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 Data Science on AWS
Implementing End-to-End, Continuous AI and
Machine Learning Pipelines

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take advantage of these technologies long before the official
release of these titles.

Chris Fregly and Antje Barth

Data Science on AWS
by Chris Fregly and Antje Barth
Copyright © 2021 Antje Barth and Flux Capacitor, LLC. All rights
reserved.
Printed in the United States of America.
Published by O’Reilly Media, Inc., 1005 Gravenstein Highway North,
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 2020-10-02: Sixth Release
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others, it is your responsibility to ensure that your use thereof
complies with such licenses and/or rights.
978-1-492-07932-3
Chapter 1. Automated
Machine Learning

A NOTE FOR EARLY RELEASE READERS

With Early Release ebooks, you get books in their earliest form—
the author’s raw and unedited content as they write—so you can
take advantage of these technologies long before the official
release of these titles.
This will be the 3rd chapter of the final book. Please note that
the GitHub repo will be made active later on.
If you have comments about how we might improve the content
and/or examples in this book, or if you notice missing material
within this chapter, please reach out to the author at
[email protected].

In this chapter, we will show how to use the fully-managed Amazon

AI and machine learning services to offload the undifferentiated
heavy lifting of building AI pipelines. We dive deep into two Amazon
services for automated machine learning, Amazon SageMaker
Autopilot and Amazon Comprehend, designed for users who want to
build powerful predictive models from their datasets with just a few
clicks.

What is Automated Machine Learning?

Automated machine learning (AutoML) commonly refers to the effort
of automating the typical steps of a machine learning pipeline shown
in Figure 1-1.
 Figure 1-1. Typical machine learning pipeline.

Machine learning practitioners spend a lot of time building and

managing such pipelines. They need to prepare the data and decide
on the framework and algorithm to use. Seasoned data scientists
use years of experience and intuition to choose the best algorithm
for a given dataset. In an iterative process, ML practitioners try to
find the best performing model configuration called “hyper-
parameters”. Unfortunately, there is no cheat sheet either for
choosing any of these parameters. We still need experience,
intuition, and patience to run many experiments and find the best
hyper-parameters for our algorithm and dataset.
What if we could just use a service that automatically finds and
trains the best model for our dataset and deploys the model to
production with a single click? Amazon SageMaker Autopilot offers
us exactly this functionality. Autopilot simplifies the model training
and tuning processing by handling many aspects of the model
development life cycle (MDLC) including feature transformation,
algorithm selection, model training, tuning, and deployment.
Simply point Autopilot to your dataset - and out comes a set of fully-
trained and optimized predictive models. Autopilot explores many
algorithms and configurations based on many years of AI and
machine learning experience at Amazon. The model candidates are
summarized by Autopilot through a set of generated Jupyter
notebooks and Python scripts. You have full control over these
generated notebooks and scripts. You can modify them, automate
them, and share them with colleagues. You can select the top model
candidate based on your desired balance of model accuracy, model
size, and prediction latency. Let’s dive deeper into the process of
automated machine learning with Autopilot.

Automated Machine Learning with Autopilot

Autopilot is the name of Amazon SageMaker’s AutoML service. You
simply provide your raw data in a S3 bucket, for example in the form
of a tabular CSV file, and tell Autopilot which column you want to
predict. As the name implies, Autopilot then does the rest
automatically.

NOTE
S3 is Amazon’s Simple Storage Service. S3 provides a simple web
service interface that you can use to store and retrieve any amount of
data. We will discuss this service in more detail in the next chapter.

Autopilot uses automated machine learning to analyze the data and

identifies the best algorithm and model configuration for your data
as shown in Figure 1-2.
 Figure 1-2. Amazon SageMaker Autopilot.

You can tell Autopilot how many model candidates to explore. In the
process of building those candidates, Autopilot tries different
algorithms and algorithm settings. Autopilot also applies all needed
data transformations to your data to optimize the input for each
algorithm. The algorithm, configuration, and data transformation
code are then combined into a single ML pipeline definition. The
most promising pipelines are selected by Autopilot and used to find
the best performing model. Lastly, Autopilot shares the results in a
model leaderboard. You can use the best performing model as a
baseline and optimize the model even further. A second option is to
simply deploy the model and start predicting.
Another highlight of Autopilot is the fact that it provides full visibility
into each of those steps and shares all code needed to reproduce
the results. AWS calls this a “white-box” approach. This white-box
approach to AutoML is very unique. Let’s explore the white-box vs.
black-box approach to AutoML a bit further.

Understand Autopilot’s White-Box Approach to

AutoML
In a black-box approach as shown in Figure 1-3, you don’t have
control or visibility into the chosen algorithms, applied data
transformations, or hyper-parameter choices. You point the AutoML
service to your data and receive a trained model.

Figure 1-3. Other AutoML products use a black-box approach.

This makes it hard to understand and explain the model, and to

manually reproduce the model. Most AutoML solutions implement
this kind of black-box approach. In contrast, Autopilot documents
and shares its findings throughout the data analysis, feature
engineering, and model tuning steps, as shown in Figure 1-4.
 Figure 1-4. Autopilot’s white-box approach to AutoML.

Autopilot not only shares the models, Autopilot also logs all observed
metrics and generates Jupyter notebooks which contain the code to
reproduce the model pipelines. The Data Exploration notebook
contains the data analysis results and identifies potential data quality
issues such as missing values that might impact model performance
if not addressed. The Candidate Definition notebook highlights the
best algorithms to learn our given dataset, as well as the code and
configuration needed to use your dataset with each algorithm.

NOTE
The Jupyter notebooks are available after the first data analysis step.
You can configure Autopilot to stop after this step if you want to iterate
quickly over your data before starting the actual model tuning step.
Use SageMaker Experiments in Autopilot
Autopilot uses SageMaker Experiments to keep track of all data
analysis, feature engineering and model training/tuning jobs. This
feature of the broader Amazon SageMaker family of ML services
helps you organize, track, compare and evaluate machine learning
experiments. SageMaker Experiments enables model versioning and
lineage tracking across all phases of the ML lifecycle.
An experiment consists of trials and training jobs as shown in
Figure 1-5. A trial is a collection of training steps and metadata for
those steps. The training steps typically include data preprocessing,
model training, and model tuning. Metadata includes dataset
locations, algorithm hyper-parameters, output artifacts, and
performance metrics.
 Figure 1-5. SageMaker Experiments.

