5.

Measurement tools

1
Measurements related to the lab experiments

• Temperature (K or °C)
• Operation (How it works)
• Strain (dimensionless)
• Advantages and Limits (relate
to basic application, mostly FYI)
• Pressure (Pa = N/m2 = kg/m/s2)

• Flow velocity and rate (m/s and m3/s)

Mass Temperature Time Amount of substance

Luminous Length Electric current

intensity (light)
Liquid-in-glass thermometer

Mechanism:
• Thermal Expansion of Liquid: The thermometer consists of a sealed glass
tube with a liquid (e.g., alcohol or mercury) that expands or contracts with
Thermal expansion of
temperature changes, moving along a calibrated scale to indicate temperature.
a sealed liquid
Advantages:
• Simple and Reliable: No need for power or complex calibration, making it easy
for undergraduates to use in basic experiments
• No Electrical Interference: Unlike thermocouples or RTDs, it is unaffected by
electromagnetic noise, ensuring stable readings
Disadvantages:
• Fragile and Hazardous: Glass construction makes it prone to breakage, and
mercury versions pose toxicity risks
• Slow Response Time: Due to the thermal mass of the liquid, it reacts slower to
temperature changes compared to thermocouples
• Limited Temperature Range: Cannot measure extreme high or low
temperatures, restricting its applications
• Reading Errors: Parallax errors can occur if the scale is not viewed properly

4
Infrared thermometer
Everything in the world emit light: Blackbody radiation Same mechanism
as a passive
IR thermometer infrared detector
Room temp. emit
what wavelength?
Electrical signal

Object radiation Heat

Focused by a lens up a thermopile

Wavelength and intensity dependent on

the object temperature Emissivity & transmittance matters

Thermocouple in series

5
Thermocouple

• A thermocouple is a temperature measurement device

Room temperature that uses the thermoelectric effect to measure
Hot temperature differences.
T1
T2 • It consists of two dissimilar metal wires joined at one
end, forming a junction.
• Thermocouples are widely used in industrial and
laboratory settings for temperature monitoring.
𝐸 = 𝑆𝐴 𝛥𝑇 − 𝑆𝐵 𝛥𝑇 = Δ𝑆(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
Thermoelectric Seebeck effect
• Temperature difference Δ𝑇 = 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 causes gradient
Δ𝑆 = 𝑆𝐴 − 𝑆𝐵 is the Seebeck in electrochemical potential in materials drive the
coefficient difference electron flow. For metal A, the voltage drop is
between the two metals 𝐸𝐴 = 𝑆𝐴 𝛥𝑇
• Seebeck effect leads to voltage drop in a material
Can you measure with a single
type of metal wire? • When two dissimilar metals are joined at one end and
exposed to different temperatures, a voltage (called
the Seebeck Voltage) is generated.
6
Thermocouples
Ni-Cr alloy Cu-Ni alloy
Response functions have small deviation from linear
Chromel-Constantan
E(T) – E(0) =
Iron-Constantan
0.03863750528T + 4.541111891×10-5 T2 -2.923938761×10-8 T3
(T Type)

Ni-Al alloy 0.05747609515T+5.089681919×10-5 T2-3.451048277×10-8 T3

(E Type)
Chromel-Alumel
0.03729075384T+1.069563233×10-5 T2-6.45247908×10-9 T3
(K Type)

Copper-Constantan (T in ºC and E in V)

• E(0) set to be 0 V as a convenient reference

• Need an auxiliary temperature measurement of the

cold side

7
No need to memorize
Thermocouples
+ and – pole have different color codes!
Type K (Chromel-Alumel)
• Temperature Range: -200°C to 1260°C
• Applications: general-purpose
Type T (Copper-Constantan)
• Temperature Range: -200°C to 350°C
• Applications: Suitable for cryogenic and low-temperature
applications, often used in laboratory and medical
environments.
Type J (Iron-Constantan)
• Temperature Range: -40°C to 750°C
• Applications: Frequently used in older equipment and Wrong polarity will cause a wrong reading
industrial applications where a reducing atmosphere is present.
Type E (Chromel-Constantan)
• Temperature Range: -200°C to 900°C
• Applications: Provides a stronger signal and higher accuracy
in low-temperature applications

