CROP PRODUCTION

 Crop production is growing crops for food, fiber, fuel, and other raw materials. It's a branch of
agriculture that also includes livestock production, aquaculture, and forestry.
 Crop production is the branch of agriculture that deals with the production of crops for food and
fiber.

CROP HUSBANDRY
 Refers to the agricultural practices involved in managing the cultivation of crops for food production.
 It is a scientifically based system of managing the soil and crops of an agricultural farm to provide
food efficiently and sustainably (Villanueva, 2023). These practices include techniques for planting,
watering, fertilizing, and harvesting crops, as well as pest control and soil management.
 Crop husbandry also involves understanding crop rotation, weeds, and diseases.
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Different Steps in Crop Production
1. Preparation of soil
2. Sowing
3. Addíng Manures/Fertilizers
4. Irrigation
5. Protection From Weeds
6. Harvesting
7. Storage

1.) PREPARATION OF SOIL

-The large pieces of soil present in a ploughed field are called crumbs. These are broken smaller
particles with the help of a plank; this is called preparation of soil.
-The main purpose of land preparation is to have the soil in optimum physical condition for growing
crops. Plowing and tilling of land is done to predetermined levels that allow plants to develop a good
root system. Soil cultivation or digging may be hard work but, if taken slowly, it need not be back-
breaking.
-All bare soil is suitable for cultivating (or digging). However, digging around plants is best avoided
as it damages roots and so can be harmful.
*Digging is called 'primary cultivation' (and could also be carried out by a mechanical rotavator).
Single digging: Turning over the soil to a spade's (or fork's) depth is called single digging.
Double digging: This involves inverting a second, deeper layer of soil. This may be hard work, but it is
perfect for creating new borders and deepening shallow topsoil.
 Where digging is not practical, consider sowing and planting into undigged soil. Firstly, remove the
weeds either by hand, with a flamegun, or with weedkiller (containing glyphosate). Loosen the soil,
if necessary, with a fork or hoe.
*Tillage is the practice of plowing soil to prepare for planting for nutrient incorporation or for pest control.
Tillage varies in intensity from conventional to no-till. It may improve productivity by warming the soil,
incorporating fertilizer, and controlling weeds, but it also renders soil more prone to erosion, triggers the
decomposition of organic matter releasing CO2, and reduces the abundance and diversity of soil organisms.
Conventional tillage systems benefits:
 Creation of a seedbed or root bed
 Control of weeds or the removal of unwanted crop plants
 Incorporation of plant residues into the soil profile
 Incorporation of fertilizers and/ or soil-applied pesticides.
 Establishment of specific soil surface configurations for planting, irrigating, drainage, and/or
harvesting operations.
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2.) SOWING OF SEEDS
Sowing is the placing of a specific quantity of seeds in the soil for germination and growth,
while planting is the placing of plant propagules (which may be seedlings, cuttings, rhizomes, clones,
tubers, etc.) in the soil to grow as plants.

Methods of Sowing
a. Broadcasting- is the scattering or spreading of the seeds on the soil, which may or may not be
incorporated into the soil. Broadcasting of seeds may be done by hand, mechanical spreader, or
aeroplane. Broadcasting is the easiest, quickest, and cheapest method of seeding.
*The difficulties observed in broadcasting are uneven distribution, improper placement of seeds, and
less soil cover and compaction.

b. Dibbling - It is the placing of seeds in a hole or pit made at a predetermined spacing and depth with
a dibbler or planter or very often by hand. Dibbling is laborious, time-consuming, and expensive
compared to broadcasting, but it requires fewer seeds and gives rapid and uniform germination with
good seedling vigour.

c. Seed Drilling - It is the practice of dropping seeds in a definite depth, covered with soil and
compacted. Sowing implements like seed drill or seed cum fertilizer drill are used. Manures,
fertilizers, soil amendments, pesticides, etc., may be applied along with seeds. Seeds are drilled
continuously or at regular intervals in rows. It requires more time, energy and cost, but maintains
uniform population per unit area. Rows are set according to the requirements.