You can explore and manage Autopilot experiments and trials either
through the UI or using the AWS Python SDK boto3
[https://github.com/boto/boto3]. Let’s have a look at both options
and start an Autopilot experiment to build a custom classifier model.
As input data, we leverage samples from the Amazon Customer
Reviews Dataset [https://s3.amazonaws.com/amazon-reviews-
pds/readme.html]. This dataset is a collection of over 150 million
product reviews on Amazon.com from 1995 to 2015. Those product
reviews and star ratings are a popular customer feature of
Amazon.com. Star rating 5 is the best and 1 is the worst. We will
describe and explore this dataset in much more detail in the next
chapters.

Train and Deploy with Autopilot UI

The Autopilot UI is integrated into SageMaker Studio, an IDE which
provides a single, web-based visual interface where you can perform
your machine learning development. Simply navigate to Amazon
SageMaker in your AWS Console and click on SageMaker Studio as
shown in Figure 1-6.
 Figure 1-6. AWS Console > Amazon SageMaker > Amazon SageMaker Studio

Then, follow the instructions to set up SageMaker Studio and click

on Open Studio once completed as shown in Figure 1-7.
 Figure 1-7. Setup SageMaker Studio

This will take you to the SageMaker Studio IDE as shown in

Figure 1-8.
 Figure 1-8. SageMaker Studio IDE

You will find the Autopilot UI when you click the laboratory flask icon
in the left-side menu as shown in Figure 1-9. Once there, click on
Create experiment to create and configure our first Autopilot
experiment.
Figure 1-9. Create an Autopilot experiment.
In preparation for our Autopilot experiment, we use a subset of the
Amazon Customer Reviews Dataset to train our model. We want to
train a classifier to predict the star rating for a given review,
therefore we only use the star_rating and review_body
columns:
star_rating,review_body
5,"GOOD, GREAT, WONDERFUL, MORE THAN ADEQUATE AND EXACTLY
WHAT I NEED FOR MY COMPUTER. NONE BETTER OR GOOD TO USE."
2,"Even though it does the same job as TurboTax, it isn't as
user friendly as TurboTax. I guess you get what you paid
for."
4,"Pretty easy to use. No issues."
…

NOTE
In other scenarios, you will likely want to use more columns from your
dataset and let Autopilot choose the most important ones. In our
example, however, we want to keep things simple and just use the
star_rating and review_body columns to focus on the technical aspects
of Autopilot.

Next, we configure the Autopilot experiment as shown in Figure 1-

10.
 Figure 1-10. Configure the Autopilot Experiment.

We just need to provide a few input parameters:

Experiment name: A name to identify the experiment, e.g.
amazon-customer-reviews
Input data location: The S3 path to our training data, e.g.
s3://dsoaws-amazon-
reviews/data/amazon_reviews_us_Digital_Softwa
re_v1_00_header.csv

Target attribute name: The attribute (column) we want to

predict, i.e. star_rating
Output data location: The S3 path for storing the generated
output, such as models and other artifacts, e.g.
s3://dsoaws-amazon-reviews/autopilot/output
Problem type: The machine learning problem type such as
Binary classification, Regression, and Multiclass classification.
The default, “Auto”, allows Autopilot to choose for itself
based on the given input data.
Run complete experiment: We can choose to run a complete
experiment or just generate the Data Exploration and
Candidate Definition notebooks as part of the Data Analysis
phase.
Let’s click Create Experiment and start our first Autopilot job.
You can observe the progress of the job in the UI as shown in
Figure 1-11.
 Figure 1-11. Progress of a running Autopilot job.

The UI shows the 3 stages of the Autopilot job: Analyzing Data,

Feature Engineering, and Model Tuning. Once Autopilot completes
the Analyzing Data stage, you can see the links to the two generated
notebooks appearing in the UI as shown in Figure 1-12.
 Figure 1-12. Autopilot > Analyzing Data > Generated notebooks

If you have a look at the S3 output bucket, you can find the
generated notebooks, code, and transformed data in the following
structure:
amazon-customer-reviews/
data-processor-models/
amazon-cus-dpp0-1-xxx/
output/model.tar.gz
 amazon-cus-dpp1-1-xxx/
output/model.tar.gz
...
preprocessed-data/
header/
headers.csv
tuning_data/
train/
chunk_20.csv
chunk_21.csv
...
validation/
chunk_0.csv
chunk_1.csv
...
sagemaker-automl-candidates/
pr-1-
a1cd024ace184d2fa646384b014a98f3a13ef4fa0cd24f4ebe555ea005/
generated_module/
candidate_data_processors/
dpp0.py
dpp1.py
...
notebooks/
SageMakerAutopilotCandidateDefinitionNotebook.ipynb

SageMakerAutopilotDataExplorationNotebook.ipynb
...

When the Feature Engineering stage starts, you will see SageMaker
training jobs appearing in the AWS Console as shown in Figure 1-13.
 Figure 1-13. Autopilot Feature Engineering > Performed By SageMaker Training
Jobs

Each training job is a combination of a model candidate and the data

preprocessor (dpp) code, named dpp0 through dpp9. You can think
of those training jobs as the ten machine learning pipelines Autopilot
built to find the best performing model. You can select any of those
training jobs to view the job status, configuration, parameters, and
log files.
Once the Feature Engineering stage has completed, we can view the
transformed data directly in S3 grouped by pipeline. The data has
been divided into smaller chunks and split into separate train and
validation datasets which we will cover in more detail in the data
preparation chapter.
transformed-data/
dpp0/
rpb/
train/
chunk_20.csv_out
chunk_21.csv_out
...
validation/
chunk_0.csv_out
chunk_1.csv_out
...
dpp1/
csv/
train/
chunk_20.csv_out
chunk_21.csv_out
...
validation/
chunk_0.csv_out
chunk_1.csv_out
...
..
dpp9/
Finally, Autopilot runs the Model Tuning stage as shown in Figure 1-
14. Now, we can actually see the trials appearing in the Autopilot UI.
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
 700 303.22
800 346.54
900 389.86
1000 433.18