No need to memorize 8
Resistance temperature detector

Thermal dependence of metal resistance

e.g., Pt100, a platinum probe of a resistance of 100 ohm at 0 ºC; increase nearly linearly with temperature
• Very accurate, (±0.1 to ±0.5°C) compared to thermocouples (±1 to ±2°C)
• Slower in response than thermocouple
RTDs provide a stronger and more linear
• Not suitable for very high temperature (> 600 ºC) resistance output, reducing noise issues.
• Need a voltage source Thermocouples generate small voltage
signals, making them more susceptible to
• Resistance measurement mostly via Wheatstone bridge electrical interference

Electrical connections

Pt100 Temperature-sensing element

Shield support

Thermal radiation shield

9
Stress and strain
In a lab F
Ductile ΔL
A

Stress, σ (N/m2)
Ultimate strength
Brittle σ = F/A
Yield strength
L
ε = ΔL/L
Young’s modulus

Strain, ε

In practice
• Stress measurement is difficult

• Stress and strain localized

• Therefore, we predict failure based

on strain measurement and known
material properties
10
Strain gauge
Resistive foil strain gauge
F
ΔL
A
σ = F/A
L
ε = ΔL/L

• Measures Strain via Resistance Change: A strain gauge detects deformation in a

material by measuring changes in its electrical resistance. When stretched, its resistance
increases; when compressed, it decreases.
• Thin Wire or Foil Grid: The gauge consists of a fine wire or foil arranged in a grid
pattern, which deforms along with the material, altering its resistance.
• Common Applications: Strain gauges are widely used in structural monitoring,
mechanical testing, aerospace, automotive, and civil engineering to measure stress,
force, and deformation.
Strain gauge
Resistive foil strain gauge
F
ΔL
A
σ = F/A
L
ε = ΔL/L

• Material and Sensitivity: Most strain gauges use constantan

for stability, while semiconductor versions offer higher sensitivity
but are more temperature-sensitive.
• Wheatstone Bridge Circuit: To detect small resistance
changes accurately, strain gauges are typically connected in a
Wheatstone bridge, converting resistance variations into a
measurable voltage.
ΔV

• Temperature Compensation: Since temperature can also

VE affect resistance, compensation techniques (such as dummy
gauges) are used to minimize measurement errors.
Strain gauge
Resistive foil strain gauge
F
ΔL
A
σ = F/A
L
ε = ΔL/L

The applied volage at the Wheatstone bridge is 𝑉𝐸

At 𝜀 = 0, 𝑅𝑔 = 𝑅2 , 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝛥𝑉 = 0 𝑉,
Δ𝑉 𝛥𝑅𝑔
When ε ≠ 0, =
𝑉𝐸 𝑅𝑔
𝛥𝑅 Gauge factor:
= ε × 𝐺𝐹
ΔV

Correlate strain to
𝑅
𝛥𝑉 resistance change
VE 𝜀=
𝑉𝐸 𝐺𝐹
13
Digital image correlation (DIC)

• Start with a patterned surface (natural, or by

spraying particles)
• Use a camera to track the motion of the
pattern / particles
• Lower strain resolution and accuracy than
typical strain gauge
• But can have very high spatial resolution
• Often used together with finite element
model

14
Pressure measurement
Barometer Manometer Diaphragm
Can measure absolute P
liquid column for differential P Deform under pressure
(against vacuum)
Britannica

Vacuum Transduced to electric signals via Wheatstone

bridge, capacitance;
broad range (low to high P)
Point of
Mercury
measurement

Deadweight tester
Precise, high P Piezoelectric pressure
sensors
Uses piezoelectric crystals
that generate an electric
charge when subjected to
mechanical stress from
pressure.

15
Pressure measurement

Type Mechanism Best For Pros Cons

A flexible diaphragm
Limited accuracy
deforms under Low-pressure Works for very low
compared to
Diaphragm Gauge pressure, moving a measurement, medical and high pressures,
deadweight testers, can
mechanical or electrical devices, HVAC. compact, durable.
degrade over time.
sensor.
High-speed pressure Only works for
Crystals generate an
changes (explosions, Very fast response dynamic pressure,
Piezoelectric Sensor electric charge when
vibrations, engine time, high sensitivity. requires signal
subjected to pressure.
combustion). conditioning.
Uses liquid Low-pressure
Simple, accurate, Bulky, not suitable
Manometer displacement to applications, lab
no moving parts. for high pressures.
measure pressure. experiments, HVAC.
Measures atmospheric Mercury models are
Weather forecasting, Accurate for
Barometer pressure using mercury hazardous, sensitive to
aviation. atmospheric pressure.
or aneroid capsules. temperature changes.
Uses calibrated weights
Expensive, heavy,
on a piston-cylinder Calibration of other Extremely accurate,
Deadweight Tester not for dynamic
system to generate pressure gauges. no drift over time.
pressure.
precise pressure.
16
Flow velocity and flow rate

