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ICTS Mathematics
115 Teacher Certification Exam

By: Sharon Wynne, M.S

Southern Connecticut State University

XAMonline, INC.
Boston
Copyright © 2007 XAMonline, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may
be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrievable
system, without written permission from the copyright holder.

To obtain permission(s) to use the material from this work for any purpose
including workshops or seminars, please submit a written request to:

XAMonline, Inc.
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Toll Free 1-800-509-4128
Email: [email protected]
Web www.xamonline.com
Fax: 1-781-662-9268
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Wynne, Sharon A.
Mathematics 115: Teacher Certification / Sharon A. Wynne. -2nd ed.
ISBN 978-1-60787-814-8
1. Mathematics 115. 2. Study Guides. 3. ICTS
4. Teachers’ Certification & Licensure. 5. Careers

Disclaimer:
The opinions expressed in this publication are the sole works of XAMonline and
were created independently from the National Education Association,
Educational Testing Service, or any State Department of Education, National
Evaluation Systems or other testing affiliates.

Between the time of publication and printing, state specific standards as well as
testing formats and website information may change that is not included in part or
in whole within this product. Sample test questions are developed by XAMonline
and reflect similar content as on real tests; however, they are not former tests.
XAMonline assembles content that aligns with state standards but makes no
claims nor guarantees teacher candidates a passing score. Numerical scores are
determined by testing companies such as NES or ETS and then are compared
with individual state standards. A passing score varies from state to state.

Printed in the United States of America œ-1

ICTS: Mathematics 115

ISBN: 978-1-60787-814-8
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

About the Subject Assessments

ICTS™: Subject Assessment in the Mathematics examination

Purpose: The assessments are designed to test the knowledge and
competencies of prospective secondary level teachers. The question bank from
which the assessment is drawn is undergoing constant revision. As a result, your
test may include questions that will not count towards your score.

Test Version: There is one version of subject assessment for Mathematics

examination in Illinois. The test emphasizes comprehension in Processes and
Applications; Number Sense and Measurement; Algebraic Patterns, Symbols,
Functions, and Models; Geometric Methods; Probability and Statistics. The
Mathematics examination guide is based on a typical knowledge level of persons
who have completed a bachelor’s degree program in Mathematics.

Time Allowance and Format: You will have 5 hours to complete the test. The
test will consist of 125 multiple-choice questions.

Additional Information about the ICTS Assessments: The ICTS™ series

subject assessments are developed by the National Evaluation Systems. They
provide additional information on the ICTS series assessments, including
registration, preparation and testing procedures, study materials such as topical
guides that have about 32 pages of information including approximately 20
additional sample questions; each single question correlated with a different
requirement.

MATHEMATICS i
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

Table of Contents

pg.
SUBAREA I. PROCESSES AND APPLICATIONS

Competency 01 Understand how to communicate mathematical content and

concepts, and develop and utilize a variety of problem-
solving techniques .................................................................. 1

Competency 02 Understand how to apply appropriate reasoning techniques

to concepts, procedures, and conjectures, and make
connections with and among the various branches of
mathematics and other disciplines .......................................... 3

Competency 03 Understand how to select, integrate, and use appropriate

technologies............................................................................ 4

SUBAREA II. NUMBER SENSE AND MEASUREMENT

Competency 04 Understand the concepts of number, number theory, and

numeration systems................................................................ 5

Competency 05 Understand properties of the real and complex number

systems as they apply to algorithms of operations. ................ 9

Competency 06 Understand Customary, metric and nonstandard

measurement. ......................................................................... 19

Competency 07 Understand procedures for computing or estimating

measures of Multi-dimensional objects ................................... 23

SUBAREA III. ALGEBRAIC PATTERNS, SYMBOLS,

FUNCTIONS, AND MODELS

Competency 08 Understand concepts, representations, and relationships of

variables and patterns ............................................................ 27

Competency 09 Understand and apply concepts and representations of

linear relations and functions .................................................. 34

Competency 10 Understand and apply concepts and representations of

quadratic relations(including conic sections) and functions .... 56

MATHEMATICS ii
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

Competency 11 Understand and apply concepts and representations of

polynomial, absolute value, radical, and rational functions
and inequalities ....................................................................... 60

Competency 12 Understand and apply concepts and representation of

exponential, logarithmic, and trigonometric functions ............. 73

Competency 13 Understand the historical development and applications of

calculus ................................................................................... 93

SUBAREA IV. GEOMETRIC METHODS

Competency 14 Understand properties of points, lines, planes and space and

their relationship to Euclidean and non-Euclidean
geometry ................................................................................. 122

Competency 15 Understand properties of two –and three-dimensional

shapes .................................................................................... 126

Competency 16 Understand and apply spatial visualization skills .................... 157

Competency 17 Understand and apply geometric methods to model

mathematical concepts and solve real-world problems .......... 164

SUBAREA V. PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS

Competency 18 Understand counting techniques and the theory of probability

................................................................................................ 173

Competency 19 Understanding the process of posing questions and

collecting, organizing, and representing data to answer those
questions ................................................................................ 176

Competency 20 Understand the process of analyzing and interpreting data to

Make predictions..................................................................... 184

CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION ..................................................................... 186

ANSWER KEY TO PRACTICE PROBLEMS ......................................................... 192

SAMPLE TEST ....................................................................................................... 196

ANSWER KEY........................................................................................................ 208

RATIONALES FOR SAMPLE QUESTIONS .......................................................... 209

MATHEMATICS iii
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

Great Study and Testing Tips!

What to study in order to prepare for the subject assessments is the focus of this
study guide but equally important is how you study.

You can increase your chances of truly mastering the information by taking some
simple, but effective steps.

Study Tips:
1. Some foods aid the learning process. Foods such as milk, nuts, seeds,
rice, and oats help your study efforts by releasing natural memory enhancers
called CCKs (cholecystokinin) composed of tryptophan, choline, and
phenylalanine. All of these chemicals enhance the neurotransmitters associated
with memory. Before studying, try a light, protein-rich meal of eggs, turkey, and
fish. All of these foods release the memory enhancing chemicals. The better the
connections, the more you comprehend.

Likewise, before you take a test, stick to a light snack of energy boosting and
relaxing foods. A glass of milk, a piece of fruit, or some peanuts all release
various memory-boosting chemicals and help you to relax and focus on the
subject at hand.

2. Learn to take great notes. A by-product of our modern culture is that we

have grown accustomed to getting our information in short doses (i.e. TV news
sound bites or USA Today style newspaper articles.)

Consequently, we’ve subconsciously trained ourselves to assimilate information

better in neat little packages. If your notes are scrawled all over the paper, it
fragments the flow of the information. Strive for clarity. Newspapers use a
standard format to achieve clarity. Your notes can be much clearer through use
of proper formatting. A very effective format is called the “Cornell Method.”

Take a sheet of loose-leaf lined notebook paper and draw a line all the
way down the paper about 1-2” from the left-hand edge.

Draw another line across the width of the paper about 1-2” up from the
bottom. Repeat this process on the reverse side of the page.

Look at the highly effective result. You have ample room for notes, a left hand
margin for special emphasis items or inserting supplementary data from the
textbook, a large area at the bottom for a brief summary, and a little rectangular
space for just about anything you want.

MATHEMATICS iv
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

3. Get the concept then the details. Too often we focus on the details and
don’t gather an understanding of the concept. However, if you simply memorize
only dates, places, or names, you may well miss the whole point of the subject.

A key way to understand things is to put them in your own words. If you are
working from a textbook, automatically summarize each paragraph in your mind.
If you are outlining text, don’t simply copy the author’s words.

Rephrase them in your own words. You remember your own thoughts and words
much better than someone else’s, and subconsciously tend to associate the
important details to the core concepts.

4. Ask Why? Pull apart written material paragraph by paragraph and don’t
forget the captions under the illustrations.

Example: If the heading is “Stream Erosion”, flip it around to read “Why do

streams erode?” Then answer the questions.

If you train your mind to think in a series of questions and answers, not only will
you learn more, but it also helps to lessen the test anxiety because you are used
to answering questions.

5. Read for reinforcement and future needs. Even if you only have 10
minutes, put your notes or a book in your hand. Your mind is similar to a
computer; you have to input data in order to have it processed. By reading, you
are creating the neural connections for future retrieval. The more times you read
something, the more you reinforce the learning of ideas.

Even if you don’t fully understand something on the first pass, your mind stores
much of the material for later recall.

6. Relax to learn so go into exile. Our bodies respond to an inner clock called
biorhythms. Burning the midnight oil works well for some people, but not
everyone.

If possible, set aside a particular place to study that is free of distractions. Shut
off the television, cell phone, pager and exile your friends and family during your
study period.

If you really are bothered by silence, try background music. Light classical music
at a low volume has been shown to aid in concentration over other types. Music
that evokes pleasant emotions without lyrics are highly suggested. Try just about
anything by Mozart. It relaxes you.

MATHEMATICS v
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

7. Use arrows not highlighters. At best, it’s difficult to read a page full of
yellow, pink, blue, and green streaks. Try staring at a neon sign for a while and
you’ll soon see that the horde of colors obscure the message.

A quick note, a brief dash of color, an underline, and an arrow pointing to a

particular passage is much clearer than a horde of highlighted words.

8. Budget your study time. Although you shouldn’t ignore any of the material,
allocate your available study time in the same ratio that topics may appear
on the test.

MATHEMATICS vi
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

Testing Tips:
1. Get smart, play dumb. Don’t read anything into the question. Don’t
make an assumption that the test writer is looking for something else than what is
asked. Stick to the question as written and don’t read extra things into it.

2. Read the question and all the choices twice before answering the
question. You may miss something by not carefully reading, and then re-
reading both the question and the answers.

If you really don’t have a clue as to the right answer, leave it blank on the first
time through. Go on to the other questions, as they may provide a clue as to
how to answer the skipped questions.

If later on, you still can’t answer the skipped ones . . . Guess. The only penalty
for guessing is that you might get it wrong. Only one thing is certain; if you don’t
put anything down, you will get it wrong!

3. Turn the question into a statement. Look at the way the questions are
worded. The syntax of the question usually provides a clue. Does it seem more
familiar as a statement rather than as a question? Does it sound strange?

By turning a question into a statement, you may be able to spot if an answer

sounds right, and it may also trigger memories of material you have read.

4. Look for hidden clues. It’s actually very difficult to compose multiple-foil
(choice) questions without giving away part of the answer in the options
presented.

In most multiple-choice questions you can often readily eliminate one or two of
the potential answers. This leaves you with only two real possibilities and
automatically your odds go to Fifty-Fifty for very little work.

5. Trust your instincts. For every fact that you have read, you subconsciously
retain something of that knowledge. On questions that you aren’t really certain
about, go with your basic instincts. Your first impression on how to answer a
question is usually correct.

6. Mark your answers directly on the test booklet. Don’t bother trying to fill
in the optical scan sheet on the first pass through the test.

Just be very careful not to miss-mark your answers when you eventually
transcribe them to the scan sheet.
7. Watch the clock! You have a set amount of time to answer the questions.
Don’t get bogged down trying to answer a single question at the expense of 10
questions you can more readily answer.
MATHEMATICS vii
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

SUBAREA I. PROCESSES AND APPLICATIONS

Competency 01 Understand how to communicate mathematical content

and concepts, and develop and utilize a variety of
problem-solving techniques.

Successful math teachers introduce their students to multiple

problem solving strategies and create a classroom environment
where free thought and experimentation are encouraged. Teachers
can promote problem solving by allowing multiple attempts at
problems, giving credit for reworking test or homework problems
and encouraging the sharing of ideas through class discussion.
There are several specific problem solving skills with which
teachers should be familiar.

The guess-and-check strategy calls for students to make an initial

guess at the solution, check the answer, and use the outcome of to
guide the next guess. With each successive guess, the student
should get closer to the correct answer. Constructing a table from
the guesses can help organize the data.

Example:

There are 100 coins in a jar. 10 are dimes. The rest are pennies
and nickels. There are twice as many pennies as nickels. How
many pennies and nickels are in the jar?