TABLE OF FRICTION HEADS IN FEET IN SMALL

PIPES 100 FEET LONG UNDER GIVEN DISCHARGE.
Gallons 1⁄ -in. Diam.
Gallons 2
discharged
discharged
per 24 Velocity in ft. Friction head
per minute.
hours. per second. in feet.
2.5 3,600 4.08 18.20
5 7,200 8.17 66.82
7.5 10,800 12.25 142.9
10 14,400 16.33 243.3
Gallons 3⁄ -in. Diam.
Gallons 4
discharged
discharged
per 24 Velocity in ft. Friction head
per minute.
hours. per second. in feet.
2.5 3,600 1.81 2.78
5 7,200 3.63 9.40
7.5 10,800 5.44 20.17
10 14,400 7.25 34.77
12.5 18,000 9.06 52.11
15 21,600 10.87 73.61
17.5 25,200 12.69 98.80
20 28,800 14.50 127.6
22.5 32,400 16.31 160.7
25 36,000 18.12 197.7
Gallons 1-in. Diam.
Gallons
discharged
discharged
per 24 Velocity in ft. Friction head
per minute.
hours. per second. in feet.
2.5 3,600 1.02 .74
5 7,200 2.04 2.52
7.5 10,800 3.06 5.14
10 14,400 4.08 8.75
12.5 18,000 5.10 13.22
 15 21,600 6.13 18.84
17.5 25,200 7.15 25.14
20 28,800 8.17 32.27
22.5 32,400 9.18 40.17
25 36,000 10.20 48.90
30 43,200 12.23 68.70
35 50,400 14.25 92.10
40 57,600 16.29 116.8
45 64,800 18.34 150.6
50 72,000 20.37 186.7
Gallons 11⁄4-in. Diam.
Gallons
discharged
discharged
per 24 Velocity in ft. Friction head
per minute.
hours. per second. in feet.
5 7,200 1.31 .83
10 14,400 2.62 2.85
15 21,600 3.92 5.90
20 28,800 5.22 10.21
25 36,000 6.53 15.50
30 43,200 7.84 22.34
35 50,400 9.14 28.99
40 57,600 10.45 37.29
45 64,800 11.76 46.47
50 72,000 13.07 57.16
55 79,200 14.38 68.62
60 86,400 15.69 81.35
65 93,600 17.00 95.11
70 100,800 18.31 109.9
75 108,000 19.62 126.1
Gallons 11⁄2-in. Diam.
Gallons
discharged
discharged
per 24 Velocity in ft. Friction head
per minute.
hours. per second. in feet.
5 7,200 .91 .51
10 14,400 1.82 1.33
15 21,600 2.73 2.80
20 28,800 3.63 4.59
25 36,000 4.54 6.99
30 43,200 5.45 9.86
 35 50,400 6.36 13.14
40 57,600 7.26 16.94
45 64,800 8.17 21.09
50 72,000 9.08 25.66
60 86,400 10.90 36.15
70 100,800 12.72 48.84
80 115,200 14.54 63.53
90 129,600 16.36 79.78
100 144,000 18.17 98.23
Gallons 2-in. Diam.
Gallons
discharged
discharged
per 24 Velocity in ft. Friction head
per minute.
hours. per second. in feet.
5 7,200 1 ...
10 14,400 1.02 .31
20 28,800 2.04 1.17
30 43,200 3.06 2.36
40 57,600 4.09 4.17
50 72,000 5.11 6.34
60 86,400 6.13 8.92
70 100,800 7.15 11.83
80 115,200 8.18 15.27
90 129,600 9.20 19.11
100 144,000 10.22 23.23
125 180,000 12.80 35.78
150 216,000 15.3 50.60
175 252,000 17.9 69.13
200 288,000 20.4 89.51
Gallons 21⁄2-in. Diam.
Gallons
discharged
discharged
per 24 Velocity in ft. Friction head
per minute.
hours. per second. in feet.
25 36,000 1.63 .58
50 72,000 3.26 2.10
75 108,000 4.90 4.58
100 144,000 6.53 7.95
125 180,000 8.16 12.10
150 216,000 9.80 17.05
175 252,000 11.43 22.88
 200 288,000 13.07 29.67
225 324,000 14.70 37.14
250 360,000 16.34 45.81
275 396,000 17.97 55.32
300 432,000 19.60 65.68
350 468,000 21.24 77.01
400 576,000 22.87 89.11
Gallons 3-in. Diam.
Gallons
discharged
discharged
per 24 Velocity in ft. Friction head
per minute.
hours. per second. in feet.
50 72,000 2.27 .88
75 108,000 3.40 1.90
100 144,000 4.54 3.29
125 180,000 5.67 5.00
150 216,000 6.81 7.05
175 252,000 7.94 9.41
200 288,000 9.08 12.13
225 324,000 10.22 15.17
250 360,000 11.36 18.69
275 396,000 12.50 22.52
300 432,000 13.64 26.26
350 468,000 15.91 35.80
400 576,000 18.18 46.64
450 648,000 20.45 88.70
500 720,000 22.72 73.82

