding set-up is the
source of electric power.
• They are essentially of two types:
➢ (a) Alternating Current (ac) Machines
• (i) Transformer
• (ii) Motor or engine-driven alternator
➢ (b) Direct Current (dc) Machines
• (i) Transformer with de rectifier
• (ii) Motor or engine-driven generator
• The transformer does not have any moving part and
as a result operates with less maintenance cost and
also has higher efficiency.
KYC
 ARC WELDING EQUIPMENT
• In transformer, practically there is no noise in
operation of the welding transformer.
• In ac welding, normally only transformers arc used.
• In DC arc welding a rectifier or a generator can be
used to supply the required DC power.
• In the rectifier type, the power supply is first stepped
down by means of a transformer to the required
voltage and then silicon controlled rectifiers (SCR)
are used to convert AC to DC.
• These rectifiers are very compact, highly reliable and
have high efficiency.
• The other type is a DC generator which is driven by
either an induction motor running on AC or an oil
engine. KYC
 ARC WELDING EQUIPMENT
• This combination is less efficient more expensive
and noisy in operation.
• The welding machines can also be divided into two
types, based on the characteristics.
• The first one is the constant current welding
machines or droop curve machines or simply
droopers, which vary the welding voltage to account
for the change in the arc gap thus maintaining the
arc current.
• As a result of this, the characteristics of the
machine (a plot between output volts and output
amperes) is a drooping one.
• In Figure (a) it is shown the setting of open circuit
voltage (no welding) at 80 volts whereas in Figure
(b) for the same machine, open circuit voltage is set
at 50 volts. KYC
 Characteristic curves of constant-
current and constant voltage
• It can be seen that for a large change in output
voltage, the corresponding change in current is so
small that the quality of the weld can be maintained.
• This is very essential for manual arc welding
processes since the maintenance of constant arc is
nearly impossible by a human welder.

KYC
 Characteristic curves of constant-
current and constant voltage
• In contrast to the above, the constant voltage
welding machines have a more flat characteristic
curve.
• The slope of the curve is so flat, that any small
change in voltage makes for an extremely large
change in the output currents.
• These systems are generally preferred in the
automatic machines since they become self
corrective.
• For example, when the electrode comes a bit closer
to the work, the arc voltage drops raising the output
current to a very high value.
• This current instantly melts the electrode and thus
maintains the arc gap. KYC
Characteristic curves of constant-
current and constant voltage

Characteristic curve of a constant

voltage arc welding machine KYC
 Characteristic curves of constant-
current and constant voltage
• Though DC arc welding is more expensive than AC
welding, it is generally preferred because of the
control of heat input offered by it.
• About 70% of the heat is liberated near the anode in
DC arc welding.
• Hence if more heat is required at the workpiece side,
such as for thicker sheets or for the work materials
which have higher thermal conductivity such as
aluminium and copper, the workpiece can be made
as anode, liberating large heat near it.
• This is termed as ‘straight polarity’ or DCEN (direct
current electrode negative).
• This gives rise to a higher penetration KYC
 Characteristic curves of constant-
current and constant voltage
• However for thinner materials, where less heat is
required in the weld zone, the polarity could be
reversed by making the workpiece as negative.
• This is termed as ‘reversed polarity’ or DCEP (direct
current electrode positive).
• In reversed polarity, the penetration is small.
• In the case of AC welding, the bead obtained is
somewhere in between the above two types.
• DC arc welding is generally preferred for difficult
tasks such as overhead welding, since it can
maintain a stable arc.

KYC
Characteristic curves of constant-
current and constant voltage

Weld penetration as affected by the polarity of the

welding arc KYC
 Characteristic curves of constant-
current and constant voltage
• All welding power sources have two kinds of
operating characteristics i.e. static characteristics
and dynamic characteristics. Volt-ampere (V-l)
characteristic is a curve relating the voltage of the
source to the welding current.

V-I Characteristics of power source KYC

 Characteristic curves of constant-
current and constant voltage
• The static V-l characteristic curve is obtained by
measuring the output voltage and current while
statically loading it, which is varied from minimum or
no load condition to the maximum or short circuit
conditions.
• These V-l characteristics are classified under four
categories i.e. steeply drooping, gradually
drooping, flat, and rising characteristics.
• The welding power source with steeply drooping V-l
characteristic has a high open circuit voltage and low
short circuit current.
• High open circuit voltage ensures easy initiation and
maintenance of the welding arc.
KYC
 Characteristic curves of constant-
current and constant voltage
• The power source with gradually drooping V-I
characteristic has a high short circuit current and
slightly low open circuit voltage compared to steeply
drooping one.
• V-I characteristic curve is almost flat in constant
voltage power source.
• In this type of power source, a small change in arc
length causes large change in welding current.
• With flat V-I characteristic, arc is very sensitive and
steady.
• In a welding power source with rising V-I
characteristic, there is an increase in current with
increase in voltage. KYC
 Characteristic curves of constant-
current and constant voltage
• In this, the amperage and voltage increase with
increase in wire feed rate.
• The dynamic characteristic of a welding power
source is the relation between the arc voltage and
the corresponding welding current during the actual
operation of the power source.
• The power of an arc varies with its length and there
is an optimum length at which the arc power is
maximum.
• The arc voltage V=A+BL
• Where A is electrode drop
• BL is column drop
• L is arc length
KYC
 Characteristic curves of constant-
current and constant voltage
• The power source characteristic can be written as
V = Vo − (Vo / I s ) I