There are 90 total nickels and pennies in the jar (100 coins – 10
dimes).

There are twice as many pennies as nickels. Make guesses that

fulfill the criteria and adjust based on the answer found. Continue
until we find the correct answer, 60 pennies and 30 nickels.

Number of Pennies Number of Nickels Total Number of

Pennies and Nickels
40 20 60
80 40 120
70 35 105
60 30 90

MATHEMATICS 1
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

When solving a problem where the final result and the steps to
reach the result are given, students must work backwards to
determine what the starting point must have been.

Example:

John subtracted seven from his age, and divided the result by 3.
The final result was 4. What is John’s age?

Work backward by reversing the operations.

4 x 3 = 12;
12 + 7 = 19
John is 19 years old.

MATHEMATICS 2
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

Competency 02 Understand how to apply appropriate reasoning

techniques to concepts, procedures, and conjectures,
and make connections with and among the various
branches of mathematics and other disciplines.

Estimation and testing for reasonableness are related skills

students should employ both before to and after solving a problem.
These skills are particularly important when students use
calculators to find answers.

Example:

Find the sum of 4387 + 7226 + 5893.

4300 + 7200 + 5800 = 17300 Estimation.

4387 + 7226 + 5893 = 17506 Actual sum.

By comparing the estimate to the actual sum, students can

determine that their answer is reasonable.

The questioning technique is a mathematic process skill in which

students devise questions to clarify the problem, eliminate possible
solutions, and simplify the problem solving process. By developing
and attempting to answer simple questions, students can tackle
difficult and complex problems.

Observation-inference is another mathematic process skill that

used regularly in statistics. We can use the data gathered or
observed from a sample of the population to make inferences about
traits and qualities of the population as a whole. For example, if we
observe that 40% of voters in our sample favors Candidate A, then
we can infer that 40% of the entire voting population favors
Candidate A. Successful use of observation-inference depends on
accurate observation and representative sampling.

MATHEMATICS 3
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

Competency 03 Understand how to select, integrate, and use

appropriate technologies

The use of supplementary materials in the classroom can greatly

enhance the learning experience by stimulating student interest and
satisfying different learning styles. Manipulatives, models, and
technology are examples of tools available to teachers.

Manipulatives are materials that students can physically handle

and move. Manipulatives allow students to understand mathematic
concepts by allowing them to see concrete examples of abstract
processes. Manipulatives are attractive to students because they
appeal to the students’ visual and tactile senses. Available for all
levels of math, manipulatives are useful tools for reinforcing
operations and concepts. They are not, however, a substitute for
the development of sound computational skills.

Models are another means of representing mathematical concepts

by relating the concepts to real-world situations. Teachers must
choose wisely when devising and selecting models because, to be
effective, models must be applied properly. For example, a building
with floors above and below ground is a good model for introducing
the concept of negative numbers. It would be difficult, however, to
use the buildIing model in teaching subtraction of negative
numbers.

Finally, there are many forms of technology available to math

teachers. For example, students can test their understanding of
math concepts by working on skill specific computer programs and
websites. Graphing calculators can help students visualize the
graphs of functions. Teachers can also enhance their lectures and
classroom presentations by creating multimedia presentations.

MATHEMATICS 4
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

SUBAREA II. NUMBER SENSE AND MEASUREMENT

Competency 04 Understand the concepts of number, number theory,

and numeration systems.

Prime numbers are numbers that can only be factored into 1 and
the number itself. When factoring into prime factors, all the factors
must be numbers that cannot be factored again (without using 1).
Initially numbers can be factored into any 2 factors. Check each
resulting factor to see if it can be factored again. Continue factoring
until all remaining factors are prime. This is the list of prime factors.
Regardless of what way the original number was factored, the final
list of prime factors will always be the same.

Example: Factor 30 into prime factors.

Divide by 2 as many times as you can, then by 3, then

by other successive primes as required.

2·2·2·2·2·2·2·2·2·2·2·2·2·2·2

Factor 30 into any 2 factors.

5·6 Now factor the 6.

5·2·3 These are all prime factors.

Factor 30 into any 2 factors.

3 · 10 Now factor the 10.

3·2·5 These are the same prime factors
even though the original factors
were different.

Example: Factor 240 into prime factors.

Factor 240 into any 2 factors.

24 · 10 Now factor both 24 and 10.

4·6·2·5 Now factor both 4 and 6.
2·2·2·3·2·5 These are prime factors.

4
This can also be written as 2 · 3 · 5.

MATHEMATICS 5
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

a. A number is divisible by 2 if that number is an even number

(which means it ends in 0,2,4,6 or 8).
1,354 ends in 4, so it is divisible by 2. 240,685 ends in a 5, so it is
not divisible by 2.

b. A number is divisible by 3 if the sum of its digits is evenly

divisible by 3.
The sum of the digits of 964 is 9+6+4 = 19. Since 19 is not divisible
by 3, neither is 964. The digits of 86,514 is 8+6+5+1+4 = 24. Since
24 is divisible by 3, 86,514 is also divisible by 3.

c. A number is divisible by 4 if the number in its last 2 digits is

evenly divisible by 4.
The number 113,336 ends with the number 36 in the last 2
columns. Since 36 is divisible by 4, then 113,336 is also divisible by
4.

The number 135,627 ends with the number 27 in the last 2

columns. Since 27 is not evenly divisible by 4, then 135,627 is also
not divisible by 4.

d. A number is divisible by 5 if the number ends in either a 5 or a 0.

225 ends with a 5 so it is divisible by 5. The number 470 is also
divisible by 5 because its last digit is a 0. 2,358 is not divisible by 5
because its last digit is an 8, not a 5 or a 0.

e. A number is divisible by 6 if the number is even and the sum of

its digits is evenly divisible by 3.
4,950 is an even number and its digits add to 18. (4+9+5+0 = 18)
Since the number is even and the sum of its digits is 18 (which is
divisible by 3), then 4950 is divisible by 6. 326 is an even number,
but its digits add up to 11. Since 11 is not divisible by 3, then 326 is
not divisible by 6. 698,135 is not an even number, so it cannot
possibly be divided evenly by 6.

f. A number is divisible by 8 if the number in its last 3 digits is

evenly divisible by 8.
The number 113,336 ends with the 3-digit number 336 in the last 3
places. Since 336 is divisible by 8, then 113,336 is also divisible by
8. The number 465,627 ends with the number 627 in the last 3
places. Since 627 is not evenly divisible by 8, then 465,627 is also
not divisible by 8.

MATHEMATICS 6
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

g. A number is divisible by 9 if the sum of its digits is evenly

divisible by 9.

The sum of the digits of 874 is 8+7+4 = 19. Since 19 is not divisible
by 9, neither is 874. The digits of 116,514 is 1+1+6+5+1+4 = 18.
Since 18 is divisible by 9, 116,514 is also divisible by 9.

h. A number is divisible by 10 if the number ends in the digit 0.

305 ends with a 5 so it is not divisible by 10. The number
2,030,270 is divisible by 10 because its last digit is a 0. 42,978 is
not divisible by 10 because its last digit is an 8, not a 0.

i. Why these rules work.

All even numbers are divisible by 2 by definition. A 2-digit number

(with T as the tens digit and U as the ones digit) has as its sum of
the digits, T + U. Suppose this sum of T + U is divisible by 3. Then
it equals 3 times some constant, K. So, T + U = 3K. Solving this for
U, U = 3K - T. The original 2 digit number would be represented by
10T + U. Substituting 3K - T in place of U, this 2-digit number
becomes 10T + U = 10T + (3K - T) = 9T + 3K. This 2-digit number
is clearly divisible by 3, since each term is divisible by 3. Therefore,
if the sum of the digits of a number is divisible by 3, then the
number itself is also divisible by 3. Since 4 divides evenly into 100,
200, or 300, 4 will divide evenly into any amount of hundreds. The
only part of a number that determines if 4 will divide into it evenly is
the number in the last 2 places. Numbers divisible by 5 end in 5 or
0. This is clear if you look at the answers to the multiplication table
for 5. Answers to the multiplication table for 6 are all even
numbers. Since 6 factors into 2 times 3, the divisibility rules for 2
and 3 must both work. Any number of thousands is divisible by 8.
Only the last 3 places of the number determine whether or not it is
divisible by 8. A 2 digit number (with T as the tens digit and U as
the ones digit) has as its sum of the digits, T + U. Suppose this sum
of T + U is divisible by 9. Then it equals 9 times some constant, K.
So, T + U = 9K. Solving this for U, U = 9K - T. The original 2-digit
number would be represented by 10T + U. Substituting 9K - T in
place of U, this 2-digit number becomes 10T + U = 10T + (9K - T) =
9T + 9K. This 2-digit number is clearly divisible by 9, since each
term is divisible by 9. Therefore, if the sum of the digits of a
number is divisible by 9, then the number itself is also divisible by 9.
Numbers divisible by 10 must be multiples of 10 which all end in a
zero.

MATHEMATICS 7
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

Prime numbers are whole numbers greater than 1 that have only 2
factors, 1 and the number itself. Examples of prime numbers are
2,3,5,7,11,13,17, or 19. Note that 2 is the only even prime number.

Composite numbers are whole numbers that have more than 2

different factors. For example 9 is composite because besides
factors of 1 and 9, 3 is also a factor. 70 is also composite because
besides the factors of 1 and 70, the numbers 2,5,7,10,14, and 35
are also all factors.

Remember that the number 1 is neither prime nor composite.

The exponent form is a shortcut method to write repeated

multiplication.

The base is the factor. The exponent tells how many times that
number is multiplied by itself.

The following are basic rules for exponents:

=a1 a=
for all values of a; thus 171 17
=b0 1=
for all values of b; thus 240 1
=10n 1=
with n zeros; thus 106 1,000,000

MATHEMATICS 8
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

Competency 05 Understand properties of the real and complex number

systems as they apply to algorithms of operations.

To convert a fraction to a decimal, simply divide the numerator

(top) by the denominator (bottom). Use long division if
necessary.

If a decimal has a fixed number of digits, the decimal is said to

be terminating. To write such a decimal as a fraction, first
determine what place value the farthest right digit is in, for
example: tenths, hundredths, thousandths, ten thousandths,
hundred thousands, etc. Then drop the decimal and place the
string of digits over the number given by the place value.

If a decimal continues forever by repeating a string of digits, the

decimal is said to be repeating. To write a repeating decimal as
a fraction, follow these steps.

a. Let x = the repeating decimal

(ex. x = .716716716... )
b. Multiply x by the multiple of ten that will move the decimal
just to the right of the repeating block of digits.
(ex. 1000 x = 716.716716... )
c. Subtract the first equation from the second.
=
(ex. 1000 x − x 716.716.716... − .716716... )
d. Simplify and solve this equation. The repeating block of
digits will subtract out.
(ex. 999 x = 716 so x = 716 )
999
e. The solution will be the fraction for the repeating decimal.

MATHEMATICS 9
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

The real number properties are best explained in terms of a

small The real number properties are best explained in terms of a
small set of numbers. For each property, a given set will be
provided.

Axioms of Addition

Closure—For all real numbers a and b, a + b is a unique real

number.

Associative—For all real numbers a, b, and c, (a + b) + c = a + (b +

c).

Additive Identity—There exists a unique real number 0 (zero) such

that a + 0 = 0 + a = a for every real number a.

Additive Inverses—For each real number a, there exists a real

number –a (the opposite of a) such that a + (-a) = (-a) + a = 0.

Commutative—For all real numbers a and b, a + b = b +a.

Axioms of Multiplication

Closure—For all real numbers a and b, ab is a unique real number.

Associative—For all real numbers a, b, and c, (ab)c = a(bc).

Multiplicative Identity—There exists a unique nonzero real number

1 (one) such that (1 • a ) = ( a • 1) = a .

Multiplicative Inverses—For each nonzero real number, there exists

a real number 1/a (the reciprocal of a) such that a(1/a) = (1/a)a =
1.

Commutative—For all real numbers a and b, ab = ba.

The Distributive Axiom of Multiplication over Addition

For all real numbers a, b, and c, a(b + c) = ab + ac.