Contents of cylinders, in cubic feet and in U. S. gallons, for one

foot of length.
For 1 Foot in Length.
Diameter in
Diameter in
Decimals of a Cubic Feet. Gallons of
Inches. Also area in 231 Cubic
Foot.
square feet. Inches.
1⁄ .0208 .0003 .0026
4
5⁄
16 .0260 .0005 .0040
3⁄
8 .0313 .0008 .0057
7⁄ .0365 .0010 .0078
16
1⁄ .0417 .0014 .0102
2
 9⁄
16 .0469 .0017 .0129
5⁄
8 .0521 .0021 .0159
11⁄ .0573 .0026 .0193
16
3⁄ .0625 .0031 .0230
4
13⁄
16 .0677 .0036 .0270
7⁄
8 .0729 .0042 .0312
15⁄ .0781 .0048 .0359
16
1. .0833 .0055 .0408
1⁄ .1042 .0085 .0638
4
1⁄
2 .1250 .0123 .0918
3⁄
4 .1458 .0168 .1250
2. .1667 .0218 .1632
1⁄ .1875 .0276 .2066
4
1⁄ .2083 .0341 .2550
2
3⁄
4 .2292 .0413 .3085
3. .2500 .0491 .3673
1⁄
4 .2708 .0576 .4310
1⁄ .2917 .0668 .4998
2
3⁄ .3125 .0767 .5738
4
4. .3333 .0878 .6528
1⁄
4 .3542 .0985 .7370
1⁄
2 .3750 .1105 .8263
3⁄ .3958 .1231 .9205
4
5. .4167 .1364 1.020
1⁄ .4375 .1503 1.124
4
1⁄
2 .4583 .1650 1.234
3⁄
4 .4792 .1803 1.349
6. .5000 .1963 1.469
1⁄ .5208 .2180 1.594
4
1⁄ .5417 .2305 1.724
2
3⁄
4 .5625 .2485 1.859
7. .5833 .2673 1.999
1⁄
4 .6042 .2868 2.144
1⁄ .6250 .3068 2.295
2
3⁄ .6458 .3275 2.450
4
 8. .6667 .3490 2.611
1⁄
4 .6875 .3713 2.777
1⁄
2 .7083 .3940 2.948
3⁄ .7292 .4175 3.125
4
9. .7500 .4418 3.305
1⁄ .7708 .4668 3.492
4
1⁄
2 .7917 .4923 3.682
3⁄
4 .8125 .5185 3.879
10. .8333 .5455 4.081
1⁄ .8542 .5730 4.286
4
1⁄ .8750 .6013 4.498
2
3⁄
4 .8958 .6303 4.714
11. .9167 .6600 4.937
1⁄
4 .9375 .6903 5.163
1⁄ .9583 .7213 5.395
2
3⁄ .9792 .7530 5.633
4
12. 1 Foot. .7854 5.876
1⁄
2 1.042 .8523 6.375
13. 1.083 .9218 6.895
1⁄
2 1.125 .9940 7.435
14. 1.167 1.069 7.997
1⁄ 1.208 1.147 8.578
2
15. 1.250 1.227 9.180
1⁄ 1.292 1.310 9.801
2
16. 1.333 1.396 10.44
1⁄
2 1.375 1.485 11.11
17. 1.417 1.576 11.79
1⁄
2 1.458 1.670 12.50
18. 1.500 1.767 13.22
1⁄ 1.542 1.867 13.97
2
19. 1.583 1.969 14.73
1⁄ 1.625 2.074 15.52
2
20. 1.666 2.182 16.32
1⁄
2 1.708 2.292 17.15
21. 1.750 2.405 17.99
1⁄
2 1.792 2.521 18.86
 22. 1.833 2.640 19.75
1⁄
2 1.875 2.761 20.65
23. 1.917 2.885 21.58
1⁄
2 1.958 3.012 22.53
24. 2.000 3.142 23.50
25. 2.083 3.409 25.50
26. 2.166 3.687 27.58
27. 2.250 3.976 29.74
28. 2.333 4.276 31.99
29. 2.416 4.587 34.31
30. 2.500 4.909 36.72
31. 2.583 5.241 39.21
32. 2.666 5.585 41.78
33. 2.750 5.940 44.43
34. 2.833 6.305 47.17
35. 2.916 6.681 49.98
36. 3.000 7.069 52.88
37. 3.083 7.468 55.86
38. 3.166 7.876 58.92
39. 3.250 8.296 62.06
40. 3.333 8.728 65.29
41. 3.416 9.168 68.58
42. 3.500 9.620 71.96
43. 3.583 10.084 75.43
44. 3.666 10.560 79.00
45. 3.750 11.044 82.62
46. 3.833 11.540 86.32
47. 3.916 12.048 90.12
48. 4.000 12.566 94.02

231 cubic inches equal one gallon, and 7.4805 gallons equal one
cubic foot.
 For the contents of a greater diameter than any in the table, take the
quantity opposite one-half said diameter and multiply it by 4. Thus, the
number of cubic feet in one foot length of a pipe 80 inches in diameter, is
equal to 8.728 × 4 = 34.912 cubic feet. So also with gallons and areas.

SCHEDULE OF STANDARD FLANGES.

Adopted July 18, 1894, by a Committee of the Master Steam and
Hot Water Fitters’ Association, a Committee of the Society of
Mechanical Engineers of the United States, and the leading valve
and fitting manufacturers of the United States.

Pipe thickness,
(P + 100)
.4S Thickness Stress on Radius
Pipe
nearest pipe per of
size,
fraction, square inch fillet,
Inches. d + .333(1 - d⁄100)
inches. at 200 lbs. inches.
S-18,000 lbs.
7⁄ 1⁄
2 .409 16 460 8
21⁄ 2 .429 7⁄
16 550 1⁄
8
3 .448 7⁄ 690 1⁄
16 8
31⁄ 2 .466 1⁄
2 700 1⁄
8
1⁄ 1⁄
4 .486 2 800 8
41⁄ 2 .498 1⁄
2 900 1⁄
8
5 .525 1⁄ 1,000 1⁄
2 8
9⁄ 1⁄
6 .563 16 1,060 8
5⁄ 1⁄
7 .60 8 1,120 8
5⁄ 1⁄
8 .639 8 1,280 8
9 .678 11⁄ 1,310 3⁄
16 16
3⁄ 3⁄
10 .713 4 1,330 16
13⁄ 3⁄
12 .79 16 1,470 16
7⁄ 3⁄
14 .864 8 1,600 16
15 .904 15⁄ 1,600 3⁄
16 16
3⁄
16 .946 1 1,600 16
18 1.02 11⁄16 1,690 3⁄
16
20 1.09 1 1⁄ 8 1,780 3⁄
16
 22 1.18 13⁄16 1,850 1⁄
4
24 1.25 1 1⁄4 1,920 1⁄
4
26 1.30 1 5⁄ 16 1,980 1⁄
4
28 1.38 1 3⁄ 8 2,040 1⁄
4
30 1.48 1 1⁄ 2 2,000 1⁄
4
36 1.71 1 3⁄4 1,920 1⁄
4
42 1.87 2 2,100 1⁄
4
48 2.17 2 1⁄4 2,130 1⁄
4

Flange
thickness Flange Width
Pipe Flange
at hub thickness flange
size, diameter,
for iron at edge, face,
Inches. inches.
pipe, inches. inches.
inches.
2 6 1 5⁄ 2
8
21⁄ 2 7 1 1⁄8 11⁄
16 2 1⁄4
3 71⁄ 2 1 1⁄4 3⁄
4 2 1⁄4
31⁄ 2 81⁄ 2 1 1⁄4 13⁄
16 2 1⁄2
4 9 1 3⁄8 15⁄
16 2 1⁄2
41⁄ 2 91⁄ 4 1 3⁄8 15⁄
16 2 3⁄8
5 10 1 1⁄2 15⁄
16 2 1⁄2
6 11 1 1⁄2 1 2 1⁄2
7 121⁄2 1 1⁄2 11⁄16 2 3⁄4
8 131⁄2 1 3⁄4 11⁄ 8 2 3⁄4
9 15 1 3⁄4 11⁄ 8 3
10 16 2 13⁄ 16 3
12 19 2 11⁄ 4 3 1⁄2
14 21 2 13⁄ 8 3 1⁄2
15 221⁄4 2 15⁄ 8 3 5⁄8
16 231⁄2 2 1⁄4 17⁄16 3 3⁄4
18 25 .... 19⁄16 3 1⁄2
20 271⁄2 .... 111⁄16 3 3⁄4
22 291⁄2 .... 113⁄16 3 3⁄4
24 311⁄2 32 .... 1 1⁄4 17⁄ 8 3 3⁄4 4
 26 333⁄4 341⁄4 .... 1 3⁄8 2 3 7⁄8 4 1⁄8
28 36 361⁄2 .... 17⁄16 21⁄16 4 4 1⁄4
30 38 383⁄4 .... 1 1⁄2 21⁄ 8 4 4 3⁄8
36 441⁄2 453⁄4 .... 1 3⁄4 23⁄ 8 4 1⁄4 4 7⁄8
42 51 523⁄4 .... 1 7⁄8 25⁄ 8 4 1⁄2 5 3⁄8
48 571⁄2 591⁄2 .... 2 23⁄ 4 4 3⁄4 5 3⁄4