• Vo is open circuit voltage

• Is is short circuit current

KYC
 ARC WELDING TRANSFORMER
• A typical AC arc welding setup using the
transformer.
• The workpiece is kept on a metallic table to which
the ground lead of the secondary windings of the
welding transformer is connected.
• The other lead of the secondary is connected to an
electrode holder into which the electrode is gripped.
• When the electrode is brought into contact with the
work, the welding takes place.
• The arc welding machines are normally specified by
means of maximum rated open-circuit voltage, rated
current in amperes, and duty cycle.
KYC
 ARC WELDING TRANSFORMER
• The maximum rated open-circuit voltage which is the
voltage between the output terminals when no
welding is being done, is normally fixed at about 80V.
• This is the maximum and normally, a voltage of the
order of 40 to 50V should be enough for starting an
arc, whereas for continuous welding 20 to 30V is
sufficient.

KYC
Sectional view of representation of the arc welding setup
 NUMERICALS
• The voltage-length characteristic of a DC. arc is
given by V= 20 + 30I. where ‘V’ is the arc voltage
and ‘I’ is the length of arc in cm. The power source
characteristic is approximated by a straight line with
an open circuit voltage is 60V and short circuit
current is 200Amp. Determine the optimum arc
length and the corresponding arc power?
• Solution: V = 20 + 30l 1

V = Vo − (Vo / I s ) I
V = 60 − (60 / 200) I 2

• Equate Equation 1 and 2

KYC
 NUMERICALS
20 + 30l = 60 − (60 / 200) I
(0.3) I = 40 − 30l
 40 − 30l 
I =  = 133.33 − 100l
 0.3 
• Power P=V*I
P = ( 20 + 30l )(133.33 − 100l )
Maximum powder dP/dl=0
dP d
= (−3000l 2 + 1990l + 2660)
dl dl
dP
= 1990 − 6000l = 0
dl
1990
l= = 0.33cm
6000
Pmax = (20 + 30*0.33)(133.33 − 100*0.33)
Pmax = 2.99kVA KYC
 NUMERICALS
• The voltage-length characteristic of a D.C arc is
given by V=20+40l, where ‘V’ is the arc voltage and
‘I’ is the length of arc in cm. Determine the open
circuit voltage and short circuit current for arc lengths
ranging from 3 to 5 mm and current ranging from
400 to 500 A during welding operation
• Solution: V=20+40l
• For 3mm arc length V1=20+40(0.3)=32V
• For 5mm arc length V2=20+40(0.5))=40V
• But V=Vo-(Vo/Is)I
• 32=Vo-(Vo/Is)500
• 40=Vo-(Vo/Is)400
KYC
 NUMERICALS
500
1−
32 Is
→ =
40 1 − 400
Is
→ 32( I s − 400) = 40( I s − 500)
→ 40 I s − 32 I s = 20000 − 12800
7200
→ Is = = 900 A
8
Substituting for Is
 500 
→ 32 = Vo 1 − 
 900 
900
→ Vo =  32
400
→ Vo = 72V KYC
 NUMERICALS
• The voltage-length characteristic of a D.C arc is
given by V= 20 + 40 L, where ‘V’ is the arc voltage
and ‘L’ is the length of arc in cm. The power source
characteristic is approximated by a straight line with
an open circuit voltage is 60V and short circuit
current is 250Amp. (1) When the arc length is
changed from 3mm to 5mm, calculate change in arc
power. (2) Calculate arc length at a maximum
current of 100Amp.

KYC
EXTRA
SLIDES

KYC
 INTRODUCTION
• Unconventional machining processes were developed
initially to machine very hard materials that are almost
impossible to be machined economically by the
conventional methods.
➢ A few of the instances are listed below.
• Machining of hard workpiece materials like carbides,
stainless steel, heat-resisting steels etc.
• Machining of small diameter holes and complex shapes.
• Workpiece is too flexible or slender to support or withstand
the cutting forces.
• A very high surface finish with close dimensional accuracy
of the part is required, etc.
• The above mentioned requirements led to the development
of various machining methods, and are referred as non-
conventional or non-traditional machining processes.KYC
 NEED FOR UNCONVENTIONAL
PROCESSES
• Conventional Machining processes utilize the ability
of the cutting tool to stress the material beyond the
yield point to start the material removal process.
• This requires the cutting tool material be harder than
the workpiece material.
• New materials having high strength to weight ratio
heat resistance and hardness, are difficult to
machine by the traditional methods.
• Machining of these materials by conventional
methods is very difficult as well as time consuming,
since the material-removal rate reduces with an
increase in the work-material hardness.
KYC
 NEED FOR UNCONVENTIONAL
PROCESSES
• Hence, there is the need for development of non-
traditional machining processes which utilise other
methods such as electrochemical processes for the
material removal.
• As a result, these processes are termed unconventional
or non-traditional machining methods.
• Besides these, the complex shapes in these materials
are either difficult to machine or time consuming by the
traditional methods.
• In such cases, the application of the non-traditional
machining processes finds extensive use.
• Further, in some applications, a very high accuracy is
desired besides the complexity of the surface to be
machined. KYC
 CHEMICAL MACHINING
• Chemical machining, or chemical milling, is a
process used to dissolve the workpiece material in
chemical solutions.
• Since the chemical solutions used have the ability to
dissolve all of the workpiece material.
• The parts which are not to be dissolved would have
to be applied with a mask, which resists the
chemical action of the solution.
• So that only the unmasked portion gets removed by
the chemical solutions.