MATHEMATICS 10
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

a. Natural numbers—the counting numbers, 1, 2, 3,...

b. Whole numbers—the counting numbers along with zero,

0,1, 2...

c. Integers—the counting numbers, their opposites, and

zero, ..., −1, 0,1,...

d. Rationals—all of the fractions that can be formed from the

whole numbers. Zero cannot be the denominator. In decimal form,
these numbers will either be terminating or repeating decimals.
Simplify square roots to determine if the number can be written as a
fraction.

e. Irrationals—real numbers that cannot be written as a fraction.

The decimal forms of these numbers are neither terminating nor
repeating. Examples: π , e, 2 , etc.

f. Real numbers—the set of numbers obtained by combining the

rationals and irrationals. Complex numbers, i.e. numbers that
involve i or −1 , are not real numbers.

The Denseness Property of real numbers states that, if all real

numbers are ordered from least to greatest on a number line, there
is an infinite set of real numbers between any two given numbers
on the line.

Example:

Between 7.6 and 7.7, there is the rational number 7.65 in the set of
real numbers. Between 3 and 4 there exists no other natural
number.

MATHEMATICS 11
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

For standardization purposes, there is an accepted order in which

operations are performed in any given algebraic expression. The
following pneumonic is often used for the order in which operations
are performed.

Please Parentheses
Excuse Exponents
My Multiply Multiply or Divide depending on which
Dear Divide operation is encountered first from left
to right.
Aunt Add Add or Subtract depending on which
Sally Subtract operation is encountered first from left
to right.

Inverse Operations

Subtraction is the inverse of Addition, and vice-versa.

Division is the inverse of Multiplication, and vice-versa.
Taking a square root is the inverse of squaring, and vice-versa.

These inverse operations are used when solving equations.

MATHEMATICS 12
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

- In order to add or subtract rational expressions, they must have

a common denominator. If they don't have a common denominator,
then factor the denominators to determine what factors are missing
from each denominator to make the LCD. Multiply both numerator
and denominator by the missing factor(s). Once the fractions have
a common denominator, add or subtract their numerators, but keep
the common denominator the same. Factor the numerator if
possible and reduce if there are any factors that can be cancelled.

1. Find the least common denominator for 6a3b 2 and 4ab3.

These factor into 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ a3 ⋅ b2 and 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ a ⋅ b3 .

The first expression needs to be multiplied by another 2 and b .
The other expression needs to be multiplied by 3 and a 2 .
Then both expressions would be 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ a3= ⋅ b3 12a=
3 3
b LCD.

2. Find the LCD for x 2 − 4, x 2 + 5 x + 6, and x 2 + x − 6 .

x2 − 4 factors into ( x − 2)( x + 2)

x + 5 x + 6 factors into ( x + 3)( x + 2)
2

x2 + x − 6 factors into ( x + 3)( x − 2)

To make these lists of factors the same, they must all be

( x + 3)( x + 2)( x − 2) . This is the LCD.

3.
5 1 5(2a ) 1(3b2 ) 10b 3a2 10b + 3a2
+ = + = + =
6a3 b2 4ab 3
6a3 b 2 (2a ) 4ab3 (3b 2 ) 12a3 b3 12a3 b3 12a3 b3

This will not reduce as all 3 terms are not divisible by anything.

MATHEMATICS 13
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

4.
2 3 7
− 2 + 2 =
x − 4 x + 5x + 6 x + x − 6
2

2 3 7
− + =
( x − 2)( x + 2) ( x + 3)( x + 2) ( x + 3)( x − 2)

2( x + 3) 3( x − 2) 7( x + 2)
− + =
( x − 2)( x + 2)( x + 3) ( x + 3)( x + 2)( x − 2) ( x + 3)( x − 2)( x + 2)

2x + 6 3x − 6 7 x + 14
− + =
( x − 2)( x + 2)( x + 3) ( x + 3)( x + 2)( x − 2) ( x + 3)( x − 2)( x + 2)

2 x + 6 − (3 x − 6) + 7 x + 14 6 x + 26
=
( x + 3)( x − 2)( x + 2) ( x + 3)( x − 2)( x + 2)

This will not reduce.

Try These:

6 2
1. +
x −3 x +7

5 3
2. 2 5
+ 4 3
4a b 5a b

x +3 x −6
3. + 2
x − 25 x − 2 x − 15
2

MATHEMATICS 14
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

Some problems can be solved using equations with rational

expressions. First write the equation. To solve it, multiply each term
by the LCD of all fractions. This will cancel out all of the
denominators and give an equivalent algebraic equation that can
be solved.

1. The denominator of a fraction is two less than three times the

numerator. If 3 is added to both the numerator and denominator,
the new fraction equals 1 2 .

x x +3
original fraction: revised fraction:
3x-2 3x + 1

x +3 1
= 2x + 6 = 3x + 1
3x + 1 2
x =5
5
original fraction:
13

2. Elly Mae can feed the animals in 15 minutes. Jethro can feed
them in 10 minutes. How long will it take them if they work
together?

Solution: If Elly Mae can feed the animals in 15 minutes, then she
could feed 1 15 of them in 1 minute, 2 15 of them in 2 minutes,
x 15 of them in x minutes. In the same fashion, Jethro could feed
x 10 of them in x minutes. Together they complete 1 job. The
equation is:
x x
+ = 1
15 10

Multiply each term by the LCD of 30:

2x + 3 x =
30
x = 6 minutes

MATHEMATICS 15
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

3. A salesman drove 480 miles from Pittsburgh to Hartford. The

next day he returned the same distance to Pittsburgh in half an
hour less time than his original trip took, because he increased
his average speed by 4 mph. Find his original speed.

Since distance = rate x time then time = distance

rate
original time − 1 2 hour = shorter return time

480 1 480
− =
x 2 x+4

Multiplying by the LCD of 2 x ( x + 4) , the equation becomes:

480 2 ( x + 4 )  − 1 x ( x + 4 )  =

480 ( 2 x )
960 x + 3840 − x 2 − 4 x =
960 x
x 2 + 4 x − 3840 =
0
( x + 64 )( x − 60 ) =
0 Either (x-60=0) or (x+64=0) or both=0
x = 60 60 mph is the original speed.
x = 64 This is the solution since the time
cannot be negative. Check your answer
480 1 480
− =
60 2 64
1 1
8− = 7
2 2
1 1
7 =7
2 2

MATHEMATICS 16
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

Try these: (Check your answers in the Answer Key to Practice Set
Problems.)

1. Working together, Larry, Moe, and Curly can paint an elephant

in 3 minutes. Working alone, it would take Larry 10 minutes or
Moe 6 minutes to paint the elephant. How long would it take
Curly to paint the elephant if he worked alone?

2. The denominator of a fraction is 5 more than twice the

numerator. If the numerator is doubled, and the denominator
is increased by 5, the new fraction is equal to 1 2 . Find the
original fraction.

3. A trip from Augusta, Maine to Galveston, Texas is 2108 miles. If

one car drove 6 mph faster than a truck and got to Galveston 3
hours before the truck, find the speeds of the car and truck.

MATHEMATICS 17
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

- To solve an algebraic formula for some variable, called R, follow

the following steps:

a. Eliminate any parentheses using the distributive property.

b. Multiply every term by the LCD of any fractions to write an
equivalent equation without any fractions.
c. Move all terms containing the variable, R , to one side of the
equation. Move all terms without the variable to the opposite side of
the equation.
d. If there are 2 or more terms containing the variable R , factor
only R out of each of those terms as a common factor.
e. Divide both sides of the equation by the number or expression
being multiplied times the variable, R .
f. Reduce fractions if possible.
g. Remember there are restrictions on values allowed for variables
because the denominator can not equal zero.

1. Solve A= p + prt for t . 2. Solve A= p + prt for p .

A−p =prt =A p (1 + rt )
A − p prt A p (1 + rt )
= =
pr pr 1 + rt 1 + rt
A−p A
=t =p
pr 1 + rt

3. A 1 2 h ( b1 + b2 ) for b2
=
A = 1 2 hb1 + 1 2 hb2 ← step a
2A =
hb1 + hb2 ← step b
2 A −=
hb1 hb2 ← step c
2 A − hb1 hb2
= ← step d
h h
2A − hb1
= b2 ← will not reduce
h

Solve:
=
1. F 9 5 C + 32 for C
=
2. A 1 2 bh + h 2
for b
3. S 180 ( n − 2 )
= for n

MATHEMATICS 18
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

Comeptency 06 Understand Customary, metric and nonstandard

measurement.

The strategy for solving problems of this nature should be to

identify the given shapes and choose the correct formulas.
Subtract the smaller cut out shape from the larger shape.

Sample problems:

1. Find the area of one side of the metal in the circular flat washer
shown below:

1. the shapes are both circles.

1
2. use the formula A = π r for both.
1 " 2
2
(Inside diameter is 3 8" )

Area of larger circle Area of smaller circle

A = π r2 A = π r2
A = π (.752 ) A = π (.18752 )
A = 1.76625 in2 A = .1103906 in2

Area of metal washer = larger area - smaller area

= 1.76625 in2 − .1103906 in2

= 1.6558594 in2

MATHEMATICS 19
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

2. You have decided to fertilize your lawn. The shapes and

dimensions of your lot, house, pool and garden are given in the
diagram below. The shaded area will not be fertilized. If each
bag of fertilizer costs $7.95 and covers 4,500 square feet, find the
total number of bags needed and the total cost of the fertilizer.

160 ft.
80 20

50 20
100
25 20
10
180 ft.

Area of Lot Area of House Area of Driveway

A = ½ h(b1 + b2 ) A = LW A = LW
A = ½ (100)(180 + 160) A = (80)(50) A = (10)(25)
A = 17,000 sq ft A = 4,000 sq ft A = 250 sq ft

Area of Pool Area of Garden

A = πr2 A = s2
A = π (10)2 A = (20)2
A = 314.159 sq. ft. A = 400 sq. ft.

Total area to fertilize = Lot area - (House + Driveway + Pool + Garden)

= 17,000 - (4,000 + 250 + 314.159 + 400)
= 12,035.841 sq ft

Number of bags needed = Total area to fertilize

4,500 sq.ft. bag
= 12,035.841
4,500
= 2.67 bags

Since we cannot purchase 2.67 bags we must purchase 3 full bags.

Total cost = Number of bags * $7.95

= 3 * $7.95
= $23.85

MATHEMATICS 20
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

Examining the change in area or volume of a given figure requires

first to find the existing area given the original dimensions and then
finding the new area given the increased dimensions.

Sample problem:

Given the rectangle below determine the change in area if the length
is increased by 5 and the width is increased by 7.

Draw and label a sketch of the new rectangle.

12

11

Find the areas.

Area of original = LW Area of enlarged shape = LW

= (7)(4) = (12)(11)
2 2
= 28 units = 132 units

The change in area is 132 – 28 = 104 units 2 .

MATHEMATICS 21
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

Given a set of objects and their measurements, the use of rounding

procedures is helpful when attempting to round to the nearest given
unit.

When rounding to a given place value, it is necessary to look at the

number in the next smaller place. If this number is 5 or more, the
number in the place we are rounding to is increased by one and all
numbers to the right are changed to zero. If the number is less than
5, the number in the place we are rounding to stays the same and all
numbers to the right are changed to zero.

One method of rounding measurements can require an additional

step. First, the measurement must be converted to a decimal
number. Then the rules for rounding applied.

Sample problem:

1. Round the measurements to the given units.

MEASUREMENT ROUND TO NEAREST ANSWER

1 foot 7 inches foot 2 ft

5 pound 6 ounces pound 5 pounds
5 9 16 inches inch 6 inches

Solution:

Convert each measurement to a decimal number. Then apply the

rules for rounding.