Stress on
each bolt,
Width
Pipe Bolt circle Number Bolt size Bolt per square
flange
size, diameter, of diameters, length, inch at
face,
Inches. inches. bolts. inches. inches. bottom of
inches.
thread at
200 lbs.
2 2 43⁄ 4 4 1⁄
2
5⁄
8 2 825
21⁄ 2 21⁄ 4 1
5 ⁄2 4 1 ⁄2 5 1
⁄8 2 ⁄4 1,050
3 21⁄ 4 6 4 1⁄
2
5⁄
8 2 1⁄2 1,330
31⁄ 2 21⁄ 2 7 4 1⁄
2
5⁄
8 2 1⁄2 2,530
4 21⁄ 2 71⁄ 2 4 3⁄
8
3⁄
4 2 3⁄4 2,100
41⁄ 2 23⁄ 8 73⁄ 4 8 5⁄
8
3⁄
4 3 1,430
5 21⁄ 2 81⁄ 2 8 5⁄
8
3⁄
4 3 1,630
6 21⁄ 2 91⁄ 2 8 5⁄
8
3⁄
4 3 2,360
7 23⁄ 4 103⁄ 4 8 5⁄
8
3⁄
4 3 1⁄4 3,200
8 23⁄ 4 113⁄ 4 8 5⁄
8
3⁄
4 3 1⁄ 2 4,190
9 3 131⁄4 12 5⁄
8
3⁄
4 3 1⁄2 3,610
10 3 141⁄4 12 5⁄
8
7⁄
8 3 5⁄8 2,970
12 31⁄ 2 17 12 3⁄
4
7⁄
8 3 3⁄ 4 4,280
14 31⁄ 2 183⁄4 12 7⁄
8 1 4 1⁄ 4 4,280
15 35⁄ 8 20 16 7⁄
8 1 4 1⁄4 3,660
16 33⁄ 4 211⁄4 16 7⁄
8 1 4 1⁄4 4,210
18 31⁄ 2 223⁄ 4 16 1 1 7⁄8 4 3⁄ 4 4,540
20 33⁄ 4 25 20 1 1 1⁄ 8 5 4,490
22 33⁄ 4 271⁄4 20 1 1 1⁄4 5 1⁄2 4,320
24 33⁄ 4 4 291⁄4 291⁄2 20 1 1 1⁄4 5 1⁄2 5,130
26 37⁄ 8 41⁄ 8 311⁄ 4 313⁄ 4 24 1 1 1⁄ 4 5 3⁄ 4 5,030
28 4 41⁄ 4 331⁄2 34 28 1 1 1⁄4 6 5,000
30 4 43⁄ 8 351⁄2 36 28 1 1⁄8 1 3⁄8 6 1⁄4 4,590
36 41⁄ 4 47⁄ 8 42 423⁄4 32 1 1⁄8 1 3⁄8 6 1⁄2 5,790
42 41⁄ 2 53⁄ 8 481⁄2 491⁄ 2 36 1 1⁄ 4 1 1⁄ 2 7 1⁄ 4 5,700
48 43⁄ 4 53⁄ 4 543⁄4 56 44 1 3⁄8 1 1⁄2 7 3⁄4 6,090

DIMENSIONS OF CAST IRON PIPE, FLANGES, ETC.

(J. E. Codman, Engineers’ Club of Philadelphia, 1889.)
Diameter
Diameter Diameter Diameter Number
of Bolt
of Pipe. of Flange. of Bolt. of Bolts.
Circle.
2 61⁄ 4 43⁄ 4 3⁄
4 4
3 71⁄ 2 57⁄ 8 3⁄
4 4
3⁄
4 9 7 4 6
5 93⁄ 4 8 3⁄
4 6
6 103⁄ 4 91⁄ 8 3⁄
4 8
8 131⁄4 113⁄8 3⁄
4 8
10 151⁄ 4 131⁄ 4
3⁄
4 10
12 173⁄ 4 153⁄ 4
7⁄
8 12
14 20 18 7⁄ 14
8
7⁄
16 22 20 8 16
18 24 221⁄4 7⁄
8 16
20 27 241⁄ 2 1 18
22 283⁄4 261⁄2 1 20
24 311⁄4 283⁄4 1 22
26 331⁄ 4 31 1 24
28 351⁄ 2 331⁄4 1 24
30 38 351⁄2 1 26
32 40 371⁄2 1 1⁄8 28
34 421⁄4 40 1 1⁄ 8 30
36 45 42 1 1⁄ 8 32
38 47 44 1 1⁄8 32
40 49 46 1 1⁄8 34
 42 511⁄4 481⁄4 1 1⁄8 34
44 531⁄2 501⁄4 1 1⁄4 36
46 553⁄ 4 523⁄ 4 1 1⁄ 4 38
48 58 55 1 1⁄ 4 40