17
Flow velocity measurements
Pressure
Tube Anemometer
2 𝑝𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔 −𝑝𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡
• Hot wire anemometer Bernoulli’s equation: Flow velocity 𝑈 =
𝜌
Density

• Pitot Tube anemometer

• Cup anemometer

18
Flow velocity measurements
Type Mechanism Best For Pros Cons
Measures dynamic
Wind tunnels, aircraft Simple, accurate Not effective for
and static pressure
Pitot Tube (Tube airspeed for high-speed flows, low velocities, prone
difference to calculate
Anemometer) measurement, HVAC widely used in to clogging in dirty
velocity using
systems. aerodynamics. environments.
Bernoulli’s equation.
A rotating vane
Portable, easy
(propeller) spins in HVAC, ventilation Less accurate
Vane to use, good for
response to monitoring, for turbulent or
Anemometer directional airflow
airflow, measuring industrial airflows. very low airflow.
measurement.
velocity.
A heated wire cools
Low-velocity airflows, High sensitivity, Fragile, affected
as air passes over it;
Hot Wire HVAC, laboratory accurate for low- by temperature
the cooling rate
Anemometer research, speed airflows, real- variations, requires
determines airflow
meteorology. time measurement. calibration.
velocity.
Limited to wind
Rotating cups
Meteorology, wind Reliable, no speed measurement,
mounted on a vertical
energy studies, external power cannot measure flow
Cup Anemometer axis spin
outdoor environmental needed, simple direction, less
proportionally to wind
monitoring. design. accurate at low
speed.
speeds. 19
Volumetric flow rate – Obstruction methods
Pressure measurement
Nozzle

Low High

Permanent pressure loss

Precision
Cost

Orifice

High Low Volume flow rate

𝑚ሶ
𝑄 = = 𝐴𝑈
MECH2210 𝜌
20
Volumetric flow rate – Rotameter

Volume flow rate

𝑄 = 𝐴𝑈

Drag force 𝐹 ∝ 𝑈 2

• Low cost
• Easy to read
• Low precision
• Dependent on fluid properties

𝜌𝑏 , 𝜌𝑓 density of the bot and the fluid

Linear scale along y

𝑄 = 𝐶𝑦 𝜌𝑏 − 𝜌𝑓 𝜌𝑓 Coefficient dependent on bob shape and fluid properties

21
Volumetric flow rate meters

Works by
Measurement
Flowmeter Type Bernoulli’s Best For Pros Cons
Principle
Equation?
Measures pressure
drop between wide Industrial liquid & gas High accuracy, Expensive, large
Venturi Flowmeter and narrow sections Yes flow, water treatment, low pressure loss, size, not ideal for
of a tube to calculate pipelines. durable. small pipes.
flow rate.
Uses a plate with a
Simple, High pressure
Orifice Plate hole to create a Industrial gas & liquid
Yes inexpensive, widely loss, less accurate
Flowmeter pressure drop, then flow, steam flow.
used. than Venturi.
calculates flow rate.
Partially (depends
A float rises inside a Laboratory gas & Limited to
on velocity-pressure Simple, no power
Rotameter (Variable tapered tube as flow liquid flow, low-flow low/medium flow
relationship but not needed, visual
Area Flowmeter) increases; its position industrial rates, not highly
directly derived from indication.
indicates flow rate. applications. accurate.
Bernoulli’s equation).
A spinning rotor
inside the flow path
No (uses Moving parts can
measures flow Fuel measurement, High accuracy,
Turbine Flowmeter rotational speed wear out, sensitive to
velocity and water flow, oil flow. good for clean liquids.
instead). debris.
calculates volumetric
flow rate.
22
6. Lab experiment
introduction

23
Upcoming experiments

3 Strain measurement & stress concentration

4 Flow through a venturi meter
5 Boundary layer
6 Convective heat transfer
7 Refrigeration and air conditioning
8 Measurement of fracture toughness