d. Sowing behind the country plough - It is an operation in which seeds are placed in the plough
furrow either continuously or at required spacing by a man working behind a plough. When the
plough takes the next adjacent furrow, the seeds in the previous furrow are closed by the soil closing
the furrow. The depth of sowing is adjusted by adjusting the depth of the plough furrow.

e. Planting - Placing seeds or seed material firmly in the soil to grow.

f. Transplanting- Planting seedlings in the main field after pulling out from the nursery. It is done to
reduce the main field duration of the crops, facilitating the growth of crops in a year. It is easy to give
extra care to tender seedlings. For small-seeded crops like rice and ragi, which require shallow
sowing and frequent irrigation for proper germination, raising nursery is the easiest way.

SEED CHARACTERISTICS
 Seed must be true to its type, i.e., genetically pure, free from admixtures
 Seed should be pure, viable, vigorous, and have high-yielding potential. The seed should be free
from seed-borne diseases and pest infection.
 The seed should be clean, free from weed seeds or any inert materials.
  The seed should be whole and not broken or damaged.
 The seed should meet the prescribed uniform size and weight.
 Seed should be as fresh as possible or of the proper age.
 The seed should contain an optimum amount of moisture (8-12%).
 Seed should have a high germination percentage as per seed standard.
 The seed should germinate rapidly and uniformly when sown.

ADVANTAGES OF USING GOOD QUALITY SEEDS

 Uniform germination, thus avoiding replanting and gap filling.
 Vigorous seedling growth, which reduces weed and disease,
 Uniform growth stages, maturity, and products with high return per unit area as the genetic
potentiality of the crop can be fully exploited.
 Maintain good quality under storage conditions.
 The quality seed responds well to the applied fertilizers and nutrients.
 High produce value and marketability.

SEED GERMINATION :
Germination is the protrusion of a radicle or seedling emergence. Germination results in the rupture of the
seed coat and emergence of the seedling from the embryonic axis.

Factors Affecting Germination:

Soil: Soil type, texture, structure, and microorganisms greatly influence seed germination.
Environment: Generally, the environmental conditions favoring the growth of seedlings also favor
germination. Germination does not occur until the seeds attain physiological maturity.
Water (soil moisture and seed moisture): Imbibition of water is the prerequisite process for germination.
Both living and dead seeds imbibe water and swell. A slower rate of germination is noticed in places
where soil moisture is near or at the wilting point.
Temperature: The optimum temperature is that which gives the highest germination percentage in the
shortest period.
Light: The most effective wavelength for promoting seed germination is red (660 nm), and the most
effective wavelength for inhibiting seed germination is infrared (730 nm). Atmospheric gases: Most crop
seeds germinate well in the ambient composition of air with 20% 02, 0.03% CO2, and 78.2% N.
Exogenous chemicals: Some chemicals induce or favor quick germination.

SEED TREATMENT:
Seed treatment is a process of application either by mixing or by coating or by soaking in solutions of
chemicals or protectants (with fungicidal, bactericidal, nematicidal, or biopesticidal properties), nutrients,
hormones, or growth regulators or subjected to a process of wetting and drying.

The seed treatment is done for the following reasons;

 To protect from seed-borne pests and diseases.
 To protect from or repel birds and rodents.
 To supply plant nutrients.
 To inoculate microorganisms.
 To supply growth regulators.
 To break seed dormancy.
 To induce higher germination percentage and early emergence.

Methods of Seed Treatment

1. Dry treatment: Mixing of seed with powder form of pesticides/nutrients.
2. Wet treatment: Soaking of seed in pesticide/ nutrient solutions.
3. Slurry treatment: Dipping of seeds/seedlings in slurry. Example: rice seedlings are dipped in phosphate
slurry.
4. Pelleting: It is the coating of solid materials in sufficient quantities to make the seeds larger, heavier, and
uniform in size for sowing with seed drills. Pelleting with pesticides as a protectant against soil organisms
and soil pests and as a repellant against birds and rodents.