7
1 foot 7 inches = 1 ft = 1.58333 ft, round up to 2 ft
12
6
5 pounds 6 ounces = 5 pounds = 5.375 pound, round to 5 pounds
16
9
5 inches = 5.5625 inches, round up to 6 inches
16

MATHEMATICS 22
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

There are many methods for converting measurements within a

system. One method is to multiply the given measurement by a
conversion factor. This conversion factor is the ratio of:

new units what you want

OR
old units what you have

Sample problems:

1. Convert 3 miles to yards.

3 miles 1,760 yards yards

× =
1 1 mile 1. multiply by
the
conversion
factor
=5,280 yards 2. cancel the
miles units
3. solve

2. Convert 8,750 meters to kilometers.

8,750 meters 1 kilometer km

× =
1 1000 meters 1. multiply by
the
conversion
factor
= 8.75 kilometers 2. cancel the
meters units
3. solve

MATHEMATICS 23
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

Most numbers in mathematics are "exact" or "counted".

Measurements are "approximate". They usually involve interpolation
or figuring out which mark on the ruler is closest. Any measurement
you get with a measuring device is approximate. Variations in
measurement are called precision and accuracy.

Precision is a measurement of how exactly a measurement is

made, without reference to a true or real value. If a measurement is
precise it can be made again and again with little variation in the
result. The precision of a measuring device is the smallest fractional
or decimal division on the instrument. The smaller the unit or fraction
of a unit on the measuring device, the more precisely it can measure.

The greatest possible error of measurement is always equal to one-

half the smallest fraction of a unit on the measuring device.

Accuracy is a measure of how close the result of measurement

comes to the "true" value.

If you are throwing darts, the true value is the bull's eye. If the
three darts land on the bull's eye, the dart thrower is both
precise (all land near the same spot) and accurate (the darts all
land on the "true" value). The greatest measure of error allowed
is called the tolerance. The least acceptable limit is
called the lower limit and the greatest acceptable limit is called
the upper limit. The difference between the upper and lower
limits is called the tolerance interval. For example, a
specification for an automobile part might be 14.625 ± 0.005
mm. This means that the smallest acceptable length of the part
is 14.620 mm and the largest length acceptable is 14.630 mm.
The tolerance interval is 0.010 mm. One can see how it would
be important for automobile parts to be within a set of limits in
terms of length. If the part is too long or too short it will not fit
properly and vibrations will occur weakening the part and
eventually causing damage to other parts.

MATHEMATICS 24
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

Competency 07 Understand procedures for computing or estimating

measures of Multi-dimensional objects.

Cut the compound shape into smaller, more familiar shapes and
then compute the total area by adding the areas of the smaller parts.

Sample problem:

Find the area of the given shape.

5 12

7
8

1. Using a dotted line we have cut the shape into smaller parts that
are familiar.

2. Use the appropriate formula for each shape and find the sum of
all areas.

Area 1 = LW Area 2 = LW Area 3 = ½bh

= (5)(7) = (12)(8) = ½(6)(8)
2 2 2
= 35 units = 96 units = 24 units

Total area = Area 1 + Area 2 + Area 3

= 35 + 96 + 24
2
= 155 units

MATHEMATICS 25
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

It is necessary to be familiar with the metric and customary system in

order to estimate measurements.

Some common equivalents include:

ITEM APPROXIMATELY EQUAL TO_____

METRIC IMPERIAL
large paper clip 1 gram 1 ounce
1 quart 1 liter
average sized man 75 kilograms 170 pounds
1 yard 1 meter
math textbook 1 kilogram 2 pounds
1 mile 1 kilometer
1 foot 30 centimeters
thickness of a dime 1 millimeter 0.1 inches

Estimate the measurement of the following items:

The length of an adult cow = meters

The thickness of a compact disc = millimeters
Your height = meters
length of your nose = centimeters
weight of your math textbook = kilograms
weight of an automobile = kilograms
weight of an aspirin = grams

MATHEMATICS 26
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

SUBAREA III. ALGEBRAIC PATTERNS, SYSTEMS,

FUNCTIONS AND MODELS

Competency 08 Understand concepts, representations, and

relationships of variables and patterns.

A function can be defined as a set of ordered pairs in which each

element of the domain is paired with one and only one element of
the range. The symbol f( x ) is read “f of x.” A letter other than “f”
can be used to represent a function. The letter “g” is commonly
used as in g ( x ) .

Sample problems:

1. Given f ( x ) = 4 x 2 − 2 x + 3 , find f ( − 3) .

(This question is asking for the range value that corresponds to the
domain value of − 3 ).

f( x ) = 4 x 2 − 2 x + 3
f( − 3) = 4( − 3)2 − 2( − 3) + 3 1. Replace x with
-3
f( − 3) = 45
2. Solve.

2. Find f(3) and f(10), given f ( x ) = 7 .

f (x) = 7 1. There are no x

(3) = 7 values
to substitute for.

This is your
answer
f (x) = 7
f10) = 7 2. Same as above.

Notice that both answers are equal to the constant given.

MATHEMATICS 27
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

If f ( x ) is a function and the value of 3 is in the domain, the

corresponding element in the range would be f(3). It is found by
evaluating the function for x = 3 . The same holds true for adding,
subtracting, and multiplying in function form.
−
The symbol f 1 is read “the inverse of f”. The −1 is not an
exponent. The inverse of a function can be found by reversing the
order of coordinates in each ordered pair that satisfies the function.
Finding the inverse functions means switching the place of x and
y and then solving for y .

Sample problem:

1. Find p (a + 1) + 3{p(4a )} if p ( x )= 2 x 2 + x + 1.

Find p (a + 1) .

p (a + 1)= 2(a + 1)2 + (a + 1) + 1 Substitute (a + 1) for x .

p (a + 1)= 2a 2 + 5a + 4 Solve.

Find 3{p(4a )} .

3{p(4a=
)} 3[2(4a )2 + (4a ) + 1] Substitute (4a ) for x ,
multiply by 3.
3{p(4a )} = 96a2 + 12a + 3 Solve.

p (a + 1) + 3{p(4a )}= 2a2 + 5a + 4 + 96a2 + 12a + 3

Combine like terms.

p(a + 1) + 3{p(4a=
)} 98a2 + 17a + 7

MATHEMATICS 28
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

Definition: A function f is even if f ( − x ) = f( x ) and odd if

f ( − x ) = − f( x ) for all x in the domain of f.

Sample problems:

Determine if the given function is even, odd, or neither even nor

odd.

1. f( x ) =x 4 − 2 x 2 + 7 1. Find f ( − x ) .
f( − x ) =( − x )4 − 2( − x )2 + 7 2. Replace x with − x .
f( − x ) =x 4 − 2 x 2 + 7 3. Since f ( − x ) = f( x ) , f(x)
is an even function.
f(x) is an even function.
2. f (=
x ) 3 x 3 + 2x 1. Find f ( − x ) .
f( − x ) 3( − x )3 + 2( − x )
= 2. Replace x with − x .
− −
f(= x) 3 x 3 − 2x 3. Since f ( x ) is not equal
to f ( − x ) , f(x) is not an
even function.
− −
= f( x ) (3 x 3 + 2 x ) 4. Try − f( x ) .
− −
=
f( x ) 3 x 3 − 2x 5. Since f ( − x ) = − f( x ) ,
f(x) is an odd function.
3. g ( x =
) 2x 2 − x + 4 1. First find g ( − x ) .
g ( − x )= 2( − x )2 − ( − x ) + 4 2. Replace x with − x .
g ( − x )= 2 x 2 + x + 4 3. Since g ( x ) does not
equal
g ( − x ) , g(x) is not an
even function.
− −
g(=
x) (2 x 2 − x + 4) 4. Try − g( x ) .
− −
g( =
x) 2x 2 + x − 4 5. Since − g( x ) does not
equal g ( − x ) , g ( x ) is
not an odd function.
g ( x ) is neither even nor odd.

MATHEMATICS 29
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

Systems of quadratic equations can be solved by graphing but this

method is sometimes inconclusive depending on the accuracy of the
graphs and can also be cumbersome. It is recommended that either
a substitution or elimination method be considered.

Sample problems:

Find the solution to the system of equations.

−
y 2 − x2 = 9
1.
2y= x − 3 1. Use substitution method
solving the second equation for
x.
2y= x − 3
=
x 2y + 3 2. Substitute this into the first
equation in place of ( x ).

−
y 2 − (2y + 3)2 = 9 3. Solve.
−
y 2 − (4 y 2 + 12y + 9) = 9
−
y 2 − 4 y 2 − 12y − 9 = 9
− −
3 y 2 − 12y − 9 = 9
−
3 y 2 − 12y =
0 4. Factor.
−
3 y ( y + 4) =
0
−
=
3y 0 =
y +4 0 5. Set each factor equal to zero.
−
=y 0=y 4 6. Use these values for y to
solve for x .

2y =
x −3 2y =
x −3 7. Choose an equation.
−
2(0) =
x −3 2( 4) =
x − 3 8. Substitute.
−
0=x −3 8= x −3
=x 3= x −5 9. Write ordered pairs.

(3,0) and ( − 5, − 4 ) satisfy the system of equations given.

MATHEMATICS 30
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

−
9x 2 + y 2 =
16
2. Use elimination to solve.
5x 2 + y 2 =
30

−
9x 2 + y 2 =
16 1. Multiply second row by
− − −
5x − y =
2
30 2
1.
2. Add.
−
14 x 2 = −14 3. Divide by −14 .
x2 = 1 4. Take the square root of
x = ±1 both sides

−9 (1) + y= − 9 ( −1) + y=
2 2
16 16 5. Substitute both values
− −
9=
+y 16 2
9=
+y 2
16 of x into the equation.
= =
y 2 25 y 2 25 6. Take the square root
y= ±5 y= ±5 of both sides.
(1, ±5) ( −1, ±5) 7. Write the ordered pairs.

(1, ±5 ) and ( -1, ± 5 ) Satisfy the system of

equations

MATHEMATICS 31
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

A rational function is given in the form f ( x ) = p( x ) q( x ) . In the

equation, p( x ) and q( x ) both represent polynomial functions where
q( x ) does not equal zero. The branches of rational functions
approach asymptotes. Setting the denominator equal to zero and
solving will give the value(s) of the vertical asymptotes(s) since the
function will be undefined at this point. If the value of f( x )
approaches b as the x increases, the equation y = b is a
horizontal asymptote. To find the horizontal asymptote it is
necessary to make a table of values for x that are to the right and
left of the vertical asymptotes. The pattern for the horizontal
asymptotes will become apparent as the x increases.

If there are more than one vertical asymptotes, remember to choose

numbers to the right and left of each one in order to find the
horizontal asymptotes and have sufficient points to graph the
function.

Sample problem:

3x + 1
1. Graph f( x ) = .
x −2

x −2 =0 1. Set denominator = 0 to find

x=2 the vertical asymptote.

x f( x ) 2. Make table choosing numbers

3 10 to the right and left of the vertical
10 3.875 asymptote.
100 3.07
1000 3.007 3. The pattern shows that as the
−
1 4 x increases f( x ) approaches
−
10 2.417 the value 3, therefore a horizontal
−
100 2.93 asymptote exists at y = 3
−
1000 2.99

MATHEMATICS 32
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

Sketch the graph.

10

0
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20

-2

-4

-6

MATHEMATICS 33
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

Competency 09 Understand and apply concepts and representations of

linear relations and functions.

Word problems can sometimes be solved by using a system of two

equations in 2 unknowns. This system can then be solved using
substitution, or the addition-subtraction method.

Example: Farmer Greenjeans bought 4 cows and 6 sheep for

$1700. Mr. Ziffel bought 3 cows and 12 sheep for $2400. If all the
cows were the same price and all the sheep were another price,
find the price charged for a cow or for a sheep.

Let x = price of a cow

Let y = price of a sheep

Then Farmer Greenjeans' equation would be: 4 x + 6 y =

1700
Mr. Ziffel's equation would be: 3 x + 12y =2400

To solve by addition-subtraction:
Multiply the first equation by −2 : −2(4 x + 6 y =1700)
Keep the other equation the same: (3 x + 12y = 2400)
By doing this, the equations can be added to each other to
eliminate one variable and solve for the other variable.

−8 x − 12y =
−3400
3 x + 12y =2400 Add these equations.
−5 x =
−1000

= x 200 ← the price of a cow was $200.