24
Mechanics of materials
Expt #3 Expt #8

Universal testing machine

Sample

Strain gauge
Specimen

Weight 25
Stress concentration
Stress concentration is behind nearly all fractures
Polarization filters reveal
strain patterns in transparent
materials like plastic rulers,
making invisible stress
distributions visible

For interested people: How to find

Stress Patterns with Polarizing Filters

➢ Strain concentrations occur at geometric discontinuities

where stress becomes highly localized. These points
often initiate fatigue, fracture, and material failure
• Cell phone screen cracks spread from impact points or
corners
• In teeth, strain appears at fillings or cracks, potentially
• Oil pipelines develop strain at welds or causing fracture
corroded areas, risking leaks
• In cement structures, it occurs around air voids
26
or architectural transitions
Stress concentration

Stress concentration factor (SCF):

The ratio between the highest local stress
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 and the far field stress (σ0)

Depends ONLY on:

1. Geometry (overall shape of notch, hole, or
discontinuity, notch sharpness, Relative
proportions )
2. Loading mode (tension, bending, torsion)

Independent of: Examples:

• Absolute dimensions (scale-invariant) o Tear notches in chip bags concentrate stress at
• Material properties (elastic constants, a specific point, enabling controlled opening
strength)
• Type of material (metal, polymer, ceramic) o Pull tabs on beverage cans use stress
• Magnitude of applied load concentration to initiate controlled aluminum
fracture

27
Exp. #3: Stress concentration at a circular hole

Stress concentration factor (SCF):

The ratio between the highest local stress

A 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 and the far field stress (σ0)

B D
C
Example: for a hole with 𝑟 = 𝑎,
at locations with varied angles,
𝜋
Point A 𝜃 = 2 , 𝜎𝜃 = 3𝜎0
Point B 𝜃 = 𝜋, 𝜎𝜃 = −𝜎0
𝜋
𝜎0 𝑎 2 𝜎0 𝑎 4 Point C 𝜃 = − 2 , 𝜎𝜃 = 3𝜎0
𝜎𝜃 = 1+ − 1+3 cos 2 𝜃
2 𝑟 2 𝑟 Point D 𝜃 = 0, 𝜎𝜃 = −𝜎0
𝜎0 𝑎 2 𝜎0 𝑎 2 𝑎 4
𝜎𝑟 = 1− + 1−4 +3 cos 2 𝜃
2 𝑟 2 𝑟 𝑟 Therefore the SCF = 3

Will be provided if it appears in the exam 28

Stress concentration at other geoemtries

• Circular holes typically have SCF of 3

for tension, with the maximum stress
occurring at the sides
• Elliptical holes create varying SCF
depending on orientation to load and
aspect ratio
• Sharp V-notches create extremely high
SCF values that increase as the notch
angle decreases

• U-shaped notches have lower SCF than

V-notches due to larger radius at the
notch root
• Fillets (rounded corners) significantly
reduce SCF compared to sharp corners

29
Stress concentration factors
Loading dependent Shape dependent

SCF = 1 + 2a/b

Direct experiment
Finite element method

30
Fracture toughness

Aloha Airlines Flight 243 Ductile

Stress, σ (N/m2)
Ultimate strength
Brittle

Young’s modulus

Strain, ε
𝜎∞
y
• Most failure can’t be explained by
2a r mechanics of ‘perfect’ material
θ
• Cracks always exist due to
manufacturing defects, fatigue,
corrosion, etc.
x
31
𝜎∞
From Stress Concentration to Crack Behavior

• Stress concentration factor (SCF)

helps estimate stress amplification due
to geometric discontinuities (e.g.,
holes, notches).

• However, when a crack is present,

stress concentration alone is not
sufficient.

• Instead, we use the stress intensity

factor (SIF), denoted as K, to
describe stress behavior
(distribution) near the crack tip.