Thickness Weight
Weight of
Diameter Thickness of Pipe. per foot
Flange
of Pipe. of Flange. without
Frac. Dec. Flange. and Bolts.
2 5⁄ 3⁄ .373 6.96 4.41
8 8
5⁄ 13⁄
3 8 32 .396 11.16 5.93
11⁄ 7⁄
4 16 16 .420 15.84 7.66
3⁄ 7⁄
5 4 16 .443 21.00 9.63
6 3⁄ 15⁄ .466 26.64 11.82
4 32
13⁄ 1⁄
8 16 2 .511 39.36 16.91
7⁄ 9⁄
10 8 16 .557 54.00 23.00
15⁄ 19⁄
12 16 32 .603 70.56 30.13
14 1 21⁄ .649 89.04 38.34
32
16 11⁄16 11⁄
16 .695 109.44 47.70
18 1 1⁄ 8
3⁄
4 .741 131.76 58.23
20 1 3⁄ 16
25⁄
32 .787 156.00 70.00
22 1 1⁄4 27⁄
32 .833 182.16 83.05
24 1 5⁄ 16
7⁄
8 .879 210.24 97.42
26 1 3⁄ 8
15⁄
16 .925 240.24 113.18
28 17⁄16 31⁄
32 .971 272.16 130.35
30 19⁄16 1 1.017 306.00 149.00
32 1 5⁄ 8 11⁄16 1.063 341.76 169.17
11
1 ⁄16 1 1⁄
34 8 1.109 379.44 190.90
36 1 3⁄4 15⁄32 1.155 419.04 214.26
38 113⁄16 13⁄16 1.201 460.56 239.27
40 1 7⁄8 1 1⁄ 4 1.247 504.00 266.00
42 115⁄16 1 5⁄ 16 1.293 549.36 294.49
44 2 111⁄32 1.339 596.64 324.78
46 21⁄16 1 3⁄8 1.385 645.84 356.94
48 2 1⁄ 8 1 7⁄ 16 1.431 696.96 391.00
 FLANGE SIZES FOR EXTRA HEAVY PIPE.
Adopted by a Conference of Manufacturers, June 28, 1901.
Size of Diam. of Thickness Diameter of Number of Size of
Pipe. Flange. of Flange. Bolt Circle. Bolts. Bolts.
Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches.
1
6 ⁄2 7 ⁄8 5⁄
2 5 4 8
1
2 ⁄2 1
7 ⁄2 1 7
5 ⁄8 4 3 ⁄4
3 81⁄ 4 1 1⁄8 65⁄ 8 8 5⁄
8
31⁄ 2 9 1 3⁄ 16 71⁄ 4 8 5⁄
8
4 10 1 1⁄ 4 77⁄ 8 8 3⁄
4
41⁄ 2 101⁄2 1 5⁄ 16 81⁄ 2 8 3⁄
4
5 11 1 3⁄8 91⁄ 4 8 3⁄
4
6 121⁄2 1 7⁄ 16 105⁄ 8 12 3⁄
4
7 14 1 1⁄ 2 117⁄ 8 12 7⁄
8
8 15 1 5⁄8 13 12 7⁄
8
9 16 1 3⁄ 4 14 12 7⁄
8
10 171⁄2 1 7⁄ 8 151⁄4 16 7⁄
8
12 20 2 173⁄ 4 16 7⁄
8
14 221⁄2 2 1⁄8 20 20 7⁄
8
15 231⁄ 2 2 3⁄ 16 21 20 1
16 25 2 1⁄ 4 221⁄2 20 1
18 27 2 3⁄8 241⁄2 24 1
20 291⁄2 2 1⁄2 263⁄4 24 1 1⁄8
22 311⁄ 2 2 5⁄ 8 283⁄ 4 28 1 1⁄8
24 34 2 3⁄4 311⁄4 28 1 1⁄8
 INDEX
TO PART TWO

“An index is something intended to point out, guide, or

direct, as the hand of a clock or a steam-gage, the style of a
sun dial, an arm of a guide-post or the figure of a hand ☞.”