Solving for y ,=
y 150 ← the price of a sheep was $150.

MATHEMATICS 34
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

To solve by substitution:

Solve one of the equations for a variable. (Try to make an equation

without fractions if possible.) Substitute this expression into the
equation that you have not yet used. Solve the resulting equation
for the value of the remaining variable.

4 x + 6y = 1700
3 x + 12y = 2400 ← Solve this equation for x .

It becomes= x 800 − 4 y . Now substitute 800 − 4y in place

of x in the OTHER equation. 4 x + 6 y =1700 now becomes:
4(800 − 4 y ) + 6 y =
1700
3200 − 16 y + 6 y = 1700
3200 − 10 y = 1700
−10 y = −1500
y = 150 , or $150 for a sheep.
Substituting 150 back into an equation for y , find x .
4 x + 6(150) =
1700
4 x + 900 =1700
4 x = 800 so x = 200 for a cow.

To solve by determinants:

Let x = price of a cow

Let y = price of a sheep

Then Farmer Greenjeans' equation would be: 4 x + 6 y =

1700
Mr. Ziffel's equation would be: 3 x + 12y =2400

To solve this system using determinants, make one 2 by 2

determinant divided by another 2 by 2 determinant. The bottom
determinant is filled with the x and y term coefficients. The top
determinant is almost the same as this bottom determinant. The
only difference is that when you are solving for x , the x
coefficients are replaced with the constants. Likewise, when you
are solving for y , the y coefficients are replaced with the
a b 
constants. To find the value of a 2 by 2 determinant,  ,
c d 
is found by ad − bc .

MATHEMATICS 35
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
120th Ohio Infantry. He was wounded at Vicksburg, and after joining
his regiment again, fell at Snaggy Point, on the Red River, Louisiana.
But for his untimely death, Colonel Spiegel would have been
promoted to the rank of Brigadier-General, to which he was
recommended by his superior officers.

Max Einstein (b. in Würtemberg, 1822; a. 1844) had considerable

military experience prior to the outbreak of the war. He was a silk
merchant, and became First Lieutenant of the Washington Guards in
1852. In the following year he joined the Philadelphia (Flying)
Artillery Company and was chosen its Captain. He became Aide-de-
Camp (with the rank of Lieutenant-Colonel) to Governor James
Pollock of Pennsylvania in 1856. In 1860 he was elected Brigadier-
General of the Second Brigade of Pennsylvania Militia. In the
succeeding year he organized the 27th Pennsylvania Infantry
Regiment, which was mustered into service May 31, 1861, for a
three years’ term. This regiment, under Colonel Einstein’s command,
succeeded in covering the retreat of the Union Army in the first
battle of Bull Run and won credit by its conduct. Einstein was
subsequently appointed by President Lincoln United States Consul at
Nüremberg, Germany, and later served as United States Revenue
Agent at Philadelphia.

It is worth noting as an example that this one regiment had

nearly thirty Jewish officers, most of them in minor positions, and
about sixty privates in the ranks. This was, of course, an exceptional
case, but Jews were represented in most of the regiments, especially
those of Philadelphia, almost if not quite as much as in the
regiments of those states which sent a larger contingent of Jewish
soldiers to the front than Pennsylvania. The first of those states was
New York, with nearly two thousand, which had already at that time
achieved the distinction of having the largest Jewish community in
the New World. Ohio, which came second, with 1,134, and Illinois,
with 1,076, clearly indicated the growing importance of the Middle
West for the new immigration. Indiana contributed over five hundred
—almost as many as Pennsylvania—while Michigan had more than
two hundred of its Jewish inhabitants in the Union Army. New
England had the smallest representation, for the number of Jews
there was very small at that time.

There was still another Pennsylvania regiment, the 65th (Fifth

Cavalry), known as the “Cameron Dragoons” (on account of its being
recruited under the authority of an order issued by Secretary of War
Simon Cameron (1799–1889) July 6, 1861), which first went to the
front under the command of a Jewish colonel. His name was Max
Friedman (b. in Mühlhausen, Germany, 1825), and he came to the
United States in 1848, settling in Philadelphia. He served as Major of
a Regiment in the State Militia prior to the Civil War. Colonel
Friedman remained with his regiment in the field until a severe
wound received at the battle of Vienna, Virginia, forced him to resign
in the following month. He later (1869) settled in New York as the
cashier of the Union Square National Bank, of which he was one of
the organizers.

Abraham Hart (b. in Hesse-Darmstadt, 1832), who arrived in this

country at the age of eighteen, was a captain in the 73d
Pennsylvania Infantry Regiment, and when Colonel Kolter, under
whom he served, was elevated to the command of a brigade in
General Blenker’s Division of the Army of the Potomac, Captain Hart
was detailed as Adjutant-General of the brigade. Moses Isaac of New
York attained the same rank, that of adjutant-general in the Third
Army Corps of the Army of the Potomac, and participated in the
battles of the Peninsular campaign, subsequently serving under
General Banks. Another New York Jew, of whom little else is known
besides a brief notice by Mr. Wolf (p. 285), was Lieutenant-Colonel
Leopold C. Newman, of the 31st Infantry Regiment of that state,
whose foot was shattered by a cannon ball in the battle of
Chancellorville (May 2, 1863), and he was taken to Washington,
where he died. President Lincoln visited him at his bedside, and
brought along his commission promoting him to the rank of
Brigadier-General.
 While the number of Jewish soldiers was proportionally large,
and many of them became distinguished for bravery and were
promoted to responsible positions, it was in the other branch of the
service, the Navy, in which a member of the Jewish community
attained the highest rank up to that time. Commodore Uriah Phillips
Levy (b. in Philadelphia, 1792; d. in New York, 1862) held the
highest rank in the United States Navy prior to the outbreak of the
Civil War, though his age prevented him from participating in that
struggle. Levy sailed as a cabin boy before he was eleven years old,
and at the age of fourteen he was apprenticed as a sailor, and also
attended a naval school for one year, becoming a second mate four
years later. He soon rose to be first mate, and was master of a
schooner at twenty. While he was on a cruise on the “George
Washington,” of which he was part owner as well as master, a
mutiny took place, his vessel was seized and he was left penniless;
but he managed to return to the United States, and after obtaining
the necessary means, he secured the mutineers, brought them to
the United States and had them convicted.

Levy received his commission from the United States Navy as

sailing master in October, 1812, when the war with England had
already begun. Until June 13 he served on the ship “Alert,” doing
shore duty; then he went on the brig “Argus,” bound for France. The
“Argus” captured several prizes, and Levy was placed in command of
one, but the prize was recaptured by the English, and Levy and the
crew were kept as prisoners for sixteen months in England. In 1816
he was assigned as sailing master to the “Franklin,” and in March,
1817, he was appointed lieutenant in the Navy, which appointment
was confirmed by the Senate.
 Commodore Uriah P. Levy.

Levy had many difficulties in the Navy, partly due to his

promotion from the line, which is never popular among officers who
receive their training at the Naval Academy, and partly, as he himself
and many others thought, on account of his faith and descent. He
fought a duel, in which he killed his opponent, was court-martialed
six times, and finally dropped from the list as captain, to which rank
he had been promoted. He defended his conduct before a court of
inquiry in 1855, which restored him to the navy as captain.
Subsequently he rose to the rank of commodore.

Levy was the descendant of an old Philadelphia family, always

acknowledged his Jewish allegiance, and was one of the charter
members of the Washington Hebrew Congregation. He purchased
Monticello, the home of Thomas Jefferson, whom he greatly
admired, and it is still owned by the family, the present owner being
Congressman Jefferson M. Levy, a nephew of the commodore. A
statue of Jefferson, presented to the government by Uriah P. Levy, is
still standing in the Statuary Hall of the Capitol in Washington. Levy
is buried in the portion of Cypress Hills Cemetery in New York which
belongs to Congregation Shearit Israel (of which another nephew,
Louis Napoleon Levy, a brother of the Congressman, is president),
and on his imposing tombstone is recorded that “he was the father
of the law for the abolition of the barbarous practice of corporal
punishment in the United States Navy.”
 CHAPTER XXVII.
THE FORMATIVE PERIOD AFTER THE CIVIL WAR.
Ebb and flow of immigration between 1850 and 1880—Decrease and practical
stoppage of Jewish immigration from Germany—The breathing spell between
two periods of immigration, and the preparation for the vast influx which was
to follow—The period of great charitable institutions—Organization and
consolidation—The Hebrew Union College and the Union of American Hebrew
Congregations—The Independent Order B’nai B’rith—Other large fraternal
organizations and their usefulness—Important local institutions in New York,
Philadelphia, Chicago, etc.

The number of immigrants arriving in the United States increased

in the middle of the last century, and reached its highest point of
that period in 1854, when the new arrivals numbered 427,833. It
then began to diminish, and fell to about 150,000 in 1860, and to
less than 90,000 in each of the two first years of the Civil War, 1861
and 1862. In the following year it began to rise again, and in the
two last years of the war, when the final outcome was already easily
foreseen in the Old World, it was considerably above the three years
preceding the beginning of the conflict. In 1865 there came 247,453;
in 1867 (when the present system of figuring by the fiscal year,
ending June 30, was adopted) they numbered 298,967, and only a
little less in 1868. In 1869 it rose to 352,569; in 1870 to 387,203.
After a slight relapse in 1871 to 321,350, it rose in 1872 to 404,806
and in 1873 to 459,803, when the current receded again on account
of the slackening of all business activity which followed the panic of
that year. It sank to as low as 138,469 in 1878, rose again to
177,826 in 1879, and to 457,257 in 1880, when the country had fully
recovered from the effects of the panic, as well as from the ravages
of the great struggle.

But while Germans formed a large part of those who arrived in

the two or three decades after the war, the number of Jews who left
that country was now very small, and sank to almost nothing about
1880. What was described by a Jewish traveler 41 as the second
German-Jewish migration to America, which began about 1836, and
to which “Bavaria contributed the largest quota of (Jewish)
immigrants, because of her peculiarly harsh (anti-Jewish) marriage
laws and commercial restrictions,” practically ended in the decade of
the Civil War, when the Jews were emancipated in most of the
German states. The progress made by these immigrants in less than
one generation can be best illustrated by quoting two passages from
the same article by Mr. Kohler: “The early German settlers commonly
arrived here without means, frequently without any education other
than of the most rudimentary character.” Subsequently (p. 102) he
quotes a German-American politician, who wrote in 1869: “The
German Jews in America gain in influence daily, being rich,
intelligent and educated, or at least seeking education. They read
better books than the rest of the Germans....”

This progress was largely accelerated by the great business

activity which followed the war. A large number of the German-
Jewish immigrants amassed wealth, and the stoppage of the arrival
of new poor immigrants, or rather of poor relatives, reduced the
number of the needy and helpless among them to an insignificant
fraction. It may be said that it was during these fifteen years (1865–
80), between the preceding large German-Jewish immigration and
the following incomparably larger Russian-Jewish influx, that the
Jews of the United States succeeded in bringing their communal
house to order, and in preparing for their historic mission of
receiving the great masses which were soon to be driven thither
from the Slavic countries by the iron hand of persecution. Most of
the large charitable institutions, which are the pride of American
Judaism, and have served to relieve want and pain in various forms,
actually date from that period. The date of organization or original
foundation is in most cases much earlier. But at the beginning these
institutions were more like the small charities which are now
founded by poor immigrants. There were very few great Jewish
institutions in the United States prior to the Civil War, although most
of the magnificent organizations in the older communities justly
claim a continued existence from ante-bellum days. The largest
number and the most important of them grew to their imposing size
and vast usefulness in “the seventies,” i. e., in that breathing spell
which the Jews of America had between two periods of immigration.