32
Modes of Crack Tip Loading

• Cracks can experience different types of

loading:
1. Mode I – Opening mode (Tensile
normal stress, most common).
2. Mode II – Sliding mode (In-plane
shear).
3. Mode III – Tearing mode (Out-of-
plane shear).
• Each mode has its own stress
intensity factor: KI,KII,KIII.
(shear mode) (anti-plane shear mode)

33
Understanding the Stress Intensity Factor
The stress intensity factor (K) describes how stress
behaves near a crack tip.
The stress (a tensor) distribution around the crack tip
follows:
𝐾𝐼
𝜎𝑖𝑗 (𝑟, 𝜃) = 𝑓𝑖𝑗 (𝜃)
2𝜋𝑟
where:
• r = distance from the crack tip.
Crack tip • θ= angle relative to the crack plane.
• fij(θ) = functions describing angular variation of stress.
• The subscript of i and j denote the tensor component
indices.
• 𝐾𝐼 denote the first mode of load. 𝐾𝐼𝐼 or 𝐾𝐼𝐼𝐼 should be used
for the other two modes
• Key insight: Stress becomes very large as r→0
In reality it will not diverge (plastic (singularity at the crack tip) and vanishes at large
deformation will occur) distance from r.
34
Stress intensity factor
𝜎∞
The Mode I stress intensity factor (KI​) quantifies y
the severity of stress near a crack tip under
tensile (opening) loading. 2a r
θ
𝐾𝐼 = 𝜎∞ 𝑌 𝜋𝑎
Loading condition:
where: Mode I
• 𝐾𝐼 = Mode I stress intensity factor (units: MPa 𝑚 ). x
• 𝜎∞ = Far-field applied stress. 𝜎∞
• 𝑎 = Crack length (or half-crack length for an internal Special case: stress in the direction normal to
crack). the crack plane at θ=0
• Y = Dimensionless geometric correction factor, which 𝐾𝐼 𝐾𝐼 𝜎∞ 𝑌 𝜋𝑎
accounts for geometry effects.
𝜎yy = 𝑓𝑖𝑗 0 = =
2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋𝑟
• K is Independent of Material Why it’s important? No need to memorize
Properties! • Helps determine whether a crack will propagate.
• K only depends on loading conditions • Used in fracture mechanics to assess material failure.
(𝜎∞ ) and geometry 𝑌, 𝑎. • When larger than a critical value, crack propagates

Fracture toughness 35
Stress Concentration Factor vs. Stress Intensity Factor

Feature Stress Concentration Factor (SCF) Stress Intensity Factor (K)

Measures stress amplification at
Describes stress behavior near
Definition geometric discontinuities (notches,
a crack tip.
holes).
Used in fracture mechanics to
Application Used in design to avoid stress risers.
predict crack growth.
Crack size, geometry, and
Depends on Geometry only.
applied stress.
Related to fracture toughness
Material Dependency Independent of material properties.
(KICK_{IC}KIC​).
Crack Consideration Does not involve cracks. Specifically deals with cracks.

36
Fracture toughness: Material-Dependent Critical Stress Intensity Factor

Fracture toughness: the material’s

GIC, Critical energy release rate (in
resistance to crack propagation under J/m2), i.e., work for creating a unit area
Mode I (opening mode) loading. of fresh fracture surface
• A material property
• Independent on loading and crack 2 𝛾 + 𝛾𝑃 𝐸
𝐾𝐼𝐶 =
geometry 1 − 𝜈2
Work done on
• Fracture occur when the applied stress plastic deformation
Material surface energy
intensity factor KI ≥ KIC
Poisson’s ratio

What is the unit of 𝐾𝐼𝐶 ?

Material Type: Metals (high KIC), Ceramics (low KIC) No need to memorize
Microstructure: Grain size, phase distribution affect toughness
37
Expt #8
Compact tension test Charpy test

Potential energy loss of the impactor

Maximum applied load at which U
𝑃𝑐 𝑎
the specimen fails due to crack 𝐺𝐼𝐶 = = 2 𝛾 + 𝛾𝑃
𝐾𝐼𝑐 = 𝑓 propagation. A
𝐵 𝑤 𝑤
𝐵, 𝑎, 𝑤 are geometric factors 𝐾𝐼2 1 − 𝜈 2
𝐺𝐼 =
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 2 𝑎 3 𝑎 4 𝐸
𝑎 2+ 0.886 + 4.64 − 13.32 + 14.72 − 5.6
𝑤 𝑤 𝑤 𝑤 𝑤
𝑓 =
𝑤 𝑎 3Τ2 2 𝛾 + 𝛾𝑃 𝐸
1−
𝑤 𝐾𝐼𝐶 =
1 − 𝜈2 38
Fracture toughness Example

A structural steel plate contains a surface crack of length 2a = 10 mm.