KYC
 CHEMICAL MACHINING
• The steps involved in a typical chemical machining
operation are the following:
• Clean the workpiece thoroughly. This is necessary
to ensure that the masking material will adhere to
the workpiece well to reduce any possibility of stray
etching due to maskant debonding.
• Apply a chemical-resistant mask on the workpiece
surface where no material is to be removed.
• Dip the workpiece into the chemical solution called
etchant and leave it for sufficient time to get the
necessary depth of etching.
• The etchant is either continuously sprayed onto the
workpiece surface or the part is immersed in a tank
of constantly agitating etchant solution. KYC
 CHEMICAL MACHINING
• This helps in removing the material uniformly from
all the exposed surfaces of the part.
• The strength of the etchant is maintained since it
becomes weak by absorbing the workpiece material
with time.
• Remove the mask and clean the workpiece.
• During the etching process, the removal of material
takes place depthwise in the unexposed portion as
well as in the inward direction under the mask.
• The distance etched under the mask is termed
undercut, while the distance etched in the exposed
portion is termed the depth of cut.

KYC
 CHEMICAL MACHINING

• The undercut is dependent upon the depth of cut, the

strength of the etchant solution and the workpiece material.
It is necessary during the design of the maskant to take the
undercut into account to get the actual size required. The
relationship between the undercut and the depth of cut is
termed the etch factor Undercut
Etch factor =
Depth of cut
KYC
 Chemical Machining (Chemilling)
• Applications:
➢ Aerospace industry
➢ Engraving
➢ Circuit boards
• A maskant is applied over areas you don’t want to
machine
➢ Photochemical methods
➢ Apply maskant to entire surface and use laser
to cut
• Place the entire part in a chemical bath (acid or
alkali depending upon the metal)
• Control temperature and time of exposure to
control material removal
Chemical Machining (Chemilling)
Chemical Machining (Chemilling)
CHEMICAL MILLING

KYC
 CHEMICAL BLANKING
• Chemical blanking is used chiefly on thin sheets
and foils.
• In most applications, photoresist (photosensitive
masking) is used to define the location on the
workpiece at which the material is to be etched.
Steps for Chemical Blanking
• Preparation of Workpiece: The workpiece is
cleaned, degreased and pickled by acid or alkalis.
• The cleaned metal is dried and photoresist material
is applied. It is then dried and cured.

KYC
 CHEMICAL BLANKING
• Preparation of Masters: Masters, the tools for
chemical blanking, consist of the artwork and
negatives used to produce the acid resistant image.
• The artwork for chemical blanking should be made
on dimensionally stable material such as paper,
polyester film or glass- base scribing film.
• The original artwork usually is made 4 times the
actual size of work, but it may range from 2 to 200
times the actual size depending on the equipment,
part size and accuracy required.
• Individual part size can vary from micro dimensions
to a maximum of 350 X 550 mm.
• This is then reduced photographically and multiple
image masters are made. KYC
 CHEMICAL BLANKING
• Masking with Photoresists: Photoresists are
applied to the workpiece by dipping, whirl coating or
spraying.
• Whirl coating gives an uniform coating. This is then
dried at room temperature and baked for about 15
minutes at a temperature of 110°C to remove the
residual solvent.
• Lower temperatures can be used by prolonging the
baking time.
• Exposure of conventional photoresist to ultraviolet
light partly polymerizes the exposed, areas of light
sensitive resins thus increasing its resistance to
organic solvents used as developers.
KYC
 CHEMICAL BLANKING
• Each side of the workpiece can be exposed
individually or the two sides can be exposed at the
same time between a pair of mirror-image masters.
• A vacuum printing frame with a vacuum of 500 mm
of mercury is used for this purpose.
• Printing frames must be padded correctly or the
glass masters will break in the evacuated frame.
• The next stage is the development which is done
by immersing the workpiece in a suitable organic
solvent.
• After this the workpiece is rinsed in running water to
remove the developer and dissolved polymer from
the non-image areas without leaving residual scum.
KYC
 CHEMICAL BLANKING
• After the development, the photoresist is dried at room
temperature and baked again at 110°C for 15 minutes.
• This process increases the hardness and chemical
resistance of the photoresist.
• Masking techniques, other than photoresists, are
sometimes used for selective masking of parts which
are large and do not require high dimensional
accuracy.
• Maskant coatings can be applied directly to the work
by screening or by offset: printing.
• Another method is to apply the maskant over a
complete area and the design to be etched is scribed
through the maskant with the aid of templates and
then the maskant is peeled off in areas to be etched
out. KYC
 CHEMICAL BLANKING
• Maskant materials are selected primarily for
resistance of the cured maskant and the bonding
property of maskant to workpiece under the action
of the etchant.
• Etching for Blanking: Removal of material by
etching is done by immersing the workpiece
prepared by the above method in a bath containing
etchants.
• The bath is agitated by air or mechanical means.
Specially designed spray etching machines are
sometimes used where the component size is large.
• The cutting rates range from 0.01 to 0.05 mm/min
depending on the material and its metallurgical
state.
KYC
 CHEMICAL BLANKING
• The basic purpose of an etchant is to convert metal
into metallic salt which can then be dissolved in the
etchant.
• Ferric chloride solutions are used for chemical
blanking of a wide variety of metals.
• Sodium hydroxide is used extensively for.
aluminium and aluminium alloy etching.
• Most acid etchants can be maintained by the
addition of fresh acid until their chemical activity is
adversely altered by the dissolved metal content.
• Proprietary additives are used in specific
applications to control foaming or wetting
characteristics.
KYC
 CHEMICAL BLANKING