The tendency to organize, to consolidate and take up the work of

American Judaism in earnest, which characterized that period,
manifested itself in the conferences of the Reform Rabbis, although
as occasions for squabbles about destructive innovations and for
extremely radical declarations, they deserve to be classed as
ephemeral sensationalism rather than events of historical
importance. It was at the third of these conventions, held in
Cincinnati in June, 1871, that it was decided to establish the Hebrew
Union College and to organize the Union of American Hebrew
Congregations. The last named organization, which was founded in
July, 1873, with thirty-four congregations, numbering about 1,800
members, 42 now comprises about two hundred congregations, with
a total membership of nearly twenty thousand, and includes
practically the entire American and Americanized German elements
which are affiliated with Jewish religious institutions. The College,
which was established two years later, has educated nearly one
hundred and fifty American Rabbis, some of whom have attained
eminence as preachers and communal workers.
 Julius Bien.

Principal organizer of the Ind. Order B’nai B’rith.

The Independent Order B’nai B’rith (Sons of the Covenant),

which seems destined to be the great Jewish international
organization of the future, though founded in 1843, did not assume
its commanding position until about a quarter of a century
afterward. It had less than 3,000 members in 1857. Three years
after the close of the Civil War its membership rose to 20,000, which
was probably a larger proportion of the Jewish population of the
country at that time than it ever had before or after. It now has
about 34,000 members, distributed in the seven districts into which
it has divided the United States, and in Germany, Austria and
Roumania, where there are flourishing lodges. A lodge has also
recently been established in England. The guiding spirit of the order
was Julius Bien (b. in Hesse-Nassau, Germany, 1826; d. in New York,
1909), who was its president in the years 1854–57 and 1868–1900.
His successor was Leo N. Levi (b. in Victoria, Tex., 1856; d. in New
York, 1904), who was in turn succeeded by the present incumbent,
Adolf Kraus (b. in Bohemia, 1850; a. 1865), an eminent attorney,
who has resided in Chicago since 1871, where he has served as
President of the Board of Education, Corporation Counsel of the city
and President of the Civil Service Commission.

While no other Jewish fraternal organization succeeded in

accomplishing as much as the B’nai B’rith in communal or charitable
work and in representing general Jewish interests for a number of
years, other organizations of the same kind, which kept more strictly
to the activities for the benefits of their own members, also
originated in that period. They are the Order Brith Abraham
(organized 1859) and its offshoots, the Kesher shel Barzel (founded
1860), the Independent Order Brith Abraham (1887), the Free Sons
of Israel (1849), and the Free Sons of Benjamin (1879). The two
Brith Abraham Orders, the second of which was formed by a
secession from the first, have grown very fast of late years, the
former having about 70,000 members of both sexes and the latter
about twice that number. Like most of the other Jewish orders which
originated later, the bulk of their membership consists of immigrants
of the last period from the Slavic countries. Aside from the pecuniary
benefits which members and their families derive from these
organizations at lower rates than they could have obtained
elsewhere, the educational value of these bodies is also great, for
many obtain there the first glimpse of the systematic working of an
organization which is amenable to its own rules.

As much, if not more, progress was made in that time with the
founding of institutions which are considered as local in their
character, but which in large communities like New York, Philadelphia
or Chicago ultimately helped more people at a larger cost than many
of the national organizations. The United Hebrew Charities of New
York was organized in 1874, two years after the incorporation of the
Home for Aged and Infirm Hebrews. The Mount Sinai Hospital was
originally the Jews’ Hospital (organized 1857), but it was then a
small institution, and its large structure (which was abandoned for a
still larger one in 1901) which first bore the name of Mount Sinai
was erected in 1870. The Hebrew Benevolent Orphan Asylum, which
was organized in its original form in the first quarter of the last
century, had only thirty children, in a rented house, in 1860. Its first
building, on the corner of Third avenue and Seventy-seventh street,
was erected in 1862, and its magnificent structure on Amsterdam
avenue more than twenty years afterwards. The Hebrew Sheltering
Guardian Orphan Asylum Society was organized in 1879. The
Hebrew Free School Association, which gave the impetus to the
organization in later years of important educational institutions, like
the Hebrew Technical Institute, the Technical School for Girls, and
ultimately also to the Educational Alliance (originally The Hebrew
Institute, organized 1891), originated in that period and existed until
about 1899. The Young Men’s Hebrew Association was organized in
1874.

Philadelphia likewise enjoyed much communal activity in that

formative period of American-Jewish history. The first Jewish
theological seminary in America, Maimonides College, was opened
there in 1867 and existed for six years. The Hebrew Education
Society, which was organized in 1848 and opened its school with
twenty-two pupils in 1851, opened a second school in the vestry
room of the Bene Israel Synagogue on Fifth street in 1878, and a
third school on the northwest corner of Marshall street and Girard
avenue in 1879. The first Jewish Hospital Association of that city was
incorporated in 1865. The Jewish Maternity Association was founded
in 1873. The Jewish Foster Home, which erected its first small
building in 1855, was organized in its present form in 1874, since
which time it has become one of the most important communal
institutions there. The Young Men’s Hebrew Association was
organized in 1875, a year later than the one in New York.

The first Jewish Hospital in Chicago was erected on Lasalle

avenue in 1868. It was destroyed by the great fire of 1871, and
eight years later the funds which made possible the erection of the
Michael Reese Hospital were donated for that purpose. The United
Hebrew Charities of Chicago, originally the United Hebrew Relief
Association, was organized in 1859, and changed its name later. The
United Hebrew Charities of St. Louis was organized in 1875.
 CHAPTER XXVIII.
NEW SYNAGOGUES AND TEMPLES. IMMIGRATION
FROM RUSSIA PRIOR TO 1880.
Continued increase in the wealth and importance of the German-Jewish
congregations—New and spacious synagogues and temples erected in various
parts of the country in the “sixties” and the “seventies”—Problems of Russian-
Jewish immigration prior to 1880—Economic condition of the Jewish masses
in Russia worse in the “golden era” than under Nicholas I.—Emigration from
Russia after the famine of 1867–68 and after the pogrom of Odessa in 1871—
Presumption of the existence of a Hebrew reading public in New York in 1868
—The first Hebrew and Yiddish periodicals.

The charitable institutions which were founded or enlarged in this

period were not the only indication of the improved and settled
condition of the Jews who came here in the preceding half century.
These institutions were later to be even more enlarged, and
numerous others were to be established to meet the demands made
upon them in the following quarter century. It is to the synagogues
or temples which date from these times that we have to turn in
order to gain a true conception of the general condition of the Jews.
In this respect there is a striking similarity between the condition of
the Sephardim at the beginning of the nineteenth century and the
German Jews at the end of its third quarter. In both cases the
numerical growth almost stopped with the cessation of immigration
from the home country. The small number of arrivals and the natural
increase were barely enough to replace the losses through death
and through estrangements which were caused by outright
defections or by the slower process of mixed marriages. And just as
the Spanish and Portuguese element in American Judaism, which
had barely held its own after the suspension of the Inquisition,
permitted the surviving Marranos to remain where they were, and
improved conditions in Western Europe obviated the necessity of the
Sephardim of Holland, France or England looking for new homes, so
did the much larger and more active German element practically
stop growing numerically after the emancipation of the Jews in the
German States. The number of Jews who arrived here from
Germany after 1880 is insignificant, and the same may be said of the
relative number of German-Jewish synagogues which were
established after that time.

As a matter of fact the formation of German congregations

stopped several years earlier. The better cohesiveness and discipline
among the Americanized Jews made splits a very rare occurrence.
Only in large cities the removal of many members of a congregation
too far from the location of its synagogue caused the formation of
new congregations, consisting mostly of members of older bodies,
with some accessions of immigrants from the Slavic countries. In the
smaller cities there is even now only one German-American
congregation, usually dating from before the Civil War or from the
decade following it. In the larger cities there may be several of them
of about the same age, except in some communities, like Charleston.
S. C., where the Spanish and the Germans are fused in the one
Reform congregation, or in New York, where each section of the
community is sufficiently large to have several congregations of its
own.

It is therefore not to the increase in the number of German-

Jewish congregations, but to their increase in wealth and
importance, as demonstrated by the increase in the size and
splendor of the synagogues and temples, that we have to look for
proof of the great progress which was made in that period. The
most representative congregations of New York have been described
in the preceding parts of this work. In Philadelphia a new, spacious
synagogue of its oldest congregation, Mickweh Israel, was dedicated
in 1860, and the new beautiful temple of the Congregation Rodef
Shalom, “one of the earliest German-Jewish congregations in
America,” was built in 1870. Kehillah Anshe Maarab of Chicago had
its first large synagogue ready (converted from a church) in 1868.
The second oldest congregation, Bene Shalom, erected its first
temple, on the corner of Harrison street and Fourth avenue, in 1864,
“at that time the handsomest Jewish house of worship in Chicago.”
The third eldest, Sinai Congregation, purchased the site of its temple
in 1872 (after the fire of 1871 had destroyed its former house of
worship), and the structure was finished four years later. In distant
California, Temple Emanuel, of San Francisco, was dedicated in
1866. In the District of Columbia (Washington) the first synagogue
was dedicated in 1863 and the second in 1873. The old congregation
of Savannah, Ga., erected a new and much larger synagogue in
1876.

Temple Achdut we-Shalom of Evansville, Ind., which was erected

in 1856, was replaced by a more costly one in 1874. In Indianapolis,
the capital and largest city of that state, a new temple was
dedicated in 1868, about three years after the cornerstone was laid.
The first temple of the Congregation Adath Israel of Louisville, Ky.,
was finished in 1868; about three years later congregations were
organized in Owensboro and Paducah, in the same state. Temple
Sinai of New Orleans, La., of which Dr. Maximilian Heller (b. in
Prague, Bohemia, 1860), has been rabbi since 1887, dates from
1870. In Monroe, in the same state, a congregation was organized in
that year, and in Shreveport, La., several years before. The
synagogue of the Baltimore Hebrew Congregation, which was
erected in 1845, was enlarged in 1860, while the “Chizzuk
Amoonah,” which seceded from it in 1871, erected its synagogue on
Lloyd street five years later.

The older synagogues of both Boston, Mass., and Detroit, Mich.,

date from the same period. Mount Zion Congregation of St. Paul,
Minn., was founded in 1871. Meridian, Natchez, Port Gibson and
Vicksburg, in the State of Mississippi, have synagogues which
originated within the decade of the war. The same is true of Kansas
City, St. Joseph and St. Louis, in Missouri, and of Temple Israel of
Omaha, Neb. The first houses of worship of Hoboken and Jersey
City, N. J., were established about 1870, while in the largest city of
that state, Newark, the synagogue (built 1858) of the Congregation
B’nai Jeshurun (organized 1848) was replaced by an imposing
temple which was dedicated in 1868.

In the State of New York, outside of its chief city, the same can
be seen. The first considerable synagogue of Albany, that of
Congregation Beth El, was erected in 1865. The first congregation of
Buffalo, organized in 1847, built its own synagogue in 1874. In both
of these cities, like in many others, larger and more costly temples
were erected later; but there was much less wealth in the country in
general after the Civil War, and a building costing fifty thousand
dollars which was erected in the “sixties” or the “seventies”
represented perhaps a further advance from preceding times than
one three times as costly indicated in the “nineties.” In some
instances, like that of Rochester, where the first Jewish community
was organized in 1848, the purchase of a spacious church building
early in its career (1856) postponed the necessity of a large edifice
until later. It was not until Rabbi Max Landsberg (b. in Berlin, 1845;
a. 1871) had been with the Congregation “Berith Kodesh” of
Rochester for nearly a quarter century that the present fine temple
was erected (1894). In other communities divisions or splits made it
impracticable to build large houses of worship until a later time; so
we find that in Syracuse, where the first religious organization was
formed in 1841, and the first synagogue was opened in 1846, a
building erected in 1850 sufficed for the needs of the congregation
more than half a century afterwards. This was because a new
congregation was formed in 1854; another secession took place in
1864 and one more congregation was founded in 1870. Brooklyn, on
account of its proximity to New York City, could not develop a really
independent communal life until it had a very large Jewish
population, and in some respects has not done so even yet. The
Keap Street Synagogue, which dates from the period which we deal
with in this chapter, was the largest of its kind in the city for many
years.