The material has a fracture toughness of KIC=50 MPa√m. If the applied
stress is 200 MPa, will the crack propagate catastrophically?

Assume Y = 1.1 (for a surface crack).

𝐾𝐼 = 𝜎∞ 𝑌 𝜋𝑎

Mentimeter

39
Exp. #4 Flow through a venturi meter

Bernoulli’s theorem
Manometers

Rotameter
Venturi tube

40
Pitot tube
Volumetric flow rate
Velocity 𝑈1 𝑈2

Pressure 𝑝1 𝑝2

𝑈1 𝑝1 𝑈2 𝑝2
Condition: Open system energy balance
• Horizontal (Bernoulli equation)
• No shaft work 𝑈12 𝑝1 𝑈22 𝑝2
• Adiabatic (not heat transfer) + + 𝑔𝑧1 = + + 𝑔𝑧2
2 𝜌1 2 𝜌2
Assumptions: 𝑧1 = 𝑧2
• Frictionless 𝜌1 = 𝜌2 = 𝜌
• Incompressible 𝑝1 𝑝2 𝑈22 𝑈12 2
− = − 𝑈22 − 𝑈12 = 𝑝1 − 𝑝2
• Steady state 𝜌1 𝜌2 2 2 𝜌
41
Volumetric flow rate measurement by the pressure difference (height)
Velocity 𝑈1 < 𝑈2

Pressure 𝑝1 > 𝑝2

Continuous flow, mass balance

𝐴1 > 𝐴2
𝑚ሶ = 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑈1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑈2
𝐴2 2
𝑄 = 𝐴2 𝑈2 = 𝑝 − 𝑝2
Plug in 𝐴1 𝑈1 = 𝐴2 𝑈2 1 − 𝐴2 /𝐴1 2 𝜌 1
2
𝑈22 − 𝑈12 = 𝑝1 − 𝑝2
𝜌 • Overestimate due to friction
2 • Corrected by a discharge coefficient
(𝐴12 /𝐴22 − 1)𝑈12 = 𝑝1 − 𝑝2
𝜌 Mentimeter 42
Exp. #5 Convection
Expt #5 Expt #6
Thermometer

Cool air
Hot
surface Finned surface Pinned surface

Pitot tube Flow sensor

Thermometer

43
Boundary layer

A boundary layer is the region near a surface where a fluid

property (velocity, temperature, or concentration) gradually
transitions from the surface value to 99% of the free-stream
value.
There are 3 types of boundary layers:
• Velocity Boundary Layer
• The region where fluid velocity increases from zero at
the surface (no-slip condition) to 99% of the free-
stream velocity (U).
• Governs momentum transfer in fluid flow.

• Thermal Boundary Layer

• The region where temperature changes from the
surface temperature to 99% of the free-stream
temperature.
• Governs heat transfer in convection.

• Concentration Boundary Layer (similar, for mass

transfer)
44
Reynolds number
𝑈𝐿
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜈
where 𝜈, U, and L are the fluid kinetic viscosity, and velocity. L is the characteristic length scale of
the system.
Flow over a flat plate turns turbulent when
𝑈∞ 𝑥
𝑅𝑒𝑥 = ≈ 5 × 105
𝜈
U is the free-stream velocity, x is the coordinate and  is the kinematics viscosity.U∞

y
U∞
U∞

Laminar region Transition Turbulent region

region 45
Layer thickness and velocity profile
A laminar boundary layer thickness A turbulent boundary layer thickness
(by Blasius method) (approximately)
5𝑥 0.37𝑥
𝛿= 𝛿=
𝑅𝑒𝑥 0.2
𝑅𝑒𝑥 𝛿
5
𝑦 Empirical velocity profile
Velocity (U) profile 1
𝑈 𝑦 7
=
𝑈 𝛿 U∞
𝑈
y 𝑈∞
U∞
U∞

Laminar region Transition Turbulent region

region 46
No need to memorize
Expt #5Factors Affecting the Boundary Layer in Convection
Fluid Properties
• Viscosity (μ): Higher viscosity → thicker boundary layer.
• Thermal conductivity: Affects thermal boundary layer growth.
• Free-stream velocity (U∞): Higher velocity → thinner boundary layer.
• Reynolds number (Re):
• Low Re → Laminar (smooth flow, thicker boundary layer).
• High Re → Turbulent (increased mixing, thinner thermal layer).