Flow chart of process steps for Chemical Blanking

KYC
CHEMICAL BLANKING

KYC
 ELECTROCHEMICAL MACHINING
(ECM)
• Principle of ECM: Electrochemical machining works
on the principle of Faradays law of electrolysis.
• ECM is opposite of electrochemical or galvanic coating
or deposition process.
• Thus ECM is a controlled anodic dissolution at atomic
level of the work piece that is electrically conductive by
a shaped tool due to flow of high current at relatively
low potential difference through an electrolyte which is
quite often water based neutral salt solution.
• In electrochemical machining, the workpiece forms the
anode, and a properly insulated tool having shape
similar to that desired in the workpiece forms the
cathode.
KYC
ELECTROCHEMICAL MACHINING
(ECM)

The tool and the workpiece are positioned closer to each other
with a conductive electrolyte flowing through a small gap
between the workpiece and the tool.
The chemical properties of the electrolyte are such that, the
constituents of the workpiece material (anode) go into the
solution during electrolysis, but do not plate on the tool
(cathode). The shape obtained in the workpiece material is
exactly similar to the shaped tool. KYC
 Electrochemical Machining
• A popular application of electrolysis is the electroplating
process in which metal coatings are deposited upon the
surface of a catholically polarized metal.
• ECM is similar to electro polishing in that it also is an
anodic dissolution process.
• But the rates of metal removal offered by the polishing
process are considerably less than those needed in
metal machining practice .
• Metal removal is achieved by electrochemical
dissolution of an anodically polarized workpiece which
is one part of an electrolytic cell in ECM.
• When an electric current is passed between two
conductors dipped into a liquid solution named as
Electrolysis .
KYC
 Electrochemical Machining
• Electrolytes are different from metallic conductors of
electricity in that the current is carried not by electrons but
by atoms, or group of atoms, which have either lost or
gained electrons, thus acquiring either positive or
negative charges. Such atoms are called ions.
• Ions which carry positive charges move through the
electrolyte in the direction of the positive current, that is,
toward the cathode, and are called cat anions.
• The negatively charged ions travel toward the anode and
are called anions.
• The movement of the ions is accompanied by the flow of
electrons, in the opposite sense to the positive current in
the electrolyte.
• Both reactions are a consequence of the applied potential
difference, that is, voltage, from the electric source.
KYC
 Electrochemical Machining
• Workpiece and tool are the anode and cathode,
respectively, of an electrolytic cell, and a constant
potential difference, usually at about 10 V, is applied
across them.
• A suitable electrolyte, for example, aqueous sodium
chloride (table salt) solution, is chosen so that the
cathode shape remains unchanged during electrolysis.
• The electrolyte is also pumped at a rate 3 to 30
meter/second, through the gap between the electrodes
to remove the products of machining and to diminish
unwanted effects, such as those that arise with cathodic
gas generation and electrical heating.
• The rate at which metal is then removed from the anode
is approximately in inverse proportion to the distance
between the electrodes
KYC
 Electrochemical Machining

• As machining proceeds, and with the simultaneous

movement of the cathode at a typical rate, for
example, 0.02 millimeter/second toward the anode.
• The gap width along the electrode length will
gradually tend to a steady-state value. Under these
conditions, a shape, roughly complementary to that
of the cathode, will be reproduced on the anode.

KYC
ELECTROCHEMICAL MACHINING
(ECM)

KYC
 ELECTROCHEMICAL MACHINING
(ECM)
• ECM equipment mainly consists of the following
parts:
• Tool, Electrolyte and Filters
➢ Tool: The tool, also called electrode forms the
negative terminal (cathode) of the electric circuit.
➢ The shape of the tool should be similar to the
shape desired in the workpiece.
➢ Since a small gap has to be left between the
workpiece and the tool for the electrolyte to flow,
the tool is made smaller in size than that of the
size desired in the workpiece. This difference in
size is called overcut. A standard overcut includes
0.76 mm over all active surfaces of the tool. KYC
 ELECTROCHEMICAL MACHINING
(ECM)
• The material selected for the tool should be easily
machinable, exhibit good stiffness to resist high
electrolyte pressures, resist chemical action, and a
good electrical and thermal conductor.
• Usually aluminum, bronze, brass, copper, stainless
steel, titanium etc., are used as tool materials.
• The periphery of the tool should be well insulated to
prevent machining action on its sides by the
electrolyte as it flows around the tool. The insulator
must remain firmly fixed to the tool while resisting the
turbulent flow of the electrolyte, its heat and abrasive
action.
• A small hole is drilled in the tool for the electrolyte to
pass through it to the cutting zone, KYC
 ELECTROCHEMICAL MACHINING
(ECM)
• Electrolyte: In electrochemical machining, the electrolyte
performs the following functions:
• Completes the electric circuit between the tool and the
workpiece.
• Acts as a conductor to carry current.
• Remove the products of electrochemical reaction from the
gap between the tool-work interface.
• Carry the heat generated from the machining zone.
• Sodium chloride, Potassium chloride, Sodium nitrate and
Sodium chlorate are some of the inorganic salts commonly
used as electrolyte in ECM.
• Filters: Filters are placed in the system to clean the
contaminated electrolyte, so that a fresh flow of electrolyte
to the machining area takes place. KYC
 ECM OPERATION
• In operation, the tool having a shape, similar to that
desired in the workpiece is fed towards the
workpiece maintaining a small gap of approximately
0.25 mm between them. This is accomplished by
utilizing a servo-drive on the tool feed axis.
• A high-current, low-voltage DC power supply is
connected between the tool and the workpiece.
• The tool is connected to the negative terminal
(cathode) and the workpiece to the positive terminal
(anode).
• The electrolyte is pumped at a high-pressure
through the small gap between the tool and the
workpiece, thus providing the necessary path for
electrolysis. KYC
 ECM OPERATION