The marked diminution or practical cessation of Jewish

immigration from Germany by no means meant a stoppage of Jewish
immigration. There was a steady flow of immigration from Russia,
which, beginning with the exodus from Russian-Poland of 1845 (see
above, page 189), has actually never ceased until this day, although
it did not assume the immense proportions of the last thirty years.
The “Aufruf” on behalf of the Russian-Jewish refugees, which Rabbi
S. M. Schiller (Schiller-Szinessy, b. in Alt-Ofen, Hungary, 1820; d. in
Cambridge, England, 1890) published in the Orient for 1846 (pp. 67–
68), is a sufficient indication of the comparative antiquity of a
problem which many suppose never arose until after the anti-Jewish
riots in 1881. What is even less known in Western countries is that
the economic condition of the Jews in Russia was much worse in the
so-called “golden period” under Czar Alexander II. (1818–81) than
under his more despotic predecessor. There was a popular saying
among the Russian-Jews at that time—when it could not have
occurred to anybody that these years of starvation would later be
considered a golden age—that Czar Nicholas I. (1796–1855) wanted
the persons of the Jews but left them their goods, while his son was
less concerned about the persons, but despoiled them of their
goods. This allusion to the passage in the Pentateuch (Gen. 14.21),
in which the king of Sodom says to Abraham “Give me the persons
and take the goods to thyself,” meant that Nicholas, who first began
to enroll Jews in the Russian army and attempted to convert as
many Jews to Christianity as possible, afforded the Jews in general
better opportunities to earn a living than the more liberal Alexander.
The fact that no proper provision was made for the Jews in the re-
adjustment which followed the emancipation of the serfs, and that
even the slight concessions, like the permission to skilled artizans to
live outside of the “Pale of Settlement,” were never carried out
honestly, is at the bottom of much of the Jews’ trouble there.
 In less than five years after the emancipation of the Russian serfs
there came a crisis, occasioned by the hard times which followed the
crop failure of 1867, which caused “a state of distress in East Prussia
and a famine on the other side of the border.” 43 The Jews of
Germany did much to alleviate the distress of the large number of
Russian Jews who lived at that time in East Prussia, and also to send
relief to the needy co-religionists of Western Russia. But then, as
now, the suffering was too widespread and the general condition too
hopeless to be relieved by almsgiving, and the result was an exodus
of considerable magnitude. This new exodus was treated in a series
of articles in the Allgemeine Zeitung des Judenthums of 1869
entitled “Auswanderung der Juden aus den Westrussischen
Prowinzen” (Emigration of Jews from the provinces of Western
Russia). M. Anatole Leroy-Beaulieu (in his Les Immigrants juifs et le
Judaisme aux Etats-Unis, Paris, 1905, p. 5) tells of 500 Jewish
emigrants from Russian-Poland which the Alliance Israelite
Universelle sent to the United States in 1869 from the famine
stricken districts. The great anti-Jewish riot in Odessa on Passover,
1871, which shattered the hope of the Jews for emancipation in the
then near future, and marked the beginning of the reaction which
culminated in the reign of the following Czar, was also followed by
considerable emigration of Jews. Many remained in Prussia, which
was yet open for Russian subjects; but a large number proceeded to
the United States, or went there after remaining for some time in
England.

The Jewish population of the United States, and especially of the

City of New York, was therefore constantly increasing, though
neither the number of Jews nor the relative proportion as to country
of origin is possible to ascertain for that time. Judge Daly (p. 56)
quotes Joseph A. Scovil, author of “Old Merchants of New York” as
saying (in 1868), “There are now 80,000 Israelites in this city, and it
is the high standard of excellence of the old Israelite merchant of
1800 that has made the race occupy the proud position it now holds
in this city and in the nation.” Daly himself thought the number to be
somewhat smaller. He says (p. 58), “The Jews have now (1872) in
New York twenty-nine synagogues, and as a proportional part of the
population they are now estimated at about 70,000.”

Whether the lower estimate or the higher is nearer the truth, it is

clear that there were already in New York a large number of Jews,
and that a considerable portion of them were from Russia. A rare
little volume in rabbinical Hebrew, entitled Emek Rephaim, against
the heresy of the Reform Jews, which was published by the author,
Elijah Holzman, a shochet from Courland, in New York, in 1868, is a
good indication that there were already here at that time a sufficient
number of readers of that language to warrant the publication of a
work of that nature. As only the intellectual aristocracy among the
Jews of the Slavic countries reads Hebrew and a large majority of
the Russian-Jewish immigrants of that period belonged to the
poorest and most ignorant classes, the belief in the existence of a
Hebrew reading public, even if it proved to be a mistaken one,
implies the presence of a large number of Russians.

The first attempts to establish periodicals for this public soon

followed. Hirsch Bernstein (b. in Wladislavov or Neustadt-Schirwint,
government of Suwalki, 1846; d. in Tannersville, New York, 1907)
arrived in New York in 1870, and in the same year established the
first Judaeo-German or Yiddish paper, and also the first periodical
publication in the Neo-Hebraic language in the United States. The
Yiddish publication, called “The Post,” had a brief existence; but the
second, ha-Zofeh be’ Erez ha-Hadashah, of which Mordecai ben
David Jalomstein (b. in Suwalki, 1835; a. 1871; d. in New York,
1897) was editor for most of the time, appeared weekly for more
than five years. His brother-in-law, Kasriel H. Sarasohn (b. in Paiser,
Russian-Poland, 1835; d. in New York, 1905), who arrived in the
United States in 1866, and settled in New York, founded there, in
1874, the weekly “Jewish Gazette,” which, with its daily edition, the
Jewish Daily News (established 1886), later became the most
prosperous Jewish periodical publications in any country. Jalomstein
was the principal contributor to these publications for about twenty
years. Another Yiddish weekly, the Israelitische Presse, was founded
in Chicago in 1879, by Nachman Baer Ettelson and S. L. Marcus. It
had a Hebrew supplement, and existed for several years. The Jewish
press in general will be treated in a later chapter; but it deserves to
be mentioned here that some of the best representative Jewish
papers of the country, like the American Hebrew of New York and
the Jewish Exponent of Philadelphia (both founded in 1879) and the
Jewish Advance of Chicago (founded 1878; existed about four years)
contributed to place the Jews of the country in the proper condition
for the reception of the large number of persecuted Jews which
were soon to arrive.

Kasriel H. Sarasohn.
 PART VI.

THE THIRD OR RUSSIAN

PERIOD OF IMMIGRATION.

CHAPTER XXIX.
THE INFLUX AFTER THE ANTI-JEWISH RIOTS IN
RUSSIA IN 1881.
The country itself is well prepared for the reception of a larger number of Jewish
immigrants—Absence of organized or political Antisemitism—Increase in
general immigration in 1880 and 1881—Arrival of the “Am Olam”—Imposing
protest meetings against the riots in Russia—Welcome and assistance—Emma
Lazarus—Heilprin and the attempts to found agricultural colonies—Herman
Rosenthal—Failures in many States—Some success in Connecticut and more in
New Jersey—Woodbine—Distribution—Industrial workers and the new
radicalism.
 The favorable economical and political conditions of the country
itself were, however, the best preparation for the reception of a
larger number of Jewish immigrants from Russia, who came as the
result of the greatest Jewish migration since the exodus from Egypt.
The strong congregations, the well-organized charities and the
considerable number of wealthy Jews who were able and willing to
assist the refugees, as well as the numerous able, energetic and
tireless workers who did their best to alleviate the sufferings of the
new arrivals and to help them to find their way in the new
surroundings—all these were necessary and to some degree
indispensable to solve as much of the problem as circumstances
would permit. But all would have been useless if there was not room
for new immigrants to settle here, and work for them to do. It would
also have been well nigh impossible to take full advantage of the
opportunities which this country offers to willing workers, were it not
for the absence of that organized or official anti-Semitism which is
found in one form or another in almost all civilized countries outside
of the English-speaking world. Individual instances of social
antipathy and personal dislike, or even hatred, of Jews, were not
rare in the United States, at that period or at any other. But the Jew
baiter was never encouraged, or even approved, by the all-powerful
public opinion of the country at large; sympathy for the suffering
Jew was easily aroused, and those who pleaded the cause of the
victim of persecution were not hampered by open opposition or by
covert political influences.

There was a sudden increase in immigration in the two years

preceding the Russian influx. The country was recovering from the
panic of 1873 and from the effect of the contraction of the currency
which was incident to the resumption of specie payment by the
government at the beginning of 1879. The number of immigrants
who came here in 1876 was 169,986; in 1877 it fell to 141,857; in
1878 to 138,469. There was a slight rise in 1879 to 177,826; but in
1880 it jumped to 457,257 and in 1881 (in the fiscal year ending
June 30, when there was as yet no increased immigration from
Russia on account of the riots) to 669,431. The people who came
were needed, as is the case with the million or more who had come
here in the three years preceding the panic of 1907 and again in the
last two or three years, which is proven by the fact that they are
easily absorbed. Not only the general conditions, but even the times,
were favorable for an increased Jewish immigration. There was
neither economic nor national or racial cause for abstaining from
giving those who fled from the pogroms the best public and open-
hearted welcome that Jewish refugees ever received when coming in
masses from one country to another.

The first of the anti-Jewish riots of that period took place in

Yelisavetgrad, on April 27, 1881. Another outbreak in Kiev followed
on May 8, and there were “over 160 towns and villages in which
cases of riot, rapine, murder and spoliation have been known to
occur during the last nine months of 1881” (Joseph Jacobs,
“Persecution of the Jews in Russia, 1881,” p. 13). These riots, and
the relief which was afforded to its victims, and especially to those
who left Russia by way of Germany and Austria, have created a
small literature of their own; but the subject in general belongs
rather to the history of the Jews in Russia than to the present work,
which can only be concerned with the emigrants after their arrival
here. The first to arrive as a direct result of the riots, and among
whom the new tendencies which were called forth by the calamities
were prevalent to an appreciable degree, were included in a group
of about 250 members of the “Am Olam” (“Eternal People”) Society
which came to New York July 29, 1881.

Unlike the time of the Damascus affair in 1840 (see above,

p. 193), the Jews of America not only took the leading part in
arousing public opinion against the outrages, but they could do
much more than enlist the sympathies of their non-Jewish fellow-
citizens: they collected money to aid the sufferers and bade them
welcome to these shores. A call for “A meeting of the citizens of New
York without distinction of creed, to be held on Wednesday evening,
February 1st, 1882, ... for the purpose of expressing their sympathy
with the persecuted Hebrews in the Russian Empire,” was signed by
about seventy-five of the most prominent non-Jewish citizens of New
York, headed by ex-President U. S. Grant. The memorable meeting
was held in Chickering Hall, and was presided over by Mayor William
R. Grace; it was addressed by distinguished men in various walks of
life, including three Christian clergymen, and had a marked effect on
public opinion. It was on the same day that a similar meeting, at
which the Lord Mayor presided, was held in London, at the Mansion
House. Two weeks later (February 15) a meeting of the same nature
with the same excellent moral result was held in Philadelphia, where
four clergymen, two of them Protestant Bishops and one
representing the Roman Catholic Archbishop, were among the
speakers. The Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society collected over
$300,000 for the new arrivals, and nearly two-thirds of that sum was
contributed by residents of this country, the balance coming from
Germany, England and France. Some groups of immigrants were
given a public welcome; temporary quarters were built for their
accommodation on Ward’s Island and at Greenpoint, L. I., where
several thousand were housed and maintained until they found
employment.