Factors Involved in Sowing Management

1. Mechanical factors
i.) Seed size and weight: Heavy and bold seeds produce vigorous seedlings. The application
of fertilizer to bold seed tends to encourage the seedlings than the seedlings from small
seeds.
ii.) Depth of sowing: Optimum depth of sowing ranges from 2.5-3 cm. The depth of sowing
depends on seed size and the availability of soil moisture. Deeper sowing delays field
emergence and thus delays crop duration. Deeper sowing sometimes ensures crop survival
under adverse weather and soil conditions, mostly in dry lands.
iii.) Emergence habit: Hypogeal seedlings may emerge from a relatively deeper layer than
epigeal seedlings of similar seed size.
iv.) Seedbed texture: Soil texture should minimize crust formation and maximize aeration,
which in turn influence the gases, temperature, and water content of the soil. Very fine soil
may not maintain adequate temperature and water holding capacity.
v.) Seeds-Soil contact: Seeds require close contact with soil particles to ensure that water can
be absorbed readily. A tilled soil makes the contact easier. Forming the soil around the seed
(broadcasted seeds) after sowing improves the soil-seed contact.
vi.) Seedbed fertility: Tillering crops like rice, ragi, bajra, etc., should be sown thinly on fertile
soils and more densely on poor soils. Similarly, a high seed rate is used on poor soil for
non-tillering crops. Although a higher seed rate gives a greater yield under conditions of
low soil fertility, in some cases, such as cotton, a lower seed rate gives better results than a
higher seed rate.
vii.) Soil moisture: Excess moisture in soil retards germination and induce rotting and damping
off disease except in swamp (deep water) rice. Depth adjustment is made according to
moisture conditions, i.e., deeper sowing on dry soils and shallow sowing on wet soils.
Sowing on ridges is usually recommended on poorly drained soils.

2. Biological factors
i.) Companion crop: Companion crop is usually sown early to suppress weed growth and control soil
erosion. In cassava + maize cropping, cassava is planted later in yam or maize to minimize the effect of
competition for light. In mixed cropping, all the crops are sown at the same time.
ii.) Competition of light: In mixed stands, optimum spacing for each crop minimizes the competition of
light.
iii.) Soil microorganisms: The microorganisms present in the soil should favor seed germination and
should not possess any harmful effect on seeds/emerging seedlings.

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3.)MANURING
The substances that are added to soil in the form of nutrients for the healthy growth of plants are called
manures and fertilizers.

*MANURE:
o Nutrients are added to soil for healthy growth of plants.
o Continuous growing of crops makes the soil poor in nutrients.
o Manures are organic substances obtained from the decomposition of plant and animal wastes.
 o Manuring is done to replenish soil with nutrients.

ADVANTAGES OF MANURING
o Improves water retaining capacity of the soil.
o Makes the soil porous and exchange of gases becomes easy.
o Increases the number of friendly microbes.
o Improves the texture of the soil.
o Replenishes the soil with necessary nutrients.

*FERTILIZERS
o Chemical substances rich in nutrients.
o Produced in factories.

ADVANTAGES OF FERTILIZERS
o Help farmers to get better yield of crops.

DISADVANTAGES OF FERTILIZERS
o Sources of water pollution.
o Made the soil less fertile.
o Artificial fertilizers often cause diseases.

DIFFERENCES
FERTILIZER MANURE
Inorganic salt Natural substance
Chemical substance Organic substance
Prepared in factories Prepared in fields
Does not humidify the soil Provides humus to the soil
soil Rich in plant nutrients Less rich in plant nutrients

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4.)IRRIGATION
 Water is essential for the growth of plants.
 The process of watering plants in a field is known as irrigation.
Types of Irrigation
 Dry land farming
 Farming in semi-arid regions without irrigation
 Drought-resistant crops
 Conserves moisture in soil

 Furrow Irrigation
 A trench is dug between rows of crops & flooded
 Easy & Inexpensive

 Flood Irrigation
 Flood the entire field and let it soak in
 Easy & Inexpensive

 Spray Irrigation
  Water is pumped from a well into pipes spraying water across fields (think: Sprinklers!!)
 Energy intensive
 Expensive
o Labor
o materials

 Drip Irrigation
 A slow dripping hose laid on the ground by plants or buried in soil Expensive
 Good with perrenials
 Discourages weeds
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5.) WEEDING
The unwanted plants growing along with the main crop in a field are known as weeds. The process of
removing weeds is called weeding.
*Weed
- A plant which interferes with human activity or welfare.
- It is also defined as plant growing in a place where it is not desired at a particular point in time.