• When the current is passed, dissolution of the

workpiece (anode) occurs.
• Meanwhile, the flowing electrolyte washes the metal
ions away from the workpiece before they have a
chance to plate onto the tool.
• The downward movement of the tool causes the
workpiece to take the same shape as that of the
tool.

KYC
 ECM Components (Power)
• The power needed to operate the ECM is
obviously electrical. There are many
specifications to this power.
• The current density must be high.
• The gap between the tool and the work piece must
be low for higher accuracy, thus the voltage must
be low to avoid a short circuit.
• The control system uses some of this electrical
power.

KYC
 ECM Components
(electrolyte circulation system)
• The electrolyte must be injected in the gap at high
speed (between 1500 to 3000 m/min).
• The inlet pressure must be between 0.15-3 MPa.
• The electrolyte system must include a fairly strong
pump.
• System also includes a filter, sludge removal
system, and treatment units.
• The electrolyte is stored in a tank.

KYC
 ECM Components
• (control
Control parameters system)
include:
➢ Voltage
➢ Inlet and outlet pressure of electrolyte
➢ Temperature of electrolyte.
• The current is dependant on the above parameters
and the feed rate.

KYC
 ECM Advantages
• There is no cutting forces therefore clamping is not
required except for controlled motion of the work
piece.
• There is no heat affected zone.
• Very accurate.
• Relatively fast
• Can machine harder metals than the tool
• Faster than EDM
• No tool wear at all.
• No heat affected zone.
• Better finish and accuracy.
KYC
 ECM Disadvantages
• More expensive than conventional machining.
• Need more area for installation.
• Electrolytes may destroy the equipment.
• Not environmentally friendly (sludge and other
waste)
• High energy consumption.
• Material has to be electrically conductive.

KYC
 Applications
• The most common application of ECM is high
accuracy duplication. Because there is no tool
wear, it can be used repeatedly with a high degree
of accuracy.
• It is also used to make cavities and holes in
various products.
• It is commonly used on thin walled, easily
deformable and brittle material because they
would probably develop cracks with conventional
machining.

KYC
 ECM Products
• The two most common products of ECM are
turbine/compressor blades and rifle barrels.
• Each of those parts require machining of extremely
hard metals with certain mechanical specifications
that would be really difficult to perform on
conventional machines.
• Some of these mechanical characteristics achieved
by ECM are:
➢ Stress free grooves.
➢ Any groove geometry.
➢ Any conductive metal can be machined.
➢ Repeatable accuracy of 0.0005”.
➢ High surface finish.
➢ Fast cycle time. KYC
 THERMAL DEBURRING
• Thermal deburring, most commonly known as
thermal energy method (TEM), is used to deburr
multiple part surfaces simultaneously or to remove
burrs from locations normally considered difficult or
impossible to reach.
• Burrs are burned off, typically without causing any
damage to the body of the part.
• An explosive gas mixture provides the source of
thermal energy for the process.
• Because of the explosive nature of the burr
removal operation, TEM is the fastest process
available for removing burrs.
KYC
 THERMAL DEBURRING
• Only 20msec are required for the actual burr
removal portion of the operation sequence.
• Three requirements must be met for any object to
burn. These requirements are that fuel must be
available to burn; oxygen must be present to
support the combustion; and sufficient heat must
be applied to start and sustain the action.
• If any one of these three items is not present,
combustion cannot take place.
• The TEM process relies on the principle of
combustion to remove burrs and radius sharp
edges.
KYC
 THERMAL DEBURRING
• Thermal deburring is essentially a chemical
reaction aided by heat. The heat is generated by
combusting natural gas and oxygen under pressure
inside a sealed chamber (max size 250 diameter x
330mm high).
• This blast lasts only 20milliseconds but
temperatures reach between 2,500 and 3,500°C
and pressures up to 400 bar (with a pressure spike
of up to 2,000 bar).
• The majority of heat hitting the component’s
surfaces is safely dissipated throughout it’s bulk.
• Aluminium will typically reach 55-60°C whilst steels
reach around 150°C (due to being fired twice).
KYC
 THERMAL DEBURRING
• By the very nature of using a gas as the deburring
‘media’ — which is non abrasive — no surfaces are
scratched; no hole is too small; no burr
inaccessible; no media left; and, more importantly,
no burr, debris or contaminant missed.
• The majority of the oxide (gas) is extracted, but
some oxide powder (dependant on the mass of burr
removed) is deposited on the surface of the
component (and the walls of the chamber).
• This can be subsequently removed with a simple
wash, using a 20% phosphoric acid solution for
steels or, in the case of aluminium, usually
preanodising.
KYC
ELECTRIC DISCHARGE MACHINING
(EDM)
• The tool and the workpiece are separated by a
dielectric fluid and connected to DC power supply to
create a potential difference between the tool and
the workpiece.
• When the potential difference is sufficiently high, a
transient spark discharges through the fluid. The
metal removal from the workpiece takes place due to
the erosion caused by the electric spark. The
amount of material removed is very small, and is
flushed away with the continuously flowing fluid.