Emma Lazarus.
 There was one other voice raised at that time in behalf of the
Jew and of Judaism, only to be prematurely silenced forever a few
years afterwards. The most gifted poet which American Jewry has
produced, Emma Lazarus (b. in New York 1849; d. there 1887) was
aroused, and her noble spirit reached its full height, by the stirring
events of the martyrdom of the Russian Jew. Like so many other
intelligent Jews in various countries, Emma Lazarus, the daughter of
an old Sephardic family of social position, the friend of Emerson and
other noted literary men, was up to that time mainly interested in
general and classic subjects, and devoted to them her poetical and
literary talents. “She needed a great theme to bring her genius to
full flower, and she found that theme in the Russian persecution of
1881.... Her poetry took on a warmer, more human glow; it thrilled
with the suffering, the passion, the exaltation of a nation of the
Maccabees.” 44 Her family, though nominally Orthodox, had hitherto
not participated in the activities of the synagogue or of the Jewish
community. But contact with the unfortunates from Russia led her to
study the Bible, the Hebrew language, Judaism and Jewish history.
She suggested, and in part saw executed, plans for the welfare of
the immigrants. The fruit of her latter literary activity include “Songs
of the Semite” (1882); “An Epistle to the Hebrews”; poems like “The
Banner of the Jew,” “The New Ezekiel,” and “By the Waters of
Babylon: Little Poems in Prose” (1887), her last published work. A
collection of her works, in two volumes, appeared after her death
(1889), and in 1903 a bronze tablet commemorative of her was
placed inside the pedestal of the Statue of Liberty in New York
harbor. (See Jewish Encyclopedia, s.v. Lazarus, Emma, by Miss
Henrietta Szold.)

The number of those who received direct assistance was only a

small fraction of the arrivals from Russia at that time. According to
the opinion of the author of the article United States in the “Jewish
Encyclopedia,” “The various committees and societies assisted about
five per cent. of the total Jewish immigrants.” One of the most active
and self-sacrificing of the workers for the refugees, Michael Heilprin,
who was himself brought up under the influence of the Haskalah
movement, was, like all Maskilim of the old school, a strong believer
in the theory that the Jewish problem was to be solved by inducing
or helping the Jews to become agriculturists. Many of the
immigrants who belonged to the class described as Intellectuals or
Intelligents, whose dreams of political liberty and assimilation in
Russia were shattered by the pogroms, also entertained fantastic
notions about the virtue of agriculture. They fell in with all
colonization plans, for which they had more enthusiasm than natural
aptitude, and this gave rise to a series of experiments in the
colonizing of Russian immigrants, none of which were immediately
successful, though it contributed to the inception of a small class of
Jewish farmers which is slowly growing in the United States, and in
which many see considerable promise for the future.

Herman Rosenthal.

Photo by Schill, Newark, N. J.

The first Jewish agricultural colony of that period was founded on

Sicily Island, Catahoula Parish, Louisiana. The settlers, including
thirty-five families from Kiev and twenty-five from Yelisavetgrad, had
been partly organized in Russia. Its leading spirit was Herman
Rosenthal (b. in Friedrichstadt, Courland, 1843; a. 1881), who is
now chief of the Slavonic department of the New York Public Library.
Before the colony was fairly started it was literally swept away by an
overflow of the Mississippi in the spring of 1882, and the colonists
scattered; a few of them, however, settling as independent farmers
in Kansas and Missouri. In July, 1882, Rosenthal headed another
group of twenty families which formed the colony Cremieux, in
Davison county, in the present State of South Dakota. It led a
precarious existence for about three years and was finally
abandoned. Another attempt, which was made by the Alliance
Israelite Universelle, with the formation of a colony surnamed
“Betlehem Yehudah,” in the same region, was no more successful.
Colonies founded in the same year in Colorado and Oregon met with
no better fate. The colonies founded in North Dakota (one), in
Kansas (five), in Michigan (one), and in Virginia (two) remain but
memories. Those founded later in Connecticut were more successful,
and some of them are still in existence and even growing. The most
successful were those established in New Jersey, where four of the
nine which were founded there since 1882 are still in existence and,
considering the drawbacks of such enterprises, are in a flourishing
condition. They are: Alliance, Salem county, founded by the Alliance
Israelite in 1882; Carmel, Cumberland county, founded by the aid of
Michael Heilprin in the same year; Rosenhayn, in the same county,
which owes its origin to six families which were settled there by the
Hebrew Emigrant Aid Society of New York in 1883; and Woodbine,
Cape May county, which was founded by the trustees of the Baron
de Hirsch Fund in 1891, and is the largest as well as the most
thriving of all Jewish colonies in America. Woodbine now has over
two thousand inhabitants, and is an incorporated borough with a
government of its own, which was instituted in 1903, with Professor
Hirsch Loeb Sabsovich (b. in Berdyansk, Russia, 1860; a. 1888), the
former superintendent of The Baron de Hirsch Agricultural and
Industrial School of that place, as the first Mayor. He was succeeded
by M. L. Bayard, who is likewise a native of Russia.
 While the assistance rendered to the needy immigrants, and the
large sums expended in the formation of colonies and in supporting
them, attracted the most attention, a larger number were effectively
helped by being distributed over various parts of the country where
they could engage in trade or find work for which they were much
better fitted than for farming. The largest number received little, if
any, assistance, except such as was rendered by their relatives or
countrymen whom they found here. The least successful and those
who became helpless or dependent from various causes were
assisted by the old charitable institutions, which were enlarged or
strengthened by the new demands made upon them, and by new
ones which sprang up everywhere as the occasion required. But the
bulk of the new comers succeeded remarkably well, and many of
them were soon in a position to assist those who came after them,
and to contribute to charities from which they received assistance
but a short time before, or to found new charitable institutions which
were conducted in a manner more suitable to the character of the
immigrants.

The number of applicants to Jewish charitable institutions was

increasing, and so was the number of people who crowded the
districts in the larger cities where Jews live together. But in both
cases there was going on a continual change, due to the steady
inflow of new immigrants, on the one hand, and on the other to the
steady rising in the social and economic scale, and the continued
departure to other and better neighborhoods or to other cities. The
same people did not apply for charity or dwell in tenement houses
long. They soon made room for those who came after them, and
what seemed to the superficial observer a solid, unmovable mass of
poverty and helplessness which presented a very difficult problem,
was in reality in a state of constant flux. This transient, fleeting mass
slowly spread over the country, until we find communities of Jewish
immigrants practically in every city in the Union, and hardly a place
without some individuals of that class. Most of those Jewish
immigrants living in smaller places, as well as almost all of them who
live in more comfortable quarters in the large cities or their suburbs,
passed through the tenement house districts or the so-called
“Ghetti”; which proves that the distribution considered by some as a
desirable process which must be artificially accelerated, is actually
being accomplished by the free movement of individuals and is
hardly noticed.

The number of those who remained, though temporarily, in the

congested centers of population, especially in New York, was very
large, and was constantly becoming larger, because more
immigrants came in each year than the number of those who left
those centers. This mass was hardly affected by the small
withdrawals from it for the purpose of colonization. It was too large
and was replenished too fast to be able to disperse as small traders
over the country or to go in business even on a small scale in the
cities, as did the smaller number of Jewish immigrants who came in
the former periods. And so, after all deductions are made, including
those who went to become farmers and those who went to become
peddlers, of those whose intelligence and the learning which they
brought with them enabled them, sometimes with a little aid, to
pursue their studies; and those whose business acumen or the small
capital which they brought, enabled them to engage in trade and to
prosper in a short time—after all these deductions, there remained a
very large class, steadily increasing by the excess of arrivals over
departures, which could do the only thing which poor people can do
in a country where capital is abundant and industries flourish—go to
work. The Jewish immigrants soon began to fill the factories and the
shops, especially those of the clothing trade, which was then to a
certain extent already in Jewish hands. The trades to which they
flocked began to extend fast; immigrant workers themselves soon
ventured to open small shops, where they employed those who
came after them. While wages were comparatively small and
“sweating” was common, the earnings were so much above what
the poor man can make in Russia, and the standard of living so
much higher than the one to which the laborer is accustomed over
there, that even those who worked under what an American would
consider the worst circumstances, soon saved enough money to
begin sending for their families, their relatives, and even their
friends. The great mass was solving its own problem by hard work
and by thrift; it built up and multiplied the industries in which it was
occupied, and thus made it easy to absorb the newcomers year by
year and to become a part of the great industrial army which is
doing the work of the country.

Thus there arose a third and new class of Jewish immigrants,

unlike the first or Sephardic small groups who came here usually
with large means and took their position among the higher classes
as soon as they arrived; also unlike the second and larger groups of
German, Polish and Hungarian Jews who came in the second period,
most of whom began as peddlers and artizans, but ultimately
became merchants or professional men. Among the immigrants of
the third period, which began in 1881, there were many men of
means and skilled men who at once joined the better situated
classes. There were also among them a large number who took up
peddling or petty trade with various degrees of success. But the
agriculturists and the industrial workers, or proletariat, are distinctive
features of the new period. The colonist was mostly assisted and
usually failed; then he joined the trading or the working classes in
the cities. The industrial classes took care of themselves and fared
much better. Even their new problems presented difficulties which
were more apparent than real. The seeming persistence in errors
which are characteristic of those who are here only a short time is
easily explained when it is considered that in cities like Philadelphia
or Chicago there are always thousands, and in New York there are
always tens of thousands, of Jewish immigrants from Slavic
countries who came to this country within the last year. So there is
always at hand a mass which is not aware of what a similar mass—
which to the outsider seems the same—did a year before; and what
seem to be repetitions year after year of the same actions which
lead to the same results or to the same lack of results, are actually
experiments made but once by each successive wave of immigration
and soon abandoned, only to be taken up later as a novel
experience by those who come later.
 As the worker succeeded the trader, so the political extremist
comes to the fore in this period, as the radical in religious matters
did in the former. Many of the “intellectuals” sympathized with the
revolutionary movement in Russia, and were infected by the
Socialistic virus which is the bane of that movement and has made
its success well nigh impossible. While the German or Austrian
revolutionary of the “forties” or “fifties” wanted nothing for his
fatherland which the people of the United States did not already
enjoy, the Russian theorist was dreaming of a social revolution and
of fantastic victories for the peasantry and the proletariat which
should put Russia far in advance of the civilization of the “rotten
West.” There was plenty of opportunity under the freedom of speech
and of the press prevailing in this country “to continue the struggle
against capital” among the sweat-shop workers. For a while the
Socialist agitator became the most active leader among the
immigrant masses; the “maskilim,” or half-Germanized, Hebrew
scholars were forced into the background, and the large Orthodox
majority confined itself to the ever-increasing number of synagogues
and kept quiet, as usual. But as the years went by and the
immigrants of the beginning of the period became more
Americanized and more conservative, it became clear that radicalism
was a passing phase in the development of the Russian-Jewish
immigrant, that the largest number outgrow it in several years at the
utmost, and that the extreme movements depend almost entirely on
the new arrivals who are attracted by its novelty, and on those who
cater to them. Excepting what may be described as a pronounced
tendency to Socialism in the Yiddish sensational press—differing in
degree more than in kind from the general press of that type—the
Socialist movement has not held its own proportionally among the
Russian immigrants, and the fears of some of their friends that the
neighborhoods where the noisy agitation was carried on would
develop into politically Socialistic strongholds, were dispelled almost
before the first decade of this period was over.
 CHAPTER XXX.
COMMUNAL AND RELIGIOUS ACTIVITIES AMONG
THE NEW COMERS.
Congregational and social activities among the new comers—Ephemeral
organizations—The striving after professional education—Synagogues as the
most stable of the new establishments—“Landsleut” congregations—The first
efforts to consolidate the Orthodox community of New York—The Federation
of Synagogues—Chief Rabbi Jacob Joseph—Other “chief rabbis” in Chicago
and Boston—Prominent Orthodox rabbis in many cities—Dr. Philip Klein—The
short period in which the cantor was the most important functionary in the
Orthodox synagogue—Synagogues change hands, but are rarely abandoned.

A large majority of the Russian immigrants, like the

overwhelming majority of the Jews in Russia, were Orthodox Jews,
and the younger men who were temporarily attracted by the radical
movements which were, in Russian fashion, mostly anti-religious,
began drifting back into the synagogues as soon as they grew older
and became more settled and more Americanized. The older and the
middle-aged needed congregational life from the moment of their
arrival, and this gave rise to the establishment of a surprisingly large
number of new synagogues in all places where the new arrivals
settled. The situation in New York is again typical; the twenty-nine
congregations in 1872 increased more than tenfold in about sixteen
years, which far exceeds the growth of charitable institutions, of
labor-organizations and of fraternal or self-education societies, all of
which were springing up at that time in large numbers. The legal
restrictions which make the organization of any form of societies a
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