*Mechanical weed control is any physical activity that inhibits unwanted plant growth. Mechanical or
manual weed control techniques manage weed populations through physical methods that remove, injure,
kill, or make the growing conditions.
1. Hand Pulling- is an effective practice for the control of weed seedlings and young, established annual and
perennial weed species. It is a minor value in the control of perennial weeds since underground vegetative
parts are not normally disturbed. Reference: dreamstime.com
2. Hoeing is an effective means of weed control, and the how remains one of the principal tools for weed
control. However, it needs human effort and is time-consuming. In addition, hoeing (especially in filed
crops) is not an economical mans of weed control because of the need to manage huge tracts of land.
3. Mowing has limited value as a means of weed control. It is primarily used to reduce seed production and
to restrict unsightly or rank weed growth. Mowing is commonly used for these purposes in meadows and
pastures, along roadsides, and in waste places.
4. Flooding is an effective means of weed control under certain conditions. It kills weeds by depriving the
plant's aeration of the root system, thus suffocating them and their inability to carry out photosynthesis (as
they are submerged in water). It is an effective means of weed control only when the roots and shoots of the
weeds are completely covered or surrounded by water for a long period. The use of flooding as a means of
weed control is limited by soil type and available water. It is commonly used in lowland rice paddies.
5. Mulching is an effective means of weed control under certain conditions. The objective is to completely
exclude light from the growing weed plants, thereby preventing photosynthesis and further growth.
Materials used for this purpose include hay, manure, grass clippings, straw, sawdust, wood chips, rice hulls,
paper, and plastic film.
6. Burning is the burning of flaming has been practiced for many years as means of general weed control in
no cropped areas such as railroad, right of ways, irrigation canals, drainage and roadside. The practical
application of flaming for selective weed control in croplands began in the 1940s through the use of burners.
Selective flaming operates in principle that crop plants are tall enough at the time flaming is done directed to
the ground near the base of the plants, will not strike their leaves and other tender parts, that their stems are
woody and resistant to the intense heat of the flame.
7. Machine Tillage or cultivation is and continues to be one of the principal means by which weeds are
controlled. Tillage if row crops refers primarily to cultivation operations performed after the crop seed has
been planted. Machine tillage is similar to hoeing, except that the power for the cultivating tools is provided
by animals or mechanical engines, rather than man. The main advantages of machine tillage over hoeing are
that a wider selection of cultivating tools may be used and large areas may be weeded more rapidly and
economically.
8. Soil Solarization- soil is covered with black plastic to trap the sun's heat, increasing soil temperatures to
levels that kill plants, seeds, plant pathogens, and insects. In addition, sunlight is blocked, which can kill
existing plants. -- Soil solarization, however, can cause long-lasting changes to the soil that can deter the
growth of desirable native species. The effectiveness of this method depends largely on how susceptible the
weed is to high temperatures.
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6.) HARVESTING
 The process of cutting of crops after its mature 0 is called harvesting. the cutting of crops are done
with the help of machines or also can done manually.
 Harvesting in India is mainly done by 'sickle' or O by a machine called 'harvester'.
 The process of separating seeds from chaff is called 'threshing'.
 The process of the separation of grains and chaff is called 'winnowing'.
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7.) STORAGE
 An important task in crop production
 The grains are to be kept for a longer time; they should be safe from moisture, insects, rats, and
microbes.
 Crop seeds in small quantities are stored in jute bags or metallic bins.
 In large scale storage of crop seeds are stored into silos and granaries.