KYC
ELECTRIC DISCHARGE MACHINING
(EDM)

KYC
 ELECTRIC DISCHARGE
MACHINING (EDM)
• EDM equipment consists mainly of the following
elements:
• Power supply source, Tool electrode, Dielectric
medium, Servo feed mechanism, Pumps and filters.
• Power supply source: DC power supply with
voltage ranging from 50-450 V is used in EDM
machines.
• In EDM process, electrical energy in the form of
short duration impulses are to be supplied at the
machining gap between the tool and the workpiece.
Pulsed generators are used to achieve the purpose.

KYC
 EDM
• Tool electrode: In EDM process, the shape of the tool is
similar to that desired in the workpiece.
• The material selected for manufacturing EDM tools should
be good conductor of heat and electricity, easily machinable,
and resist the deformation during the erosion process.
• Various materials like copper, zinc alloys, brass, graphite,
tungsten, silver tungsten, etc., are used for manufacturing
EDM tools.
• Dielectric fluid: In EDM process, the tool and the workpiece
are separated by a dielectric fluid. The dielectric fluid may be
mineral oils, kerosene, deionized water, etc., and performs
the following functions:
• Act as a insulator until the potential is sufficiently high
• Act as a flushing medium to carry away the tiny particles of
metal removal
• Act as a cooling medium during machining. KYC
 ELECTRIC DISCHARGE
MACHINING (EDM)
• Servo feed mechanism: EDM machines are
equipped with servo control mechanism that
automatically maintains a constant gap between the
tool and the workpiece, which is One of the most
important parameter in the process.
• Pumps and Filters: Pumps and filters serve their
usual purpose of circulating clean fluid to the
machining gap for efficient machining.

KYC
 ELECTRIC DISCHARGE
MACHINING (EDM)
• EDM Operation: The tool (shaped electrode) is
connected to the -e terminal (cathode), while the
workpiece to the +ve terminal (anode) of the power
source.
• The tool and the workpiece are separated by a
small gap known as spark gap, filled by the
dielectric fluid.
• The spark gap usually ranges from 0.01-0.05mm.
• When the potential difference between the tool and
the workpiece is sufficiently high, a transient spark
discharges through the fluid removing a very small
amount of material from the workpiece.
KYC
 ELECTRIC DISCHARGE
MACHINING (EDM)
• Mechanism of metal removal: Initially the gap between
the tool and the workpiece, which consists of the dielectric
fluid, is not conductive. But, under the pulsed application
of DC, the dielectric fluid in the gap is ionized, causing the
spark to discharge or jump between the tool and the
workpiece.
• The arc impinges on the elevated surface of the workpiece
at a very high temperature of around 10,000°C causing a
small portion of the workpiece to melt and/or vapourize.
• The forces of electric and magnetic fields caused by the
spark produce a tensile force resulting in tearing of
particles of molten and softened metal from the work
surface thereby causing metal removal to take place.
• The continuously flowing fluid flushes away the excess
material removed from the machining gap. KYC
 Electrical Discharge Machining
• The dielectric fluid in EDM performs the following
functions:
➢ It acts as an insulator until sufficiently high
potential is reached .
➢ Acts as a coolant medium and reduces the
extremely high temp. in the arc gap.
➢ More importantly, the dielectric fluid is pumped
through the arc gap to flush away the eroded
particles between the work-piece and the
electrode which is critical to high metal removal
rates and good machining conditions.
• A relatively soft graphite or metallic electrode can
easily machine hardened tool steels or tungsten
carbide. One of the many attractive benefits of using
the EDM process.
 Electrical Discharge Machining
• Stepped cavities produced with a square electrode
by EDM.
• The workpiece moves in the two principal
horizontal directions, and its motion is
synchronized with the downward movement of the
electrode to produce various cavities
• Also shown is a round electrode capable of
producing round or eliptical cavities.
• Obviously, this is done under computer control
(CNC plunger EDM).
 Electrical Discharge Machining
• Surface finish is affected by gap voltage, discharge
current, and frequency
• The EDM process can be used on any material that is
an electrical conductor
• The EDM process does not involve mechanical energy,
therefore, materials with high hardness and strength
can easily be machined.
• Applications include producing die cavity for large
components, deep small holes, complicated internal
cavities
• EDM is not a fast method; some jobs can take days to
produce holes, so its use is limited to jobs that cannot
easily be done in other ways (e.g. oblong slots or
complex shapes, sometimes in very hard material).
• Note too the work must be conductive so it does not
work on materials such as glass or ceramic, or most
plastics.
 Wire EDM( Wire Electric Discharge
Machining)

• A brass wire is fed through the workpiece

submerged in a tank of dielectric fluid.
• It is used to cut plates as thick as 0.3m and to
make punches, tools, and dies from hard
metals. 와이어 컷 방전가공

- Wire electrode

+ Workpiece

KYC
WIRE EDM

KYC
 WIRE EDM
• The electrode wire is typically of a diameter of 0.05
to 0.25 mm copper or brass, which is wound
between the two spools.
• The wire moves past the workpiece at fast rates up
to 3 m/min.
• The spark is struck between the moving electrode
wire and the workpiece, thereby removing the
material.
• The dielectric most commonly used is the de-
ionised water applied as a localised stream, rather
than submerging the whole workpiece.
• The close-up view of the cutting process is shown
in Figure. Kerf is the width of the cut produced by
the wire. KYC
WIRE EDM

KYC
Wire Electrical Discharge Machining
• Electrical discharge machining wire cutting (EDM-
WC) is a thermal mass-reducing process that uses
a continuously moving wire to remove material by
means of rapid controlled repetitive spark
discharges.
• A dielectric fluid is used to flush the removed
particles, regulate the discharge, and keep the wire
and workpiece cool. The wire and workpiece must
be electrically conductive.
 Wire Electrical Discharge Machining
• Schematic illustration of the
wire EDM process. As much
as 50 hours of machining
can be performed with one
reel of wire, which is then
discarded.