THE INDEX
to Part Two of Rogers Pumps and Hydraulics.
 Page
Accidents, to avoid, 374
Acid, muriatic fumes, action of, 380
syphon pump, ills. and des., 265
Adjusting, care must be exercised in, 372
“Admiralty,” the rectangular surface condenser,
des., 303
Advantages of the Cataract mining pump, 146
modern pulsometer, 273
Aer, def., 179
Aëriform fluids, def., 15
Aermotor pumps, 177-192
Aermotors, why so named, 187
Ahrens steam fire engine, 126
Air, des., 15
and steam, relative space occupied by, 378
and vacuum pumps, ills. and des., 31
steam end of, 35
table of test, 41
as a mechanical agent, 17
Air, moving power; note, 23
“back pressure” of, des., 36
Air-bound pumps, 371
Air brakes, use of compressed air in, des., 57
chamber, to prevent freezing, 381
Air compressor, direct acting steam single, ills.
and des., 72
power wall or post, ills. and des., 72
the “Imperial,“ ills. and des., 67-70
Air compressors, des., 57-78
methods of driving, 59
theoretical operations of, 63
Air cooler of condenser, ills., 312
Air, fluid of, def., 17
gravity and elasticity of, 16
leaks in suction must be prevented, 374
Air lift pump, ills. and des., 79-90
care and management, 87-88
lift system, advantages of, 79
theory of, 80
liquid, des., 64
pipe of a compressor, 84
pressure pumps, direct, ills. and des., 90
Air pump attached to a condenser becomes a
vacuum pump, 373
Dean Brothers’ twin cylinder, ills. and des., 46-50
Edwards, ills. and des., 53-55
principles of duty, 373
simplest form of, ills., 15
used in connection with a jet condenser, ills., 34
hand, des. and ills., 29, 30
the inertia of, 17
Altitude, effect of, on atmospheric pressure, 73, 74
American pump as attached to steam fire engine,
ills., 93
driving mechanism of, ills. and des., 93, 98
American steam fire engine pump, ills., 132, 133
des., 138, 139
Ammonia or acid pumps, ills. and des., 171
muriate of, action, 379
Amoskeag fire engine, ills., 107, 128
des., 141, 142
Anderson steam trap, des. and ills., 332, 333
Anti-freezing device, ills., 382
Application of packing, how done, 372
Appurtenances belonging to steam fire engines,
list of, 111
Aqua-thruster, 267-269
Atmosphere, pressure of, def., 16, 36
surface condenser exerts, 314
weight of, on the surface of the earth, 19
Atmospheric air, a type of other gases, 25
Atmospheric pressure, effect of altitude upon, 73, 74
pumps, des. and ills., 169-171
Attachment, def. of, 317
Attraction of cohesion, def., 16
Automatic action of the pump controlled by a
float, ills. and des., 318, 319
duplex steam pump and receiver, Deane, ills. and
des., 318, 319
throttle valve for boiler feed pump, ills. and des., 352, 353
“Back pressure” of atmosphere, des., 36
Baffle plate, used in condenser, ills. and des., 305
Ballast pump, the, ills. and des., 159-161
Ballast tank, ship’s, def., 322
Ball cock, ills. and des., 320
Ball float, ills. and des., 318-319
how attached in air and vacuum pump, 36
Ballot, Buys, law relating to barometers, 181
Bark, care to keep out of pipes and valves, 379
mixture, des., 379
white oak, prevents boiler incrustation, 379
Barometer, ills. and des., 20
water, how made, 31
Barrel, capacity of in gallons, 323
Bell and spigot connection, ills. and des., 367
Belted duplex air compressor (built by the Allis-
Chalmers Co.), 62-71
Bilge pump, special fittings for, 161
“Blake” compressor, 73
Bliss-Heath atmospheric pumping engine, ills.
and des., 169-171
Blowing engine, ills. and des., 66, 67
Blow-off cock, des., 347
valve, Bordo, ills. and des., 354, 355
Boggs & Clark hydraulic dredging pump, ills.
and des., 217, 218
Boiler cleaners, mechanical, 380
compound, cost of, 378
action of, 379
Boiler compound, directions for use, 378
for locomotives, 378
formula for, 380
feed pump, centrifugal form adopted for, 222
Boiler of steam fire engine, des., 99
Boiler of the Ahrens steam fire engine, 126
the Clapp & Jones steam fire engine, 118
the Silsby steam fire engine, 115
Boiler scale, table of analysis, 328
Boilers, ball cock attached to, 320
corrosion of, how caused, 380
Bolt circles of standard pipe flanges; Table, 399
Bolts, diameters of; lengths of, 399
Bordo blow-off valve, ills. and des., 354, 355
Bottoming-tap, ills. and des., 339
Box wrench, des., 345
Brewers’ grains, how pumped; note, 202
Buffalo, the centrifugal pump, ills. and des., 223
Bulkley “Injector” condenser, ills. and des., 308, 309
Buys Ballot’s law relating to barometers, 181
Byron Jackson Machine Co.’s turbine pumps,
ills. and des., 236-242
Cameron, the, vertical plunger sinking pump, ills., 150-151
des., 152
Capacity of cisterns and tanks, how estimated, 364
Carbonate of lime in boiler scale, 328
magnesia in boiler scale, 328
Carbonates deposited in order, des., 380
Care and management of air pumps, 87-88
the Clapp & Jones steam fire engine, 123
Carr steam pump governors, ills. and des., 288-291
Cataract steam pump, ills., 144
des., 146
Centrifugal pump, diagram of right and left-hand
methods of discharge, 225
early form of, ills., 212
des., 214
four stage, ills. and des., 224
important note relating to speed of; quotation
from “Industries”, 223-229
Morris Machine Company’s, steam-driven, ills. and
des., 220-221
multi-stage, ill. and des., 223-224
the Buffalo, ills. and des., 223
the converse of the turbine water-wheel, 213
vertical, submerged type of, ills. and des., 222-223
directions for erecting and running, 226-228
fans used in, ills., 213
des., 215
history of, 211
Centrifugal pumps, how to determine right or
left-hand pumps, 226
ills. and des., 211-230
 rotary and, 193-229
the Worthington, divided into Conoidal, volute
and Turbine, des., 229
two general types of, ills. and des., 215-216
Centrifugal wheel, ten thousand horse power, ills.
and des., 213
also 133, Part One.
Chain tongs, 343
Chlorides deposited in order, des., 380
Churning in pumps, causes of, 375
Churn valve for feeding the steam fire engine,
des., 111
purposes of, 137
Circulating pump, des., 32
Circulating pumps, ills., 219
des., 168
Cistern, def. of, 321
Cisterns and tanks, table of capacity for, 324
ball cock attached to, 320
Cisterns, computation for finding weight of, 324
contents of round; Table, 398
diameters of, in decimals of a foot; Table, 398
rule for finding contents of round; Table, 398
Clapp & Jones steam fire engine, 118
Village Engine, 121
Classification of steam fire engines, 93
Cleaner, mechanical boiler, 380
Cleaning carpets and railroad cars and seats,
use of vacuum or atmospheric pressure in,
des., 59
Cleanliness essential, 371
Clogging of suction, effect of, 374
Closed pressure tanks, ills. and des., 321-323
Coal, decreasing supply of, 84
Cock, des., classes of, 347
ball, ills. and des., 320
blow-off, des., 347
cylinder, des., 247
feed, des., 347
four-way, des., 347
gage, des., 347
oil, des., 347
Cock, self-closing, des., 347
steam, des., 347
stop, des., 347
three-way, des., 347
Cock, try, des., 347
water, des., 347
Column of water, pressure of; Table, 396
Columns, mine pump, ills. and des., 363
Compound, boiler, record of results, 378
Compound or two-stage compression, 74-75
Compounds for making pipe joints, 367
Compressed air, des., 57
Compressibility of gases, 26
Compression, compound, or two-stage, 74-75
Compressor, belted duplex air (built by the Allis-
Chalmers Co.), 62-71
“Imperial” air, des. and ills., 67-70
Norwalk compound, des. and ills., 77-78
Norwalk standard, ills. and des., 56-58
power wall or post air, ills. and des., 72
vertical duplex, 64-71
Compressors, air, des., 57-58
Computation for finding weight of water in
cisterns and tanks, 324
 obtaining the contents of a barrel in gallons, 324
Miner’s Inch, with ills., 388
open stream measurement, 390
weir dam, water, measurement, 390