Surface Conditions
• Surface roughness: Increases turbulence, reducing boundary layer thickness.
• Surface temperature: Affects thermal gradients and heat transfer.

Geometry and External Effects

• Curved surfaces: Influence flow separation and boundary layer growth.
• Forced vs. natural convection:
• Forced convection: Boundary layer depends on external velocity.
• Natural convection: Influenced by buoyancy forces.
47
Expt #5

Validate the empirical laws

Pitot tube

U∞

y
U∞
U∞

Laminar region Transition Turbulent region

region 48
Exp. #6 Convective heat transfer
Focusing on how geometry and
Newton’s law of cooling material affect the heat transfer
Nusselt number
ത
𝑞 = ℎ𝐴(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ ) ത
𝑁𝑢 = ℎ𝐿/𝑘
Heat transfer rate Total surface
Plate length
Mean heat transfer coefficient area
Fluid thermal conductivity

T∞

y
T∞
T∞

x
Ts
(assume uniform surface temperature)
49
Exp. #7 Refrigeration cycle

Expt #7

MECH 2310

50
The reversed Carnot cycle is not practical

• It is not a suitable model for

refrigeration cycles since processes
2-3 and 4-1 are not practical:

• Process 2-3 involves the

compression of a liquid–vapor
mixture, which requires a
compressor that will handle two
phases
Do you still remember
the Carnot COPs?
• process 4-1 involves the expansion
of high-moisture-content refrigerant
in a turbine.

51
 Devices in the vapor-Compression Cycle
Throttling is responsible for reducing the pressure and
temperature of the refrigerant before it enters the evaporator. 1. Compressor: Compresses low-temperature,
low-pressure refrigerant vapor into a high-
Outside Inside
temperature, high-pressure vapor, allowing it
to release heat outdoors.
2. Condenser: The hot, high-pressure vapor
rejects heat to the environment, condensing
into a high-pressure liquid.
3. Expansion Valve: Reduces the pressure and
temperature of the liquid refrigerant through
throttling, keeping enthalpy constant.
4. Evaporator: The low-pressure, low-
temperature refrigerant **absorbs heat

wall
52
Devices in the vapor-Compression Cycle

Condenser

Compressor
Evaporator

53
The Ideal Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
The compressor is typically the most expensive
component as a complex piece of machinery that
requires a significant amount of energy to operate,

Compressor

Evaporator Hot Gas Valve

Condenser

Thermal
Expansion Valve
54
 The Ideal Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle

The vapor-compression refrigeration cycle is the ideal model for refrigeration systems.

This is the most widely

used cycle for refrigerators,
AC systems, and heat
pumps.
Condenser

Compressor
The ideal vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle consider 4
components:
Evaporator 1. evaporator,
2. compressor,
3. condenser,
4. expansion (or throttle) valve.

55
 The Ideal Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle

1 2

Room 4 3 Outside

• Unlike the reversed Carnot cycle, the refrigerant is vaporized completely (4-1) to saturated
vapor before it is compressed, and the turbine is replaced with a throttling device.

• It is then cooled to the saturated liquid state in the condenser (2-3). It is then throttled to
the evaporator pressure and vaporizes as it absorbs heat from the refrigerated space.
56
The Ideal Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle

The ideal vapor-compression cycle consists of four processes.

Process Description
1-2 Isentropic compression (compressor)
2-3 Constant pressure heat rejection in the condenser
3-4 Throttling in an expansion valve (constant h)
4-1 Constant pressure heat addition in the evaporator

• The ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle involves an intrinsically

irreversible (throttling) process to represent the actual systems.
• Replacing the expansion valve by a turbine is not practical since the
added benefits cannot justify the added cost and complexity.

57
COPs of Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle

(1-2)
(2-3)
(3-4)

No work input!
(4-1)

In an ideal vapor compression

AC, the only work
consumption part is the
compressor.

The P-h diagram of an ideal vapor-

compression refrigeration cycle.

58
P-h diagram

Specific to a refrigerant

Temperature
Liquid-vapor dome

59
P-h diagram

QL = h1 – h4
QH = h2 – h3
W = h2 – h1
COP: η = QL / W
Isobaric condensation
3 2

Throttling (adiabatic) Saturated

4 1
Isothermal / isobaric evaporation

60