Typical EDM-WC products.

Wire Electrical Discharge Machining
• Utilizes a traveling wire that is advance within
arcing distance of the workpiece (0.001 in.)
• Removes material by rapid, controlled, repetitive
spark
• Uses dielectric fluid to flush removed particles,
control discharge, and cool wire and workpiece
• Is performed on electrically conductive workpieces
• Can produce complex two-dimensional shapes
Wire Electrical Discharge Machining
Wire Electrical Discharge Machining
• Numerically controlled wire EDM has revolutionized
die making, particularly for plastic molders.
• Wire EDM is now common in tool-and-die shops.
Shape accuracy in EDM-WC in a working
environment with temperature variations of about
3°C is about 4 µm.
• If temperature control is within ± 1°C, the
obtainable accuracy is closer to 1 µm.
• No burrs are generated and since no cutting forces
are present, wire EDM is ideal for delicate parts.
• No tooling is required, so delivery times are short.
Pieces over 16 in thick can be machined. Tools
and parts are machined after heat treatment, so
dimensional accuracy is held and not affected by
heat treat distortion.
Wire Electrical Discharge Machining
 Laser Beam Machining
• The word laser stands for Light Amplification by
Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
• Machining with laser beams, first introduced in the early
1970s, is now used routinely in many industries. Laser
machining, with long or continuous wave (CW*), short,
and ultra-short pulses, includes the following
applications:
➢ Heat treatment
➢ Welding
➢ Ablation or cutting of plastics, glasses, ceramics,
semiconductors and metals
➢ Material deposition–
➢ Etching with chemical assist i.e., Laser Assisted
Chemical Etching or LACE
➢ Laser-enhanced jet plating and etching
➢ Lithography
➢ Photo-polymerization (e.g., µ-stereo-lithography)
 Laser Beam Machining

*In laser physics and engineering the (a) Schematic illustration of the
term "continuous wave" or "CW" refers laser-beam machining process.
to a laser which produces a continuous (b) and (c) Examples of holes
output beam, sometimes referred to as produced in non-metallic parts
'free-running'. by LBM.
 Laser Beam Machining
APPLICATION LASER TYPE
Cutting
Metals PCO2; CWCO2; Nd:YAG; ruby
Plastics CWCO2
Ceramics PCO2
Drilling
Metals PCO2; Nd:YAG; Nd:glass; ruby
Plastics Excimer
Marking
Metals PCO2; Nd:YAG
Plastics Excimer
Ceramics Excimer
Surface treatment (metals) CWCO2
Welding (metals) PCO2; CWCO2; Nd:YAG; Nd:glass; ruby

Note: P = pulsed, CW = continuous wave.

Gas is blown into the cut to clear away molten metals, or other
materials in the cutting zone.
In some cases, the gas jet can be chosen to react chemically with
the workpiece to produce heat and accelerate the cutting speed.
Laser Beam Machining
Laser Beam Machining
 Laser Beam Machining
• Lasers are high intensity focused light sources
➢ CO2
• Most widely used
• Generally more powerful that YAG lasers
• Cutting operations commonly
➢ Nd:YAG (Neodymium ions in an Yttrium
Aluminum Garnet)
• Less powerful
• Etching/marking type operations more
commonly
• Limited in depth of cut (focus of light)
• Would limit workpiece to less than 1 inch (< ½”
typically)
KYC
 Laser Beam Machining
• A laser machine consists of the laser, mirrors or a
fiber for beam guidance, focusing optics and a
positioning system.
• The laser beam is focused onto the work-piece and
can be moved relatively to it.
• The laser machining process is controlled by
switching the laser on and off, changing the laser
pulse energy and other laser parameters, and by
positioning either the work-piece or the laser focus.
• Laser machining is localized, non-contact
machining and is almost reaction-force free.
• Photon energy is absorbed by target material in the
form of thermal energy or photochemical energy.

KYC
 Laser Beam Machining
• Material is removed by melting and blown away
(long pulsed and continuous-wave lasers), or by
direct vaporization/ablation (ultra-short pulsed
lasers).
• Any material that can properly absorb the laser
irradiation can be laser machined.
• The spectrum of laser machinable materials
includes hard and brittle materials as well as soft
materials.
• The very high intensities of ultra-short pulsed lasers
enable absorption even in transparent materials.

KYC
LASER BEAM MACHINING

KYC
 Abrasive Jet Cutting
• A stream of fine grain abrasives mixed with air or
suitable carrier gas, at high pressure, is directed by
means of a nozzle on the work surface to be
machined.
• The material removal is due to erosive action of a
high pressure jet.
• AJM differ from the conventional sand blasting
process in the way that the abrasive is much finer
and effective control over the process parameters
and cutting. Used mainly to cut hard and brittle
materials, which are thin and sensitive to heat.