relating to water pumped by windmill, 191
“Condensation,” def., 18
Condenser, def., 32
des., 299
advantages of, 300, 378
combined, and feed-water heater, ills. and des., 306
cone, ills., 312
Conover, ills. and des., 50-53
economy of, 37
elbow, exhaust and injection, des. and ills., 306
exhaust pipe into suction, ills. and des., 381
exhaust steam induction, des. and ills., 308
Condenser, jet, ills. and des., 312
jet type of, 33
keel, what it consists of, 311
plant, marine, ills. and des., 310-311
pump, ills. and des., 306-307
Condensers, classification of, 303
Condenser, surface, ills. and des., 313
tube, ills. and des., 305
Condensing apparatus, des. and ills., 297-314
engines, early, des., 378
Condensing surface required, amount of, 312-314
Cone, condenser, ills. and des., 306
Conoidal centrifugal pump, the Worthington,
why so named, des., 229
Conover condenser, ills. and des., 50-53
Construction of the Silsby steam cylinder
pump and boiler, 115
Contamination of water to be prevented, 375
Contents, Table of, XI.
Controller, Mullin’s automatic, ills. and des., 352-353
Cooling towers, des., 33
Corcoran double action suction force pump, des.
and ills., 185-186
tank valves, 323
Corcoran windmill, ills. and des., 184-186
Corrosion, def., 328
how prevented, 380
of boilers, how caused, 380
Cotton presses, pump for, ills. and des., 154-155
Coupling pipe, ills., 368
“Crane-necked” steam fire engine, 141
Cranes and hoists, use of compressed air in, des., 57
Crow, ills. and des., 340
Cubic foot, capacity of in gallons., 323
Cutter, pipe, ills. and des., 338
Cylinder-cock, des., 347
Cylinders, contents of, in cubic feet for each foot
depth; Table, 398
relieved before removing head, 383
Dam, Weir, measurement of water, 390
Dart union, ills. and des., 367
Davidson marine pump, ills. and des., 156-157
Dean Brothers’ twin cylinder air pump, ills. and
des., 46-50
Dean automatic duplex steam pump and
receiver, ills. and des., 318-319
single sugar-house pump, ills. and des., 164-165
single vertical sinking pump, ills., 148
des., 149
vacuum pump, ills. and des., 42-43
Deep-well pump, working barrel of, 192
Deflector, water circulating, 120
Derangement of duplex pump, broken valve
may cause it, 376
Diagram of discharge openings of centrifugal
right and left-hand pumps, 225
Dial, to read the, of a water meter, ills., 332
Diameters of cisterns in decimals of a foot;
Table, 398
Diaphragm lift and force pump, ills., 145
des., 148
outfit for, 149
Diffusion of gases, 27
vanes of Worthington centrifugal pump, des., 233
Direct acting steam single air compressor, ills.
and des., 72
Disadvantages in the use of compressed air for
operating mining pumps, 71
Discharge per minute under given heads; Table, 392-393
Discovery of the advantages arising from the
condensation of steam, 300
Distributing reservoir, def., 322
“Doctor” independent pump, ills. and des., 161-162
“Donkey” pump, des., 161
Double extra first steam fire engine, capacity
and weight of, 93
tube injector, universal, ills., 262
des., 264
Drain for steam pipes, 374
Drain, necessity for, 374
Draining pump cylinders and pipes, 377
plugs, 377
Dredge, elevator, des., 222
 20-inch hydraulic, ills. and des., 221
Dredges, self-propelling and sea-going, des.; note, 210
Dredging pump, hydraulic, Boggs & Clark, ills. and
des., 217-218
Root’s large rotary, ills. and des., 208-210
Drill and pipe tap combined, 339
Drip cocks, proper location of, 376
Dry cocks, centrifugal pump, particularly adapted
for use in building sewers, in sand dredging, 214
Duplex pump, delays, avoid by frequent
inspections, 376
derangements of one side, 375
jerky motion in, cause of, 376
repairs should be prompt and timely, 376
screens, important that they be kept clean, 376
separating chamber requires frequent
examination, 376
suction valves require much attention, 376
worn parts should be replaced, 376
Duplex steam pump and receiver, Deane
automatic, ills. and des., 318-319
Edison Manufacturing Co. hand mining pump,
des., 148
Edwards air and vacuum pump, ills. and des., 53-55
Ejector, ills. with a foot strainer, 260
double tube, ills. and des., 261
or exhauster used for priming centrifugal pumps,
des., 216
ills., 218
pump, ills. and des., 259-260
water pressure, ills. and des., 266
and injectors, 243-266
application of, ills., 256
 des., 260
Elastic fluids, two classes of, 16
Elasticity, def., 26
a property of air, 16, 17
of all aëriform fluids, def., 17
Elbow, condenser, exhaust and injection, des.
and ills., 306
pipe, ills., 368
Elbows, des., 364
Electric mining pump, ills., part one, 276
des., part two, 147
Elevator, Mason, pump pressure regulator, ills. and
des., 286-287
Endicott’s platform springs, des., 141
Energy of the steam injector, whence derived,
note, 247
wind as a source of power, 181
Engines, early condensing, des., 378
Engine, steam fire, ills. and des., 91-142
Entering or taper tap, ills. and des., 339
Evaporation, def. and laws of, 28
Eve, J., inventor of Eve’s rotary pump,
historical note, 196
Eve’s rotary pump, des. and ills., 196-197
Exhaust steam induction condenser, des. and
ills., 308
injector, ills. and des., 249, 255-256
injector, high pressure, ills. and des., 257
Exhaust steam, utilizing of; note, 35
Expansibility of gases, def. and ills., 25
Expansion and compression of a body, def., 18
Explanations of principles involved in feeding
tank, 373
 exposed pipes, precautions against freezing, 377
Extra first steam fire engine, capacity and
weight of, 93
Failure of pump, how to find cause, 374
Fans, ills., 213
des., 215
Feed-cock, des., 347
Feeding into bottom of tank requires less power
than top, 373
Feed-water heater and combined condenser,
ills. and des., 306
Volz, ills. and des., 304-306
impurities, des., note relating to, 327
Fifth steam fire engine, capacity and weight of, 93
Fire engine, Silsby steam, des. and ills., 113
steam, ills. and des., 91-142
Fire hose flow of water, how retarded in, des., 135
pumps, Holyoke pattern of rotary, 203
First steam fire engine, capacity and weight of, 93
Flange joint, ills., and des., 363
Flanges, diameters of standard; Table, 399
standard, bolt circles of; Table, 399
table of standard sizes, 399
thickness of standard, 399
union, des. and ills., 363
Float, automatic action of the pump controlled by
a, ills. and des., 318-319
Flow of water over Weir dam; Table, 391
Fluid, particles of, 14
Flume, mechanism to shut off the water supply of,
ills., 295
Foot-board of the steam fire engine, des., 111
Foot valve applied to centrifugal pump, 216
Forcer of steam injector, 247
Foundations of tanks, 323
suitable, precautions for, 371
Fountain, Hero’s, ills. and des., 23
in vacuo, ills. and des., 23
Four stage centrifugal pump, ills. and des., 224
Fourth steam fire engine, capacity and weight
of, 93
Four-way cock, des., 347
Fox boiler, des. and ills., 101-103
Freeman, John R., credit given for table, 117
Freezing, anti-, device, 381
of pipe, how prevented, ills. and des., 381
Friction, different kinds of pipe, 377
Friction heads; Table, 394-395
in small pipes; Table, 397
Friction, influence of, on different kinds of pipe, 377
loss in pounds pressure; Table, 392-393
must be kept down, 372
Frizell system of air lift pumps, 88
Gage-cock, des., 347
Gallon, capacity of, 323
imperial, capacity of, 323
Gallons for each foot of length in pipes, 398
Gases and liquids, properties in common, des., 24
compressibility of, 26
diffusion of, 27
expansibility of, def. and ills., 25
permanent, def., 16
pressure exerted by, 26
weight of, def., 26
Gas-fitter’s air proving pump, def. and ills., 29
Gates, head, mechanism to raise and lower, ills., 295
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