KYC
Abrasive Jet Machining Setup

KYC
Abrasive Jet Machining Setup

KYC
 Typical AJM Parameters

• Abrasive
➢ Aluminum oxide for Al and Brass.
➢ SiC for Stainless steel and Ceramic\
➢ Bicarbonate of soda for Teflon
➢ Glass bed for polishing.
• Size
➢ 10-15 Micron
• Quantity
➢ 5-15 liter/min for fine work
➢ 10-30 liter/min for usual cuts.
➢ 50-100 liter/min for rough cuts.
KYC
 Typical AJM Parameters

• Medium
➢ Dry air, CO2, N2
➢ Quantity: 30 liter/min
➢ Velocity: 150-300 m/min
➢ Pressure: 200-1300 KPa
• Nozzle
➢ Material: Tungsten carbide or saffire
➢ Stand of distance: 2.54-75 mm
➢ Diameter: 0.13-1.2 mm
➢ Operating Angle: 60° to vertical

KYC
 Typical AJM Parameters

• Factors affecting MRR:

➢ Types of abrasive and abrasive grain size
➢ Flow rate
➢ Stand off distance
➢ Nozzle Pressure

KYC
Advantages of AJM
• Low capital cost.
• Less vibration.
• Good for difficult to reach area.
• No heat is generated in work piece.
• Ability to cut intricate holes of any hardness and
brittleness in the material.
• Ability to cut fragile, brittle hard and heat sensitive
material without damage

Disadvantages of AJM:

• Low metal removal rate.

• Due to stay cutting accuracy is affected.
• Abrasive powder cannot be reused.
KYC
Applications of AJM:
• For abrading and frosting glass, it is more
economical than acid etching and grinding.
• For doing hard suffuses safe removal of
smears and ceramics oxides on metals.
• Resistive coating etc from ports to delicate to
withstand normal scrapping.
• Delicate cleaning such as removal of smudges
from antique documents.
• Machining semiconductor.

KYC
 Water Jet Machining
• The water jet machining involves directing a high
pressure (150-1000 MPa) high velocity (540-1400 m/s)
water jet(faster than the speed of sound) to the surface
to be machined. The fluid flow rate is typically from 0.5
to 2.5 l/min
• The kinetic energy of water jet after striking the work
surface is reduced to zero.
• The bulk of kinetic energy of jet is converted into
pressure energy.
• If the local pressure caused by the water jet exceeds the
strength of the surface being machined, the material
from the surface gets eroded and a cavity is thus
formed.
• The water jet energy in this process is concentrated over
a very small area, giving rise to high energy
density(1010 w/mm2) High KYC
Water Jet Machining Setup

KYC
 Water Jet Machining
• Water is the most common fluid used, but
additives such as alcohols, oil products and
glycerol are added when they can be dissolved in
water to improve the fluid characteristics.
• Typical work materials involve soft metals, paper,
cloth, wood, leather, rubber, plastics, and frozen
food.
• If the work material is brittle it will fracture, if it is
ductile, it will cut well:
• The orifice is often made of sapphire and its
diameter ranges from 1.2 mm to 0.5 mm:

KYC
 Water Jet Equipments
• It is consists of three main units
(i) A pump along with intensifier.
(ii)Cutting head comprising of nozzle and work table
movement.
(iii) filter unit for debries, impurities.
• Advantages
- no heat produced
- cut can be started anywhere without the need for
predrilled holes
- burr produced is minimum
- environmentally safe and friendly manufacturing.
• Application – used for cutting composites, plastics,
fabrics, rubber, wood products etc. Also used in food
processing industry.
KYC
 Water-Jet Cutting
• Water jet acts like a saw and cuts the material.
• Advantages: start at any location, no heat, no
deflection, environmentally friendly.

KYC
 Abrasive Water jet machining
• The rate of cutting in water jet machining,
particularly while cutting ductile material, is quite
low.
• Cutting rate can be achieved by mixing abrasive
powder in the water to be used for machining.
• In Abrasive Water Jet Cutting, a narrow, focused,
water jet is mixed with abrasive particles.
• This jet is sprayed with very high pressures resulting
in high velocities that cut through all materials.
• The presence of abrasive particles in the water jet
reduces cutting forces and enables cutting of thick
and hard materials (steel plates over 80-mm thick
can be cut).
• The velocity of the stream is up to 90m/s, about 2.5
times the speed of sound. KYC
Abrasive Water jet machining

KYC
Abrasive Water jet machining

KYC
 Abrasive Water jet machining

• Abrasive Water Jet Cutting process was developed

in 1960s to cut materials that cannot stand high
temperatures for stress distortion or metallurgical
reasons such as wood and composites, and
traditionally difficult-to-cut materials, e.g. ceramics,
glass, stones, titanium alloys

KYC
Abrasive-Jet Cutting

Abrasive water-jet cutting

• The water jet contains abrasive particles and
increases the material removal rate.
• Various thicknesses can be cut in single or
multiple layers.

Abrasive-jet cutting
• High-velocity jet is aimed at a surface under
controlled conditions.

KYC
 Abrasive Water Jet
• High pressure water (20,000-
60,000 psi)
• Abrasive into stream
• Can cut extremely thick parts (5-10
inches possible)
➢ Thickness achievable is a
function of speed
➢ Twice as thick will take more
than twice as long
• Tight tolerances achievable
➢ Current machines 0.002” (older
machines much less capable ~
0.010”
• Jet will lag machine position, so
controls must plan for it